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Applied Thermal Engineering 28 (2008) 801808

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Review

A survey of wind convection coecient correlations

for building envelope energy systems modeling
J.A. Palyvos *
Solar Engineering Unit, School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Greece GR-15780

Received 30 September 2007; accepted 6 December 2007

Available online 15 December 2007

Abstract

The thermal losses to the ambient from a building surface or a roof mounted solar collector represent an important portion of the
overall energy balance and depend heavily on the wind induced convection. In an eort to help designers make better use of the available
correlations in the literature for the external convection coecients due to the wind, a critical discussion and a suitable tabulation is
presented, on the basis of algebraic form of the coecients and their dependence upon characteristic length and wind direction, in addi-
tion to wind speed. Finally, simple average correlations are produced from the existing ones, useful for quick, gross estimates.
2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: External convective losses; Wind loss coecient; Forced convection heat loss; Review of heat convective coecients

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801
2. The traditional correlation for the wind loss coefficient and its variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802
3. Boundary layer type correlations for the wind loss coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804
4. Correlations for the wind loss coefficient explicit in V, L, and/or the wind direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806
5. External convection algorithms used in building simulation programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806
6. Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807

1. Introduction ing/cover heat losses were in the range 26.540.0% of the

It is well documented that the thermal losses from
external building surfaces and such solar components as
collectors, chimneys, and ventilated photovoltaic arrays,
constitute a large portion of the respective energy balance.
In support of this statement, recent calculations and mid-
winter data regarding a tilted solar chimney mounted on
an NTUA campus buildings rooftop showed that glaz-
*
Tel.: +30 210 7723297; fax: +30 210 7723298.
E-mail address: jpalyvos@chemeng.ntua.gr
incident solar radiation, depending on duct geometry,
ambient temperature, solar energy ux, and wind velocity.
A more pronounced cover heat loss to the ambient
was recorded in the case of a ventilated photovoltaic array,
situated close to the chimney and having the same dimen-
sions and tilt angle.
Major parameter aecting the usual modeling of losses
to the ambient from such building envelope related compo-
nents is the wind convection coecient, hw, a quantity not
very well documented, improper use of which can easily
cause 2040% errors in energy demand calculations [1].

