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Pressurized Irrigation System-DRAFT CWC - March 2017
Pressurized Irrigation System-DRAFT CWC - March 2017
DESIGN
OF
PRESSURIZED PIPE IRRIGATION SYSTEM
( DRAFT )
NEW DELHI
MARCH 2017
Table of Contents
I
5.4) APPURTENCES ..................................................................................................... 98
5.5) DESIGN REQUIREMENTS OF UNDERGROUND PIPELINE IRRIGATION
SYSTEM ................................................................................................................. 106
CHAPTER-6 PUMPING STATIONS .................................................. 109
6.1) REQUIREMENTS................................................................................................. 109
6.2) SELECTION OF PUMPS ....................................................................................... 109
CHAPTER 6 DELIVERY SYSTEM.......................................................... 124
CHAPTER - 7 CONCLUSIONS ................................................................. 125
PRESSURIED PIPE IRRIGATION SYSTEM -PROJECTS DETAIL SUMMARY
(ACROSS INDIA) ................................................................................................... 126
A. NADAUN INTEGRATED MICRO IRRIGATION PROJECT, NADAUN,
HAMIRPUR, HIMACHAL PRADESH .................................................................. 126
B. RAMTHAL INTEGRATED MICRO IRRIGATION PROJECT, HUNGUND,
BAGALKOT, KARNATAKA .................................................................................. 127
C. SAMPATRAO DESHMUKH SAHKARI PANI PURVATHA SANSTHA
INTEGRATED MICRO IRRIGATION PROJECT, RAIGAON, SANGLI,
MAHARASHTRA ................................................................................................... 128
D. KANDI INTEGRATED MICRO IRRIGATION PROJECT, KANDI BELT,
TALWARA AND HAJIPUR BLOCKS, HOSHIARPUR DISTRICT, PUNJAB .... 129
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................... 131
ANNEXURE-1 ............................................................................................................. I
ANNEXURE-2 ........................................................................................................... II
ANNEXURE-3 .......................................................................................................... III
ANNEXURE-4 .......................................................................................................... IV
II
List of figures
III
List of Tables
Table 3.1.Coefficients of Discharge and loss coefficients for Conduit Entrances ..... 37
Table 5.1.Hazen William Coefficients ......................................................................... 53
Table 5.2.Mannings Coefficients of roughness .......................................................... 55
Table 5.3. Friction Factors In Darcy-Weisbach Formula ........................................... 56
Table 5.4. Values of Roughness Projection ................................................................. 57
Table 5.5.Recommended Values in Modified Hazen-Williams Formula (At 20o C)
...................................................................................................................................... 58
Table 5.6. K-Values for Different Types of Fittings ................................................... 60
Table 5.7. Equivalent Length of Pipe for Different sizes of Pipe Fittings with K=1 60
Table 5.8. Working pressure for different classes of pipes ........................................ 71
Table 5.9 modulus of elasticity of different pipe material ......................................... 95
Table 5.10.Summary of the methods of water hammer protection ........................... 98
Table 6.1.Vapour Pressure of Water ......................................................................... 114
Table 6.2.Atmosheric Pressure in mWC at different Altitudes above MSL ........... 116
Table 6.3 Application of Pumps ................................................................................ 119
IV
Chapter -1 INTRODUCTION
Water is conveyed from the water source to cropped areas of the farm in
networks of open channels and/or pipelines. Open channels may be lined or unlined
and pipelines partially open to the atmosphere or pressurized.
1.1.2) Pipelines
On-farm pipe networks are classified as open (low head) or closed
(pressurized) depending on whether the system is open to the atmosphere. Both
types of pipelines can be laid on the ground surface or buried.
Surface pipes have the advantage (over buried pipes) of portability, while
buried lines can be placed below the tillage zone where damage by farm machinery,
vehicles, vandals, etc., is minimized. When buried above the frost depth, provisions
for draining buried pipelines are required.
Pipelines also permit the conveyance of water uphill against the normal slope
of the land and, unlike open channels, can be installed on non-uniform grades. The
use of buried pipe eliminates pad construction for open channels, allows use of the
most direct routes from the water source to fields, and minimizes the loss of
productive land (since crops can be planted up to or over the pipelines).
Open channels may, however, be more economical than pipelines when land
is flat and flows are large.
1
1.1.2.1) Open (low Head) Pipelines
Because low head pipelines are open to the atmosphere, heads in these
pipelines seldom exceed 15 m (50 ft). The stand pipe provides head regulation,
water release, vacuum relief, and air release. Open pipelines are not generally used
with application systems that require more than 6 m (20 ft) of head.
With the increasingly greater demand on a limited water supply in many parts
of country, there is an urgent need for its efficient utilization by reducing losses at
various points in the irrigation system. Within the farm area, water losses can be
greatly reduced by having proper system for distribution of irrigation water. A
pipeline distribution system offers such a possibility.
In the context of improving irrigation water management below the outlet a well
designed and carefully laid distribution network of field channels is very important.
In India, open field channels are generally in use in the canal command area. Both
lined and unlined channels are used to deliver water to the farmers' fields.
2
The engineering design is the second stage in irrigation planning. The first stage
is the consideration of the crop water requirements, the type of soil, the climate, the
water quality and the irrigation scheduling. The water supply conditions, the
availability of electricity and the field topography also need to be considered. The
economic considerations, the labor and the know-how also need to be taken into
account. The irrigation system is selected after a thorough evaluation of the above
data and the computation of the systems flow, the irrigation dose, the duration of
application and the irrigation interval. Once the design has been completed, a
detailed list of all the equipment needed for the installation of the system must be
prepared with full descriptions, standards and specifications for every item.