1359-4311/$ - see front matter 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2007.12.005
802 J.A. Palyvos / Applied Thermal Engineering 28 (2008) 801808
Nomenclature
A surface area of plate (m2)
C circumference of plate (m)
cp heat capacity of air (J/kg K)
hw forced convection coecient due to wind (W/
m2 K)
j Colburn j-factor, dim/less (=St Pr2/3)
k thermal conductivity of air (W/m K)
L length (m)
L1, L2 dimensions of plate (m)
LR characteristic length for Re (=4A/C) (m)
l length along wind direction (m)
Nu Nusselt Number, hL/k (=St Re Pr)
Nux local Nusselt Number
NuL average (over L) Nusselt Number
Pr Prandtl Number, cpl/k
Re Reynolds Number, LVq/l (=LV/m)
Rec critical Reynolds Number
Rf surface roughness factor-multiplier
St Stanton Number, h/qcpVf (=Nu/RePr)
Ta ambient temperature (K, C in Eq. (1))
u wind velocity component in x-direction (m/s)
v wind velocity component in y-direction (m/s)
V wind speed (m/s)
Compared to radiation losses, on the other hand, external
convection losses are 34 times as big [24]. And since in
many situations there has been enough skepticism toward
the standard computational correlation for the wind loss
coecient, namely that of NusseltJurges [5], a plethora of
analogous correlations have appeared in the literature in
recent years. (One of the early reviews on the subject is that
of Cole and Sturrock [6].)
A discussion of the pros and cons of using a simple
linear correlation such as the NusseltJurges one, should be
preceded by a rough categorization of the various expres-
sions that have been used so far. On the basis of parametric
dependence, the wind convection loss coecient for an
external at surface or blu body has appeared in the liter-
ature as:
 an experimentally determined constant value, usually
given on tables (cf. [710]);
 a very simple expression, usually linear or power law
function of the wind speed (cf. [9,1113]);
 an expression involving, in addition, a characteristic
length of the surface in question, either explicitly or
implicitly, i.e. via the Reynolds Number (cf. [1417]);
 an analogous relation which also takes into account the
wind direction with respect to the surface (cf. [1,3,18]).
On the basis of the various test rigs, whose data were
used to produce the correlations for the wind loss coe-
cient, there are expressions stemming from:
Vaz wind speed at height z (m/s)
Vo wind speed at standard conditions (m/s)
Vw wind speed at monitored surface (m/s)
Vf free stream wind speed (10 m above roof) (m/s)
w wind velocity component in z-direction (m/s)
Wf wind modier, dim/less (1 for windward, 0.5 for
leeward)
x distance from leading edge of plate (m)
z height of monitored wall above ground (m)
z0 height at which Vf measurements are taken (m)
Greek letters
a angle of attack ()
a, b terrain-dependent coecients, dim/less
h wind direction (), + east of North
l shear viscosity of air (N s/m2)
m kinematic viscosity of air (m2/s)
q density of air (kg/m3)
u yaw angle ()
Subscripts
L average over the length L
x local value
 wind tunnel measurements and model studies on rela-
tively small plates and blu bodies-obstacles (cf. [19
21]);
 full-scale/eld data recordings, i.e. measurements on
actual building facades and roofs (cf. [2226]).
Thus, the prospective designer/modeler must be aware of
the diversity of the available correlations and must make
sure that he has examined the specic conditions under
which they have been produced, before he can safely use
them. After all, there is an obvious lack of physical equiva-
lence between easily controlled indoor experimental studies
and the hard reality of the eld. Out there, monitoring the
wind or establishing uniform conditions for the relevant
measurements is a formidable job. It has been reported,
for example, that average wind speed measurements in the
proximity of an external surface such as a solar collector
cannot have less than a 0.5 m/s variation [27].
2. The traditional correlation for the wind loss coecient and
its variants
In its most general form, the NusseltJurges correlation
between the wind convection coecient, hw, and the paral-
lel to the surface component of the wind velocity, Vw,
which drives the convection can be written as
    n 
294:26
hw 5:678 a b V w 0:3048 1
273:16 T a
 J.A. Palyvos / Applied Thermal Engineering 28 (2008) 801808 803

Table 1 Table 3
Values for the constants in Eq. (1) [28,29] Relation of the parallel component of the wind velocity to the free stream
value [22]
Vw < 4.88 m/s 4.88 6 Vw < 30.48 m/s
Windward Leeward
Surface texture a b n a b n
Vf > 2 m/s Vw = 0.25Vf Vw = 0.3 + 0.05Vf
Smooth 0.99 0.21 1 0 0.50 0.78
Rough 1.09 0.23 1 0 0.53 0.78 Vf < 2 m/s Vw = 0.5

where a, b, n are empirical constants, and Ta the ambient
temperature in C. The correction in the innermost paren-
thesis is dictated by the fact that the original correlation
was developed for a reference temperature of 294.26 K
(21.1 C) [28,29]. (This temperature correction is equivalent
to a density correction, which is necessary since the mass
velocity rather than the linear velocity is more appropriate
for the description of forced convection [30]). The three
constants in Eq. (1), which take values that depend on
the external surface texture and the wind speed, are listed
in Table 1, giving hw in SI units.
Actually, the original 1922 global correlation of Nus-
seltJurges [5] based on their copper plate data, if written
for SI units would have the form
hw 7:13V 0:78 0:6V w
w 5:35e
that is, it includes a decay term. This equation was special-
ized two years later by Jurges [31] for three types of sur-
faces (cf. Table 2). However, it was the original authors
who rst suggested that, for practical calculations, it is suf-
cient to use a linear interpolation formula for wind speeds
up to 5 m/s and to ignore the second term for higher speeds
[5]. In SI units, the proposed original linear equation would
be
hw 5:8 3:95V w
having constants which are very close to the values used in
recent years on the basis of the McAdams [28] recast of Eq.
(1), which for smooth surfaces is
hw 5:7 3:8V w
This last and much quoted correlation has been widely
used in modeling, simulations, and relevant calculations
(cf. [3234]), in spite of its shortcomings. It has been ar-
gued, for example, that this dimensional equation includes
radiation loss in addition to convection [35], and that the
average-across the surface-wind speed as well as its direc-
tion must be considered [36]. Moreover, the data which
generated the above equations were taken on a vertical
square copper plate with 0.5 m sides subjected to parallel
ow of air, a situation that is hard to meet in real life.
In order to circumvent the lack of proper values for Vw,
Ito et al. [22] tried to correlate this parallel to the surface
component with the free stream velocity, Vf, introducing,
at the same time, gross wind direction, i.e. dierentiat-
ing the results for windward1 and leeward conditions (cf.
Table 3). This procedure, which at the time was also
adopted by ASHRAE [37], allows the use of a single corre-
lation for the convection component of the outside heat
transfer coecient for either direction, namely
hw 18:63V 0:605
w 5
This power law equation (which, aside from the S.I. units,
2
was actually derived by Kimura on the basis of earlier data
of his Japanese group [37, p. 78]), as well as the linear Eqs.
(3) and (4) have been adopted as algebraic forms by most
researchers for their own data tting procedures. An exten-
sive but not exhaustive tabulation of such equations are gi-
ven in Tables 4 and 5.
It turned out that in many cases the linear regression
equations were equally eective in tting the experimental
data, even though fundamental heat transfer theory pre-
3 dicts a power relation between convective coecient and
wind speed. On the basis of data generated by thirty such
linear correlations listed in Table 4 for windward surfaces,
a purely empirical average correlation of this simple but
convenient form can be derived, namely
4
hw 7:4 4:0V f windward 6
In the wind velocity range 04.5 m/s, the maximum devia-
tions of the individual windward equations predictions
from those of Eq. (6) average to 18%. A similar average
correlation can be derived for leeward surfaces, using the
remaining six correlations of Table 4
hw 4:2 3:5V f leeward 7

Table 2 In the same wind velocity range, the maximum deviations

Values for the constants in Eq. (1) based on the original correlations of of the individual leeward equations predictions from those
Jurges [31], ignoring the decay terma
of Eq. (7) average to 22%.
Vw < 4.88 m/s 4.88 6 Vw < 30.48 m/s It should be noted at this point that many of the individ-
Surface texture a b n a b n ual correlations listed in Tables 4 and 5 use constants with
Hydraulically smooth 0.973 0.214 1 0 0.499 0.775
Rolled 1.005 0.214 1 0 0.497 0.780
Very rough 1.087 0.226 1 0 0.522 0.784 1
A surface or data are classied as windward if the angle of incidence
a 0.6 V
The decay term is ae , where a takes the values 5.12, 5.35, and 5.84 between the normal to the monitored surface and the wind direction is less
for the three surface types, respectively. than 90 and leeward for all other directions [23].
804 J.A. Palyvos / Applied Thermal Engineering 28 (2008) 801808