This document contains the design principles covering the portion from intake to
delivery tank/outlet.
The flow diagram shown in fig 1.1 explains typical overall arrangement of
pressurized pipe irrigation system. It can be varied according to their planning
arrangement which is subjected to multiple factors like topography, accessibility,
siltation etc.
3
RIVER OR OTHER INTAKE DESILTING
SOURCE STRUCTURE ARRANGEMENT **
FIELD IRRIGATION
SYSTEM
** IF REQUIRED
4
Chapter-2 PLANNING &DESIGN
Before attempting for design of a piped irrigation system, for the formation of
chaks and sub chaks, all the principles laid down as in case of open channel
network shall be applied except following points since the alignment of WCs need
not be planned along the survey number boundaries as the system is buried under
ground and should be preferably laid straight across the location of turn outs. This
will result in reduction in length of WC i.e. system can be economized.
a) For the formation of chaks or sub chaks, alignments of Under Ground Pipe
Line (UGPL) system do not provide physical boundaries (as the system is
buried) and as such, the boundaries of chak and sub chaks should be planned
along the survey number boundaries, though falls on the either sides of
UGPL alignments.
b) Alignments of UGPL system should be across the contours to avail sufficient
head loss to overcome frictional losses in pipe flow. Alignments of UGPL
system along the contours should be generally avoided.
c) As far as possible reverse gradients should not be provided to avoid tall
structures, pressure pipes, leakages, strengthener joints, higher
maintenance, etc. in view of economy.
A. Location of water source and area to which water to be supplied are both
known.
B. Determine the location and level of source.
C. Route should be selected such that:
a) Length should be minimized as much as possible.
b) Pumping should be avoided if possible.
c) High water pressure should be avoided.
d) Number of appurtenances (gate valve, check valve, drain,
air release valve, pressure break valve) should be
minimized.
e) Very low or high velocities should be avoided because low
velocities cause sedimentation in pipes and high velocities
cause corrosion of pipe.
5
f) Velocity ranges: 0.5 3 m/sec, preferable range: 1 - 1.5
m/sec.
g) Cost should be minimized.
h) If horizontal pipe sections are used, release of air and
drain the dirt will not be possible. So, in case of horizontal
ground surface, artificial slopes are given to pipes to be
laid.
D. Convenient conduit type and material should be selected.
A. Design discharge.
B. Flow velocities through pipelines
C. Elevation changes across the property.
D. Friction losses through pipelines, fittings and other in-line components.
E. Determining Economic Size of conveyance main and overall System Costs,
which in turn depends upon;
a) Project Period and Longevity (Useful Life) of
all the components.
b) Capital costs of pumps, pipes and other
fittings.
c) Installation costs of pumps, pipes and other
fittings.
d) System operating costs
F. Soil conditions for buried pipelines.
G. Environmental conditions for surface pipelines.
Design discharge depends upon the operation procedure which can be:
6
2.3.1.1) Rotational Water Supply
In our country, generally rotation method is followed which include constant
frequency and either constant amount or varied amount.
Recommended maximum water velocity 1.52 m/s for PVC, HDPE pipes and
1.83 m/s for metallic pipes.
If the operational water velocity will exceed the Standards, then the designer
must justify why the higher velocity is recommended. The designer must also advise
on what measures are taken to prevent water hammer and surge damage. It is
possible that some pipe types, such as continuously welded polyethylene pipe, may
be able to operate safely at a high water velocity. This is acceptable, provided a
water hammer analysis or manufacturers literature shows that this is acceptable.
7
2.3.2.2 ) Minimum water velocity
Designers must specify pipe diameters and flow rates that allow for a
minimum operational water velocity, especially for irrigation systems that utilize
emitters with small apertures such as drip and micro sprinklers. This will ensure
that any sediment or solids are flushed through the lines.
2.3.3 ) Friction losses through pipelines, fittings and other in-line components
For Pipe friction in main and sub main lines the designer must take into
account the possible effect of water quality on pipes as well as the deterioration of
pipes with age during the pipes life time.
The following values for allowable pipe friction in mainline are accepted as
norms: The following applies for pipelines with a diameter of 200 mm or smaller:
If the above figures are exceeded, then the designer must show that the
chosen pipe diameters total cost (capital and annual running cost) have been
optimized and is the best of the available options. For pipes with larger diameters,
a full life cycle cost analysis (capital and annual running cost) is recommended to
find the most economical pipe sizes. For all pipes, and especially in the case of
diameters larger than 200 mm, the effect of water hammer is critical and must be
investigated and optimized. An adequate number of air valves must be included in
the design.
8
The design pressure variation at the outlets must not exceed:
Pressures must be set so that the maximum variation in emitter flow within a
block or sub-area does not exceed: 5% of the average emitter flow
a) Depreciation
A component's salvage value is its value at the end of its useful life and may be
positive, zero, or negative. Salvage values are negative when additional
expenditures are required to inactivate the component at the end of its useful life.
The expected useful life of irrigation system components may vary, since useful life
can vary significantly depending on the level of repair, operation, and maintenance
practices, and the length of time the system is used each year.
b) Interest Costs
9
paid for the use of the borrowed money. For landowner financed systems, interest
costs reflect returns that could be earned if the capital expended for the irrigation
system were invested elsewhere.
Interest costs depend on the minimum attractive rate of return (i.e., the interest
rate) and the total initial cost of the irrigation system. A systems cost includes the
initial cost of all depreciable components and items such as water rights and land,
that are not depreciated, Depreciable items include pipes, pumps, accessories ,
buildings for housing or storing pumps and other equipment, farm road and
drainage facility construction, etc.