Table 4
Linear equation form for the wind convection coecient (W/m2 K): hw = a + bV
a b Comments References
5.8 3.95 Wind tunnel measurement (WTM), plate, parallel ow, Vw < 5 m/s [5]
5.7 3.8 WTM, plate, parallel ow, Vw < 5 m/s, smooth surfaceb [28]
6.2 4.3 WTM, plate, parallel ow, Vw < 5 m/s, rough surface [4]
6.05 4.08 WTM, vertical plate, rough surface, V 6 5 m/s [30]
5.82 4.02 WTM, vertical plate, rolled surface, V 6 5 m/s [30]
7.82 3.50 Very smooth surface, no speed limit [39]
8.9 3.71 Smooth wood, plaster, no speed limit [39]
10.7 4.96 Cast concrete and smooth brick, no speed limit [39]
23 5.7 WTM, exposed face of a 23 cm cube for the range 310 m/s [6]
11.4 5.7 Nocturnal eld measurements (NFM) on heated strips, exposed surface [6]
5.7 6.0 NFM on heated strips, normal surface [40]
0 5.7 NFM on heated strips, leeward facing surfaces [6]
5.8 2.9 NFM, wall, Vf > 3 m/s, windward (if leeward and Vf > 4 m/s, hw = 13 W/m2 K) [22]
8.7 9.4 NFM, Vw > 4 m/s, leeward, h independent of wind direction [22]
2.8 3.0 Vw, revised Ref. [5] data to exclude radiation and free convection contribution [35]
6.22 1.824 Kimuras 4th oor model, eld measurement (FM) on window, windward surface [41]
6.22 0.4864 Kimuras 4th oor model, FM on window, leeward surface [41]
7.55 4.35 NFM in a Canadian Arctic location, window, Vf rooftop speed [42]
5.8 4.1 Based on Ref. [5] data, Vw (for roofs design Vs are 1, 3, and 9 m/s) [43]
4.5 2.9 Smooth surfaces (glass, paint) at ordinary temperatures (rough: 50% higher) [11]
8.55 2.56 Rectangular plate exposed to varying wind directions, Vbar sqrt(u2 + v2 + w2) [44]
0.036 2.2 Laboratory measurements, inclined and yawed real collector, Vw, leeward [3]
5.1 1.7 FM on facade of tall building, Vw = f1(Vf) = 1.8Vf + 0.2 windward [23]
5.1 1.7 FM on facade of tall building, Vw = f2(Vf) = 0.2Vf + 1.7 leeward [23]
7.0 2.1 Flat plate PV module, experimental, 1.0 < Vw < 1.5 m/s, 0 < Ta < 35 [65]
6.47 6.806 ASHRAE/DOE-2 model, rough surfacesa excluding radiation [45]
4.955 1.444 Daytime FM on central region of vertical wall, Vf, plate shielded from sun [13]
8.91 2.00 FM on plane, smooth facade test surface, Vf (Vw = 0.68Vf  0.5), windward [24]
4.93 1.77 FM on plane, smooth facade test surface, Vf (Vw = 0.68Vf  0.5), leeward [24]
10.03 4.687 Indoor laboratory measurements on box-type solar cooker [12]
12.2 6.548 Indoor laboratory measurements on basin-type solar still [12]
8.3 2.2 FM, collector mimic on 35 pitched roof, Vf, incidence angle i = 0 [46]
6.5 3.3 FM, collector mimic on 35 pitched roof, Vf, incidence angle i = 90 [46]
6.42 3.96 Multipoint FM, V = sqrt(avg(u2 + v2 + w2)), developed turbulent boundary layer on horizontal roof [26]
4.47 10.21 Multipoint FM, V = sqrt(avg(u2 + v2 + w2)), on vertical wall [26]
4.214 3.575 Collector glass cover [9]
5.82 4.07 Based on photovoltaic systems analysis [67]
5.5 2.2 Outdoor measurements on PV modules without considering wind direction [68]
a
For smooth surfaces hw = 3.12 + 3.83V  0.047 V2 excluding the constant 5.11 W/m2 K radiation contribution. A recent similar equation is
hw = 12.667 + 1.5946V + 0.0041V2 [63].
b
ASHRAE proposes a = 5.62, b = 3.9 ([60], p. 3.14). Another variant is a = 5.67, b = 3.86 [64].

more signicant gures than one would expect to obtain
during a wind speed measurement in the eld. Also, small
dierences in the values of the constants in the NusseltJur-
ges equations, as reported by various authors, could be the
result of units-conversion errors which probably have been
propagated over the years by indirect referencing.
3. Boundary layer type correlations for the wind loss
coecient
Thermal boundary layer theory has led to correlations
for hw or, equivalently, for the Nusselt Number, Nu, which
implicitly involve a characteristic length via the Reynolds
Number, Re, which also appears in the correlations. In a
series of wind tunnel experiments on naphthalene plates,
Sparrow and his group [18,19,15,38] have produced corre-
lations of the form j = aReb, where j is the familiar Colburn
j-factor, expressing the analogy between (sublimation)
mass transfer and (convection) heat transfer. Using the rel-
evant denitions, j = St Pr1/3, and St qcphV f RePr
Nu
, where
St is the Stanton Number, Pr the Prandtl Number, q the
density, and cp the heat capacity of air, respectively, the
average Nusselt number, NuL , on an inclined rectangular
plate subject to an oncoming airow can be written as
NuL 0:86Re1=2 Pr1=3 20:000 < Re < 90:000 8
In this correlation, and in similar ones involving square
plates or plates with stabilizing extensions (cf. Table 6),
the characteristic length for Re is LR = 4A/C, where A is
the plate area and C its circumference. If the plate is rect-
angular, with sides L1 and L2, then
2L1 L2
LR 9
L1 L2
 J.A. Palyvos / Applied Thermal Engineering 28 (2008) 801808 805

Table 5
Power law form for the wind convection coecient (W/m2 K): hw = a + bVn
a b n Comments References
a
0 7.13 0.78 Wind tunnel measurement (WTM), plate, parallel ow, 5 < Vw < 24 m/s [5]
0 7.11 0.775 WTM, plate, parallel ow, hydraulically smooth surface, 5 < Vw < 24 m/s [31]
0 7.52 0.784 WTM, plate, parallel ow, very rough surface, 5 < Vw < 24 m/s [31]
0 7.2 0.78 Recast of data in [5,31], V > 5 m/s, smooth surface [28]
0 7.6 0.78 Recast of data in [5,31], V > 5 m/s, rough surface [28]
0 6.97 0.666 WTM, at plate, measurement on the rear [47]
0 6.60 0.6 Vertical surface behind wedge-separated subsonic ow [48]
0 18.65 0.605 Field measurements (FM), VwKimuras 6th oor modelb [37]
0.685 11.8 0.5 WTM, small (0.16 m) collector mimic [49]
0 2.38 0.89 FM, window, low-rise building, forced convection only, windward (MoWiTT)c [45]
0 2.86 0.617 FM, window, low-rise building, forced convection only, leeward (MoWiTT)c [45]
0 16.15 0.397 FM, at vertical panel, windward, Vw = f(Vf) = 0.68Vf  0.5 and 0.2Vf  0.1 [24]
0 16.25 0.503 FM, at vertical panel, Leeward, Vw = f(Vf) = 0.157Vf  0.027 [24]
0 16.21 0.452 FM avg correlation for combined windward and leeward conditions [24]
0 14.82 0.42 FM on a 6th oor vertical surface in 200 mm recess, windwardd [50]
0 15.06 0.53 FM on a 6th oor vertical surface in 200 mm recess, leewardd [50]
0 9.4 0.5 FM, collector mimic on 35 pitched roof, Vf [46]
18.192 0.0378Tav 0.8 External coecient in large commercial ducts, Tav = (Tduct,surf + Texterior)/2 [66]
Note. Ref. [69] examines convective cooling of photovoltaics.
a
ASHRAE proposes b = 7.2 for 5 6 Vw 6 30 ([60], p. 3.14).
b
Vw = 0.25Vf for Vf > 2 m/s, Vw = 0.5 for Vf 6 2 m/s (windward) and Vw = 0.3 + 0.05Vf (leeward) [45].
c
Same for DOE-2 with an additional multiplier for rough surfaces, Rf.
d
Also: correlations for 4 more depths and alternate correlations involving Vf instead of Vw.