= PW
Where
(1+)
=
(1+) 1
The analysis period used for economy studies of on-farm irrigation systems is
typically 20, 25, or 30 years. For large complex projects, periods of 40, 50, and 100
years are commonly used.
Present worth (PW) is the amount that must be invested at the beginning of the
analysis period to return the equivalent of a component's initial cost plus interest by
the end of the analysis period. When the analysis period equals the component's
useful life, PW is computed using
1+
=
1+
10
Where
is the present worth of the salvage value considering the effect of cost escalation.
When the analysis period is shorter than the components useful life, the component
will not be depreciated at the end of analysis period. In this case, the final salvage
value (at the end of the analysis period) is the sum of the un-depreciated and
salvage values. The following Equation is used to compute the final salvage value
( )
= ( )
Where, is the useful life of the component, in years. The above Equation uses
straight line depreciation over the useful life to estimate the un-depreciated value
at the end of the analysis period. When less than UL, PW is computed by
replacing with
In situations where AP exceeds UL, the component will need to be replaced one or
more times during the analysis period. The following equation shall be used in such
situation
()
1+ 1+
= +
1+ 1+
=1
1
=
()
=
11
The second and third terms are, respectively, the present worth of the component
replacement costs and the final salvage value (including any un-depreciated value).
1 + (1 + )
= ()
1 + 1
The annual energy cost includes the cost of all energy used to operate the
irrigation system. Energy used for pumping, moving equipment within and between
fields, injecting fertilizers and other chemicals into the system, etc., must be
considered. Energy costs are estimated by calculating the quantity of energy used
annually to irrigate the farm and applying the appropriate prices.
Maintenance and repair costs depend on the number of hours the irrigation
system operates, the operating environment, and the quality of maintenance. In
addition, there is substantial variation in the prices paid for parts and supplies, and
in the wages paid repair and maintenance personnel. Annual maintenance and
repair costs should therefore be based on local data whenever possible. When local
data are not available, annual maintenance and repair costs for an irrigation
system component can be approximated as a percentage of the components initial
cost percent of initial costs that can be used to estimate annual maintenance and
repair costs for several irrigation system components. The total annual
maintenance and repair cost for the system is the sum of the component costs.
12
The labor required to operate an irrigation system depends on many factors,
including the type of application system, the degree of automation, the crop, the
frequency and number of irrigations, and the terrain. Labor requirements are
estimated by careful analysis of operations or obtained from actual irrigation with
similar conditions and systems.
The available fall from the source to the command and ground profile in
between, should generally help to decide if a free flow conduit is feasible or not.
Once this is decided, the material of the conduit is to be selected keeping in view the
local costs and the nature of the terrain to be traversed. Even when a fall is
available, a pumping or force main, independently or in combination with gravity
main could also be considered. Optimization techniques need to be adopted to help
decisions. The most economical size for the conveyance main will be based on a
proper analysis of the following factors:
13
design period or the repayment period may be
30 years or more while the pump sets are designed
to serve a period of 15 years.
F. Cost of small pipe differs marginally and hence unnecessary tight designs are
not desirable.
The designer should provide the specifications and a technical and economic
analysis for several alternative systems. The one that best satisfies the needs and is
economical, may be considered.
There are two extremes which might be considered. In an effort to reduce the
resistance to flow in the pipe it would be possible to use a very large diameter pipe
in which case, with little internal resistance, it would be possible to make do with a
relatively small pump and energy costs as well. Pipe costs would be large but pump
costs would be small. To reduce pipe costs it would be possible to use a very small
diameter pipe. However, the resistance to flow would then be significant and a
much larger pump (more energy) would be necessary to push the water through the
smaller pipeline. Although the pipe costs are low the pump costs, in this case, would
be large.
The problem then is to determine the optimum size of pump and pipe which
together give the minimum total cost. This, in fact, is a relatively simple problem
and can be answered by plotting cost against size of pipe as shown in Figure 2.1.
As the pipe diameter increases the cost of the pipeline increases (line A).
However as the pipe diameter increases the resistance to flow decreases making it
possible to use a smaller, cheaper pump. This means that the cost of the pump (line
B) decreases as the pipe diameter increases. Total cost is obtained (line C) by
adding the two original cost curves together. This shows a high total cost at the two
extremes with an optimum solution at the turning point on the total cost curve. The
location of the turning point clearly identifies the 'best' pump and pipe sizes.
14
Fig. 2.1 Optimization of Pump/Pipeline System
15
Chapter-3 INTAKES
3.1) Introduction
a) Wet Intakes;
b) Dry Intakes;
c) Submerged Intakes
d) Moveable and floating Intakes
16
Fig 3.1. Simple Concrete block-Submerged Intake
(Ref: Water Supply Engineering book by SK Garg)
17
Fig.3.2. Wet Intake tower standing in the river or reservoir
(Ref: Water Supply Engineering book by SK Garg)
18
Fig 3.3. Dry Intake tower standing in the river or reservoir
(Ref: Water Supply Engineering book by SK Garg)
19
Fig.3.4. Section of a typical twin well type of river intake
(Ref: Water Supply Engineering book by SK Garg)
20
Fig.3.5.Detailed section and plan of a twin well type of river intake structure constructed
on Krishna River (below)
Fig 3.6. Single Well Type of a River Intake to be located across an off-take channel or an
approach channel (Ref: Water Supply Engineering book by SK Garg)
21
Fig.3.7. Canal Intake Well
(Ref: Water Supply Engineering book by SK Garg)
22
Fig.3.8.Valve tower situated at the upstream toe of an earthen dam
(Ref: Water Supply Engineering book by SK Garg)
23
Fig.3.9. Intake Well or Valve tower for concrete gravity or masonry dams
(Ref: Water Supply Engineering book by SK Garg)
24
3.3) Intake in concrete or masonry dams
Fig 3.11. Approach Geometry- Semicircular Type Intake Structure (Ref: IS: 11570-
1985)
25
Elevation
Plan
26
Fig 3.13. Typical Installation in a Concrete/Masonry dams
(Ref: IS: 11570- 1985)
27
Fig 3.14.Typical Installation in an Earth dam-sloping Intake
(Ref: IS: 11570- 1985)
28
Fig.3.16 Typical Installation in an Earth dam-Tower Type Intake (Type II)
(Ref: IS: 11570- 1985)
3.4) Intake in earthen dams
When the reservoir is formed by an earthen dam, the irrigation tunnel is laid
below it or in the abutment. The intake structure for such situations will be a
sloping intake or tower type of intake. Typical layouts for sloping and tower type
intakes are shown in Fig. 3.14, 3.15 and 3.16 respectively. As far as possible,
reinforced cement concrete pressurized system should be avoided in the body of the
earth dam. Measures like provision of steel liners and suitable drainage
downstream of core, provisions of joints for differential settlements when not
founded on rock should be considered in case pressure conduits are provided under
earth dams.
In case of a high head installation; irrigation tunnel taking off from a storage
reservoir, the intake is located at a distance from the dam. The intake structure of
such a layout will be either tower type semicircular, circular, rectangular or
inclined.
29
3.6) Layout of Intake Structure
The efficient and economic design of an intake to serve the functions set out in
section 3.1 will depend upon the conditions prevailing in each development. In
3.10.2 and 3.10.4 few formulae have been suggested which may be modified to suit
any special condition. Hydraulic model studies may be necessary under special
conditions.
Sloping intake is provided in an earthen dam as shown in Fig. 3.14. Trash rack
for the intake (made by mild steel rectangular bars) is provided at the entrance. The
top and sides at the entrance are provided with bell-mouth.
30
3.6.3) Vertical Intake
Factors influencing the choice of location and layout of intake structure are:
a) Type of development that is run-of river scheme or storage reservoir;
b) Location and type of dam/weir;
c) Type of water conveyance system that is tunnel or canal; and
d) Topographical features of area.
The conditions under which the various typical layouts of intake as classified in
3.6.1 to 3.6.3 are adopted are given below.
31
This type of layout is adopted when:
a) the reservoir is formed by an earthen dam and tunnel is laid below it; and
b) the intake is subjected to low-head variations like in run-of the river type.
3.7.4) Location
As per IS: 11570-1985, the follwing factors shall be considered while determing
theappropriate loaction of Intake:
a) The location where the best quality of water(at least suitable for irrigation
purposes) is available
b) Absence of currents that will threaten the safety of the intake
c) Absence of ice floats etc.
d) Formation of shoal and bars should be avoided
e) Navigation channels should be avoided as far as possible
f) Fetch of wind and other conditions affecting the waves
g) Ice Storms
h) Floods
i) Availability of power and its reliability
j) Accessibility
k) Distance from pumping station
l) Possibilities of damage by moving objects and hazards.
The Intake structures design should provide for withdrawal of water from
more than one level to cope up with seasonal variations of depth of water.
Undersluices should be provided for release of less desirable water held in storage.
32
The intake in or near navigable channels should be protected by cluster of
piles or other devices, against blows for moving objects. Undermining of foundations
due to water currents or overturning pressures, due to deposits of silt against one
side of an intake structure, are to be avoided.
The entrance of large objects into the intake pipe is prevented by coarse
screen or by obstructions offered by small openings in the crib work placed around
the intake pipe. Fine screens for the exclusion of small fish and other small objects
should be placed at an accessible point. The area of the openings in the intake crib
should be sufficient to prevent an entrance velocity greater than about 8 meters per
minute to avoid carrying settable matter into the intake pipe. Submerged ports
should be designed and controlled to prevent air from entering the suction pipe, by
keeping a depth of water over the port of at least three diameters of the port
opening.
The conduit for conveying water from the intake should lead to a suction well
in or near the pumping station. For conduits laid under water, standard cast iron
pipe may be used. Larger conduits may be of steel or concrete. A tunnel, although
more expensive, makes the safest conduit.
The capacity of the conduit and the depth of the suction well should be such
that the intake ports to the suction pipes of pumps will not draw air. A velocity of 60
to 90 cm/s in the intake conduit with a lower velocity of 60 to 90 cm/s in the intake
conduit with a lower velocity through the ports will give satisfactory performance.
The horizontal cross-sectional area of the suction well should be three to five times
the vertical cross-sectional area of the intake conduit.
Centre line of intake shall be located well below the minimum draw down
level to prevent formation of vortices. Suitable arrangements, such as cross walls,
floating grid may be provided if necessary to prevent/minimize, vortices. Cover of
water over the roof of the intake for the prevention of the formation of air
entraining vortices both at vertical or horizontal pipe intake may be computed for
33
the purpose of preliminary design from the set of curves given in Fig.3.17 & 3.18 by
trial method. For important works the design may be checked by model studies.
a) Effective head - ,
= 2
34
Step 2: At any convenient distance r from the centre line of the intake, such that
r/D = 3, 4, 5 or 6, compute Velocity, from the correlation:
2
3.45
=
2
2
Step 3: Evaluate
2
Step 4: Enter Fig.3.17 plot of
versus C, and examine; if this above the
particular curve corresponding to the adopted value of r/D, no vortex will form. If
this point lies below the curve vortex will form.
Step 5: To determine the optimum water cover or submergence repeat to the above
2
steps till the point corresponding to the computed values of C and lies on the
particular r/D curve. For the case of horizontal intake, Fig.3.18 may be made use of.