Table 6
Boundary layer equation form for the wind convection coecient (W/m2K): Nu = a RebPrc + d
a b c d Comments References
0.10 0.666 0 0 Wind tunnel measurement (WTM), vertical plate, windward [47]
0.20 0.666 0 0 WTM, vertical plate, leeward [47]
0.42 0.6 0 0 WTM, considers house as equivalent sphere [14]
0.931 0.5 0.333 0 WTM, global correlation for inclined (attack) and yawed square plate [18]
0.86 0.5 0.333 0 WTM, global correlation for inclined rectangular plate of nite width [19]
0.930 0.5 0.333 0 WTM, global correlation for pitch and yaw-square plate [38]
0.86 0.5 0.333 0 WTM, global correlation for collector with extension surfacesa [15]
0.0253 0.8 0 3 WTM, local Nu equation for mixed (lam. and turbulent) ow over a at plate [20]
0.036 0.8 0.333 f1(Pr)b Laboratory, avg Nu on inclined and yawed real collector, with L = L(L1, L2, u)e [3]
0.032 0.8 0 84.5 Laboratory, avg Nu on inclined and yawed real collector (Pr = 0.706) [3]
1.23 0.5 0.333 0 WTM, plate ush on wooden roof model, angle of attack a < 40 [51]
0.90 0.5 0.333 0 WTM, plate ush on wooden roof model, angle of attack a P 40 [51]
0.568 0.524 0 0 WTM, at-plate model collector ush on 30 roof of model house [52]
1.067 0.466 0 0 WTM, at-plate model collector ush on 45 roof of model house [52]
f2(Re, Pr)c 0.8 1 0 Nu for parallel to plate ow, turbulent boundary layer [9]
0.023 0.891 0 0 Multipoint eld measurement (FM), Re = (l/m)sqrt(avg(u2 + v2 + w2)), developed turbulent [26]
boundary layer on horizontal roof
0.0296Rf 0.8 0.333 0 FM, local Nu for horizontal roof, turbulent ow Rf surface roughness multiplier [25]
0.037Rf 0.8 0.333 0 FM, avg Nu, horizontal strip of length L, turbulent ow, DT = 0, L > xc  0 [25]
0.664Rf 0.5 0.333 0 FM, avg Nu, horizontal strip of length L, turbulent ow, DT < 0, L > xc = 5  105l/(qVf) [25]
0.037Rf 0.8 0.333 f3(Pr)d FM, avg Nu, horizontal strip of length L, turbulent ow, DT < 0, L P xc = 5  105l/(qVf) [25]
a
The hydrodynamic dimensions are used for the characteristic length in Re.
b
f1(Pr) = 95.0Pr1/3.
c
f2(Re, Pr) = 0.037/(1 + 2.443Re0.1(Pr2/3  1).
d
f3(Pr) = 871RfPr1/3.
e
The characteristic length is L = L1L2/(L1 cos u + L2 sin u), with L1, L2 the collector side lengths and u the yaw angle.

The choice of such a length was dictated by the intuitive
involvement of the surface area of the plate, and the very
high transfer rates observed at the edges, thus bringing also
the circumference into the picture [19]. Eq. (9) is nothing
more than the simplest combination which yields a length
dimension.
Another experimental series involving a real (albeit half-
size) solar collector under controlled environmental condi-
tions in the laboratory [3], produced a slightly dierent cor-
relation for the average Nusselt Number, namely,
4=5
NuL 0:036ReL Pr1=3  95Pr1=3 10
806 J.A. Palyvos / Applied Thermal Engineering 28 (2008) 801808