35
Fig 3.18. Horizontal Intakes- for determining submergence
(Ref: IS: 11570- 1985)
3.9) Trash rack Structure
The normal contraction with coefficient of contraction Ce, as 0.6 shall be used in
high-head installations and Ce as 0.7 for low-head installations in order to reduce
the height of opening. Coefficients of discharge and loss coefficients for typical
entrances for conduits are given in Table 3.1
36
Table 3.1.Coefficients of Discharge and loss coefficients for Conduit Entrances
(Ref: IS: 11570- 1985)
=
Where
For circular conduits, an elliptical entrance curve obtained from the following
equation will satisfy the streamlining requirements:
2 2
+ =1
0.52 0.152
37
3.10.4) Entrance Curves for Rectangular Conduit
The height is calculated by the distance above and below the intersection of the
tunnel centre line with the face of the entrance
Centre line to upper edge:
1
1 = 1.21 2 + 0.0487 2
+ 1.10
2 cos
Centre line to lower edge:
0.791
2 = + 0.077
= 1 + 2
For a rectangular entrance with the invert at the same elevation as the
upstream floor and with curved guide piers at each side of the entrance openings,
both the bottom and side contraction will be suppressed and a sharper contraction
will take place at the top of the opening. For this condition, the top contraction
curve is defined by the equation:
2 2
+ =1
2 0.67 2
Where H is the vertical height of the conduit downstream from the entrance
shape.
2 2
+ =1
2 0.33 2
Where D is the vertical height of the conduit for defining top and bottom curves and
is the horizontal width of the conduit for defining side curves.
The above mentioned formulae for rectangular/square conduit are applicable when
the centre line of the transition and centre line of conduit are the same.For higher
heads shape of the opening may be decided by model studies.
38
3.10.6) Transitions
a) Transition or turns shall be made about the centre line of mass flow;
b) For contraction, the maximum convergent angle should not exceed that
indicated by the relation:
1
tan =
Where
= Angle of the conduit wall surfaces with respect to its centre line,
U = An arbitrary parameter =
and
The value of V and H are the average of the velocities and dimensions at the
beginning and end of the transition. For expansion
1
tan =
2
For usual installations, the flare angle should not normally exceed 10o.
c) The area of any section of the transition shall be proportional to the area of a
jet at similar section and modified to provide the acceleration necessary to
turn the water through the angle that section makes with the face, and
d) All slots or other necessary departures from the neat outline shall be outside
the transition zone.
39
40
Fig 3.19. Bell-Mouth Details of Rectangular Opening
(Ref: IS: 11570- 1985)
The intake gate slot shall be enclosed in a structure designed to guide the
water into the rectangular opening without side contraction. The upstream edge of
the gate slot shall be at least 0.40 be from the nose, where b e is the width of
opening. Where gates are located in a gate shaft, suitable transition from circular to
rectangular gate slot shall be provided.
41
computed on the considerations of type of flow occurring downstream of gates,
namely, spray flow, free flow, foamy flow, hydraulic jump formation with free
surface flow or hydraulic jump formation with pipe flow.
The air demand for different flow types in the conduit shall be computed with the
help of the following formulae:
Where
=
= air demand,
= discharge of water
= the Froude number at vena contracta;
For hydraulic jump formation with channel flow and various types of flows
mentioned above, Fig.3.21. may be used to compute air demand.
42
Fig 3.21.Air Demand Curves for spray, Free and Foamy flow
(Ref: IS: 11570- 1985)
43
c) By washing away the air pockets frequently by releasing higher discharge in
the tunnel.
Head loss in the air vent, specially in case of an unusually complicated vent
layout containing a number of sharp bends and obstructions, shall be checked to
determine whether the pressure drop exceeds 2 m of water in which case the vent
size shall be increased suitably.
44
Chapter-4 DESILTING ARRANGMENT
4.1) Introduction
Conventional systems like settling basins are quite effective to reduce the
sediment content in the whole system. Moreover, conventional system with tube
settler are having more efficiency in the controlling the sediment rate. Hence, the
tube settlers have been discussed in detail.
Tube settlers or inclined plate settlers are examples of high rate settlers.
Here what we are doing is we are providing excess surface so that the surface
overflow rate will be decreased. We have sedimentation tank like this say some 3.5
meters depth so if you provide many plates parallelly in the settling zone so what
will happen is the effective surface area will be increasing because many surfaces
are available for the settling or many planes are available for settling. So,
effectively what will happen is it will be considerably reducing the surface overflow
rate or in other words it will be increasing the efficiency of the tank. That is the
principle of these tube settlers.
45
achieved. At angle greater than 40 degree the units lose efficiency rapidly whereas
with angles less than 60 degree, sludge will not slide down the floors. Under such
situations, hosing down the sediments may have to be resorted to. With horizontal
tubes (normally inclined at 5 degree) auxiliary scouring of settled solids is
necessary. While tube-settlers have been used for improving the performance of
existing basins, they have also been successfully used in a number of installations
as a sole settling unit. It has been found that if one fifth of the outlet end of a basin
is covered with tube or plate settlers, the effective surface loading on the tank is
nearly halved or the flow though the basin can be nearly doubled without
impairment of effluent quality.
Here the design is based upon the surface overflow rate so here we are
providing many tube or inclined plates at an angle of 45 to 60 degree above the
horizontal. Why we are providing this 45 to 60 degree angle is because the particles
will be settling on the plates or the tubes so if you provide an angle 45 to 60 degree
then whatever the particle that is settled on the tubes or the plates will be sliding
back to the system with the self weight so cleaning will be very very easy.
This tube settler system has been proposed in the Medium Irrigation Project
in Hamirpur district in Himachal Pradesh.
46
Fig 4.2.Lamella Clarifier
= sin + cos
Where,
47
It is found that the performance of tube settlers is improved significantly
with L values of up to 20 and insignificantly beyond 20. Therefore, it is desirable
to design tube settlers, beyond 40 degree, results in deterioration in their
performance. Essentially horizontal tube settlers perform better than steeply
inclined tube settlers. It is opined that from relative economics point of view, the
order of preference for tube settlers is parallel plates followed by circular tubes and
square conduits.
= 0.058
48
Fig 4.4.Tube settler type desilting arrangement in Nadaun Medium Irrigation
Project, HP.
4.2.2) Design for Tube Settlers (as per CPHEEO manual on water supply and
treatment)
The following example (shown in the box) illustrates the design for tube settlers
Problem Statement
Design tube settler module of square cross section with following data
49
Average design flow = ( 250 100 100 2 = 255.1 3
Length of tubes = 1m
Design Steps:
1000
= = 20
50
= 0.058
= 0.058
= 20 0.033
= sin + cos
= 388.65 /
Provide 6400 square tubes of 0.05 0.05 with 80 tubes along the length of the
square module and 80 tubes along the width of the module
Length of the tube module = No.of tubes (inside dimension of square tubes + 2
thickness of tubes)
50
= 80 0.050 + 2 0.005
= 4.24 m
Height of tube module for 1m length of square tubes inclined at an angle of 600
The design of desilting chamber, collection chamber and lift pump capacity are
shown in Annexure-2.
4.3) Summary
Although sediment containing water is good for crops, but it may affect the
distribution system. Depending upon the quantity of the sediment, the necessity of
desilitng basin needs to be studied in detail.
51
Chapter 5 Pipe Distribution Network
5.1.1) Formulae
There are a number of formulae available for use in calculating the velocity
of flow. However, Hazen-Williams formula for pressure conduits and Mannings
formula for free flow conduits have been popularly used.
52
Mild steel 140 100
Galvanized Iron 50mm 120 100
dia
Galvanized Iron 50mm 120 55
dia and below used for
house service
connections
b) Mannings formula
1 2 1
= 32
53
2 1
3.968 103 3 2
=
8 1
8.661 107 3 2
=
The coefficient of roughness for use in Mannings formula for different materials as
given in Table 5.2. may be adopted generally for design purposes unless local
experimental results or other considerations warrant the adoption of any other
lower value for the coefficient. For general design purposes, however, the value for
all sizes may be taken as 0.013 for plastic pipes and 0.0015 for other pipes.
54
g) Masonry in bad condition 0.02
c) Darcy-Weisbachs Formula
2
= =
2
H= head loss due to friction over length L in meters
f=dimensionless friction factor (Refer Table 5.3)
g=acceleration due to gravity in m/s2
V=velocity in mps
L=length in meters
D=diameter in meters
55
The friction factor values in practice for commonly used pipe materials are given in
Table 5.3.
(Reference may be made to IS 2951 for calculation of Head loss due to friction
according to Darcy-Weisbach formula)
d) Colebrook-white formula
1 2.51
= 2 log10 [ + ]
3.7
56
=Reynolds number = velocity x Diameter/viscosity
= diameter of pipe
= roughness projection (Refer Table 5.4)
The Modified Hazen Williams formula has been derived from Darcy-Weisbach and
Colebrook-White equations and obviates the limitations of Hazen-Williams formula.
57
V= velocity of flow in m/s
= pipe roughness coefficient; 1 for smooth pipes; < 1 ; (Refer
Table 5.5)
=
s=friction slope
D=internal diameter of pipe in m
h=friction head loss in m
L=length of pipe in m
Q=flow in pipe in m3 /
58
5.1.2) Coefficient of Roughness
In order to ensure that water resources are utilized judiciously, proper
selection of coefficient of roughness is essential for designing the pipeline network.
Despite technological advancements, improved methods of manufacturing of all
types of pipes and advent of new pipe materials, the current practice of adopting
conservative coefficients of roughness (C values) is resulting in under utilization of
the pipe materials.
59
*varying with areas ratios
**varying with radius ratios
Table 5.7. Equivalent Length of Pipe for Different sizes of Pipe Fittings with K=1
(Ref: CPHEEO Manual on water supply and treatment)
5.1.4) Cost Effective Design of Pipelines
The cost of transmission and distribution system constitutes a major portion of
the project cost. It is desirable to adopt the following guidelines.
a) The design velocity should not be less than 0.6 m/s in order to avoid
depositions and consequent loss of carrying capacity.
b) In design of distribution systems, the design velocity should not be less than
0.6 m/s to avoid low velocity conditions which may encourage deposition
and/or corrosion resulting in deterioration in quality. However, where
inevitable due to minimum pipe diameter criteria or other hydraulic
constraints, lower velocities may be adopted with adequate provision for
scouring.
c) In all hydraulic calculations, the actual internal diameter of the pipe shall be
adopted after accounting for the thickness of lining, if any, instead of the
nominal diameter or outside diameter (OD).
60
d) In providing for head loss due to fittings, specials and other appurtenances,
actual head loss calculations based on consideration included in subsection
5.1.3 should be done instead of making an arbitrary provision.
During the design process, the designer must take into account the possible
effect of water quality on pipes, as well as the deterioration of pipes with age. Pipe
deterioration often results in increased friction losses. Designers should specify low
friction valves and fittings, where appropriate.
I. Metallic pipes: Cast Iron (CI), Ductile Iron (DI), Mild Steel (MS),
Galvanized Iron (GI).
(i) Unlined metallic pipes.
(ii) Metallic pipes lined with cement mortar or epoxy lining.