The critical Reynolds Number was estimated at 70,000,
implying an early development of turbulence which can
be explained by the obvious lack of a sharp leading edge
on the collector. As the latter was both inclined and yawed
with respect to the on-coming air, the appropriate charac-
teristic length for Re was
L1 L2
L u < 90
L1 cos / L2 sin /
with a similar equation for yaw angles, u, greater than 90
[3]. It turned out, however, that, as in the case of Sparrows
yawed plate [18], the inuence of the yaw angle was small,
over the entire range of us tried (0, 90, 135, and 180), but
not insignicant. The relevant reduction of hw with u was
in the range 515% [3]. On the other hand, the wind direc-
tion has also been found not to have a signicant eect in
the case of large walls [13].
Table 6 includes additional boundary layer type correla-
tions. Among them, is the following equation for the local
Nusselt Number, Nux,
Nux 0:037Rf Re4=5 Pr1=3  871Rf Pr1=3
in which x denotes distance from the leading edge and Rf is
a surface roughness dependent convection multiplier,
assuming values in the range 1.00 < Rf < 2.10. (The similar-
ity between Eqs. (10) and (12) is worth noting.) The same
authors also give relations involving explicitly the wind
incidence angle, h, for the forced convection heat transfer
coecient averaged over rectangular roof strips [25].
4. Correlations for the wind loss coecient explicit in V, L,
and/or the wind direction
A number of correlations for hw, explicit in V and L are
also listed in Table 7. Some of them have been the result of
evaluation of the thermo-physical properties which partic-
ipate in the Reynolds and Prandtl Numbers, for specic
temperatures, although the latter are not always reported
(cf. [17]). They have the general form hw = aVb/Lc, that
is, they include a decay of the wind convection coecient
along the surface in the direction of the wind. For example,
the fully turbulent ow convective coecient can be writ-
11 ten as
hw 5:74V 4=5 L1=5 13
for a at surface such as a solar collector [17]. If the latter is
ush-mounted on the (inclined) roof of a house, then
 
8:6V 0:6
hw max 5; 0:4 14
L
where L is the cube root of the house volume in meters [32,
p. 166]. The constant 5 in this last relation represents the
minimal hw value which is observed in solar collectors un-
der zero wind.
The rest of the correlations in Table 7 are explicit only in
12 V, having the form hw = aVb, i.e. without the decay factor.
Each one is given for either wall surfaces or roofs of low-
rise isolated buildings, and for a particular wind direction.
As an example, for a 45 surface-to-wind angle the rele-
vant equation for walls is
hw 3:34V 0:84
f 15
according to recent CFD calculations [1].
5. External convection algorithms used in building simulation
programs
In view of the lack of a universally acceptable wind con-
vection coecient or correlation (as clearly demonstrated
by the large, yet non-exhaustive, compilations of Tables

Table 7
Explicit in V, L form for the wind convection coecient (W/m2 K): hw = aVbLc
a b c Comments References
8.6 0.6 0.4 Convection over buildings, L = cube root of building volume [14]
5.79 0.8 0.2 Single at-plate PV panel, Vw P 0.3 m/s, L = geometric scale [65]
2.537WfRfa 0.5 0.5 BLAST model: V = Vaz, wind speed modied for height zb [16]
2.537WfRfa 0.5 0.5 TARP model:V = Vaz, wind speed modied for height zc [16]
5.74 0.8 0.2 Fully turbulent ow over horizontal, constant temperature surface [17]
5.1 0.5 0.5 Field measurements (FM), plates, global, 313 K mean plate-air temperature [46]
11.42 0.891 0.109 FM, local h, V = sqrt(avg(u2 + v2 + w2)), both for horizontal and vertical enveloped [26]
5.15 0.81 0 FM, walls of isolated, low-rise building, 0 angle of attacke [1]
3.34 0.84 0 FM, walls of isolated, low-rise building, 45 angle of attacke [1]
4.78 0.71 0 FM, walls of isolated, low-rise building, 90 angle of attacke [1]
4.05 0.77 0 FM, walls of isolated, low-rise building, 135 angle of attacke [1]
3.54 0.76 0 FM, walls of isolated, low-rise building, 180 angle of attacke [1]
5.11 0.78 0 FM, roof of isolated, low-rise building, 0 angle of attacke [1]
4.60 0.79 0 FM, roof of isolated, low-rise building, 45 angle of attacke [1]
3.67 0.85 0 FM, roof of isolated, low-rise building, 90 angle of attacke [1]
a
Wf = wind modier (1 for windward surfaces, 0.5 for leeward ones), Rf = surface roughness multiplier, L = (surface area/perimeter).
b
Vaz = V0(z/z0)1/a (z0 = 9.14, a is a terrain-dependent coecient).
c
Vaz = V0b(z/z0)a (a, b are terrain-dependent coecients).
d
Pr has been evaluated at 293 K.
e
DT = surface-to-air temperature dierence = 10 K, wind speed 15 m/s.
 J.A. Palyvos / Applied Thermal Engineering 28 (2008) 801808
47), users of large building energy simulation programs
such as EnergyPlus [53], TRNSYS [54], and ESP-r [55],
should be able to choose the most suitable form oered
by the respective program. In fact, they should be also
given the option to supply their own model, as the cor-
relations for the external convection coecient adopted
by such programs are not standardized [56].
EnergyPlus, for example, oers six outside convection
algorithms: a simple second degree polynomial in Vw pro-
posed by ASHRAE [8] (which, however, includes a con-
stant radiation component of about 5 W/m2 K), the more
detailed algorithm of Sparrow et al. [19] as well as similar
expressions in the BLAST and TARP programs [16] and,
nally, the MoWiTT and the DOE-2 models [45]. The
MoWiTT algorithm oers a reasonable balance between
accuracy and ease of use [57] while the DOE-2 model is a
combination of the MoWiTT and BLAST algorithms
(see Tables 4, 5 and 7 for the respective expressions).
Most of the relevant components in TRNSYS, on the
other hand, ask the user to supply the heat transfer coe-
cient (although the linear form of Eq. (4) is built in, for
example, in the Type 19 subroutine). The most popular
algorithm used for the external convective coecient is
the quadratic polynomial in Vw [58,59], whose constant
coecients are tabulated for six types of surface texture
[60].
Finally, external convection in ESP-r is modeled via
time varying wind driven convection coecients, calculated
with a choice of two dierent correlations: a simple linear
one (cf. [35]), with suitable amendment of the velocity value
on the basis of surface orientation and wind direction rela-
tive to the surface [61], and the MoWiTT model [45]. (The
ESP-r repertoire, however, is much more exible when it
comes to internal building surfaces, for which it oers an
option of ve empirical correlations and xed values for
the internal convection coecient [62]).
6. Conclusions
Since the importance of the external convection coe-
cient due to the wind in, practically, all the energy calcula-
tions involving the building envelope has been well
documented, the prospective designer/modeler must be
extra careful when seeking a correlation for hw to suit
his/her needs. This is also true when one uses the major
building energy analysis programs, which accept user sup-
plied correlations and constant values for hw or oer a
menu of such correlations.
Being aware of the diversity of the available expressions,
some of which are the result of laboratory tests while others
stem from actual eld measurements, one must make sure
that he/she has fully examined the specic conditions under
which they have been produced, before he/she can safely
use any one of them. Moreover, the understandable lack
of physical equivalence between certain experimental stud-
ies and the reality of the eld, should help in narrowing
down the options. If, on the other hand, one merely seeks
807
a quick gross estimate, one can always use the average
simple correlations proposed in this work, i.e. Eqs. (6)
and (7).
In view of the above, the expressions from the literature
which are listed in Tables 47 should prove useful, pro-
vided the reader has access to the original works cited
therein in order to assess the respective applicability to
his/her own problem at hand. However, the obvious lack
of generality of the existing wind convection coecient cor-
relations presents a challenge for future research. More
realism is needed, i.e. eld rather than laboratory measure-
ments, as well as some sort of standardization in the choice
of such things as the wind velocity sensors or the measure-
ment topology, e.g. height above ground and/or distance
from the facade wall or roof, etc. In this way, a much smal-
ler set of well proven and generally accepted correlations
may emerge, which will greatly help the designer/modeler.
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