61
The determination of the suitability in all respects of the pipes and specials,
for any work is a matter of decision by the Engineer concerned on the basis of
requirements for the scheme.
Several technical factors affect the final choice of pipe material such as
internal pressures, coefficient of roughness, hydraulic and operating conditions,
maximum permissible diameter, internal and external corrosion problems, laying
and jointing, type of soil, special conditions, etc.
(a) The initial carrying capacity of the pipe and its reduction with use,
defined, for example, by the Hazen Williams coefficient (C). Values of C
vary for different conduit materials and their relative deterioration in
service. They vary with size and shape to some extent.
(b) The strength of the pipe as measured by its ability to resist internal
pressures and external loads.
(c) The life and durability of pipe as determined by the resistance of cast iron
and steel pipe to corrosion; of concrete and A.C. pipe to erosion and
disintegration and plastic pipe to cracking and disintegration.
(d) The ease or difficulty of transportation, handling and laying and jointing
under different conditions of topography, geology and other prevailing
local conditions.
(e) The safety, economy and availability of manufactured sizes of pipes and
specials.
The life and durability of the pipe depends on several factors including
inherent strength of the pipe material, the manufacturing process along with
quality control, handling, transportation, laying and jointing of the pipeline,
surrounding soil conditions and quality of water. Normally, the design period of
pipelines is considered as 30 years. Where the pipelines have been manufactured
properly as per specification, designed and installed with adequate quality control
62
and strict supervision, some of them have lasted more than the designed life
provided the quality of water is non-corrosive. However, pipeline failures for various
pipe materials even before the expiry of the designed life have been reported
probably due to lack of rigid quality control during manufacture and installation,
improper design, presence of corrosive waters, corrosive soil environment, improper
bedding and other relevant factors.
Lined metallic pipe lines are expected to last beyond the normal design life of
30 years. However, the relative age of such pipes depends on the thickness and
quality of lining available for corrosion. The cost of the pipe material and its
durability or design life are the two major governing factors in the selection the pipe
material. The pipeline may have very long life but may also be relatively expensive
in terms of capital recurring costs and, therefore, it is very necessary to carry out a
detailed economic analysis before selecting pipe materials. For details of typical
calculation of economic diameter of rising main, refer annexure-2.
The metallic pipes are being provided with internal lining either with cement
mortar or epoxy. So, as to reduce corrosion, increase smoothness and prolong the
life.
The determination of the suitability in all respects of the pipe line or any
work is a matter of decision by the engineer concern on the basic of the
requirements for the scheme.
5.2.2.1) General
Most of the old cast iron pipes were cast vertically but this type has been
largely superseded by centrifugally spun cast iron type manufactured upto a
diameter 1050 mm (IS- 1536-1989). Though the vertically cast iron pipe is heavy in
weight, low in tensile strength and liable to defects of inner surface, it is widely use
63
because of its good lasting qualities. There are many examples of cast iron mains in
this country which continue to give satisfactory service even after a century of use.
Cast iron pipes and fittings are being manufactured in this country for
several years. Due to its strength and corrosion resistance, C.I. pipe can be used in
corrosive soils and for waters of slightly aggressive character. They are well suited
for pressure mains and laterals. It is preferable to have coating inside and outside
of the pipe.
Vertically cast iron pipes shall conform to IS. 1537-1976. The pipes are
manufacturer by vertically casting in sand moulds. The metal used for
manufacturer of this pipe is not less than grade 15. The pipes shall be stripped
with all precautions necessary to avoid raping or shirking defects. The pipe shall be
such that they would be cut, drilled or machined.
Cast iron flanged pipe and fittings are usually cast in larger diameters.
Smaller sizes have loose flanges screwed on the ends of double spigot-spun pipes.
The method of cast iron pipe production used universally today it is from
pipes spinning or centrifugal action. Compared with vertical casting in sand mould,
the span process results in faster production, longer pipes with vastly improved
metal qualities, smoother inner surface reduced thickness and consequent light
weight ( IS: 1536-1989).
The pipes have been classified as LA, A and B according to their thickness.
Class LA pipes have been taken as the basis for involving the series of pipes. Class
A allows a 10% increase in thickness over class LA. Class B allows a 20% increase
in thickness over class LA.
The pipes are spigot and socket type. When the pipes are to be used for
conveying water, the inside coating shall not contain any constituent soluble in
water or an ingredient which could impart any taste or odour whatsoever to the
water, after sterilization and suitable washing of the main.
64
greater tensile strength of the spun iron is due to close grain allowing use of thinner
wall than for that of a vertically cast iron pipe of equal length. It is possible by this
process to increase the length of the pipe whilst a further advantage lies in the
smoothness of the inner surface.
Laying of cast iron pipes for water supply purposes has been generally
governed by the regulations laid down by the local bodies. These regulation are
intended to ensure proper lying of pipes giving due consideration to economy and
safety of workers engaged in laying.
65
5.2.2.6) Lowering or Pipes and Fittings
All pipes, fittings, valves and hydrant shall be carefully lowered into the
trench by means derrick, ropes or either suitable tools and equipments to prevent
damage to pipe materials and protective coating and linings. Pipes over 300mm dia
shall be handled and lowered into trench with the help of chain pulley blocks.
After placing a length of pipe in the trench, the spigot end shall be cantered
in the pipe forced home and aligned to gradient. The pipe shall be secured in the
place with approved back fill material packed on both sides except at socket.
The socket end should face the upstream while laying the pipeline on level
ground, when the pipeline runs uphill, the socket ends should face the up gradient.
When the pipes run beneath the heavy loads, suitable size of casing pipes or
culverts may be provide to protect the casing of pipe. High pressure mains need
anchorage at dead ends and bends as appreciable thrust occurs which tend to cause
draw and even blow out joints. Where thrust is appreciable concrete blocks should
be installed at all points where movement may occur. Anchorages are necessary to
resist the tendency of the pipes to pull apart at bends or other points of unbalanced
pressure, or when they are laid on steep gradients and the resistance of their joints
to longitudinal or shear stresses is either exceeded or inadequate. They are also
used to restrain or direct to expansion and contraction of rigidly joined pipes under
the influence of temperature changes. Anchor or thrust blocks shall be designed in
accordance with I.S. 5330-1984.
5.2.2.8) Joints
Several types of joints as rubber gasket joint known as Tyton joint,
mechanical joint known as Screw Gland Joints, and conventional joint know as lead
joint are used.
a) Rigid Joints
66
Rigid joints are those which admit no movement at all and comprise of
flanged, welded and turned and bored joints. Flanged joints required perfect
alignment and close fittings are frequently used where a longitudinal thrust
must be taken such as at the valves and meters. The gaskets used between
flanges of pipes shall be of compressed fibre board of natural of synthetic
rubber. Welded joints produce a continuous line of pipes with the advantage
that interior and exterior coatings can be made properly and are not
subsequently disrupted by the movement of joints.
Semi rigid joint is represented by the spigot and socket with caulked lead
joint. A semi rigid joint allows partial movement due to vibration etc. The
socketed end of the pipe should be kept against the flow of water and the
spigot end of the other pipe is inserted into this socket. A twisted spun yam
is filled into this gap and it is adjusted by the yarning tool and is then
caulked well. A rope is then placed at the outer end of the socket and is made
tight fit by applying wet clay, leaving two holes for the escape of the
entrapped air inside. The rope is taken out and molten lead is poured into
the annular space by means of a funnel. The clay is then removed and the
lead is caulked with a caulking tool. Lead wool may be used in wet
conditions. Lead covered yarn is of great use in repair work, since the leaded
yarn caulked into place will keep back water under very low pressure while
the joint is being made.
c) Flexible joints
Flexible joints are used where rigidity in undesirable such as with filling of
granular medium and when two sections cannot be welded. They comprise
mainly mechanical and rudder ring joints or Tyton joints which permit some
degree of deflection at each joint and are therefore able to stand vibration and
movement. In rubber jointing special type of rubber gaskets are use to
connect cast iron pipe which are cast with a special type of spigot and socket
in the groove, the spigot end being lubricated with grease and slipped into the
socket by means of a jack used on the other end. The working conditions of
absence of light, presence of water and relatively cool uniform temperature
are all conducive to the preservation of rubber and consequently this type of
67
joint is expected to last as long as the pipes. Hence, rubber jointing is to be
preferred to lead to jointing.
5.2.2.10.1) General
After laying and jointing, the pipeline must be pressure tested to ensure that
pipes and joints are sound enough to withstand the maximum pressure likely to be
developed under working conditions.
The field test pressure should wherever possible be not less than 2/3 work
test pressure appropriate to the class of pipe except in the case of spun iron pipes
and should be applied and maintained for at least four hours. If the visual
inspection satisfies that there is no leakage, the test can be passed.
Where the field test pressure is less than 2/3 the work test pressure, the
period of test should be increased to at least 24 hours. The test pressure shall
gradually raised at the rate of 1 kg/cm2/min. If the pressure measurements are not
made at the lowest point of the section, an allowance should be made for the
difference in static head between the lowest point and the of measurement to
ensure that the maximum pressure is not exceeded at the lowest point. If a drop a
pressure occurs, the quantity of water added in order to re-establish the test
pressure should be case fully measured. This should not exceed 0.1 litre per mm of
pipe diameter per KM of pipeline per day each 30 meter head of pressure applied.
In case of gravity pipes, maximum working pressure shall be 2/3 work test
pressure.
68
The hydrostatic test pressure at works and at field after installation and the
working pressure for different classes of pipes are given in table 5.8.
69
70
Table 5.8. Working pressure for different classes of pipes
(Ref: CPHEEO Manual on water supply and treatment)
The allowable leakage during the maintenance stage of pipes carefully laid
and well tested during construction however should not exceed:
ND P
qL =
115
where
D = Diameter in mm
Where any test of pipe laid indicates leakage greater than that specified as
per the above formula, the defective pipe(s) or joint (s) shall be repaired/ replaced
until the leakage is with the specified allowance
The above is applicable to spigot and socket cast iron and A.C. pressure pipes,
whereas, twice this figure may be taken for Steel and Prestressed concrete pipes.
71
5.2.2.10.3) Testing of Non-Pressure conduits
In case of testing of non-pressure conduits, the pipeline shall be subject to a
test for of 2.5 meters head of water at the highest point of the section under test for
10 minutes. The leakage or quantity of water to be supplied to maintain the test
pressure during the period of 10 minutes shall not exceed 0.2 liters/mm dia of pipes
per kilometer length per day.
5.2.3.1) General
Steel pipes of smaller diameter can be made from solid bar sections by hot or
cold drawing processes and these tubes are referred to as seamless. But the larger
sizes are made by welding together the edges of suitable curved plates, the sockets
being formed later in a press (IS: 3589). The thickness of steel used is often
controlled by the need to make the pipe stiff enough to keep its circular shape
during storage, transportation and laying as also to prevent excessive deflection
under the load of trench back filling. The thickness of a steel pipe is however
always considerable less than the thickness of the corresponding vertically cast or
spun iron pipe. Owing to the higher tensile strength of the steel, it is possible to
make steel pipe of lower wall thickness and lower weight. Specials of all kinds can
be fabricated without difficulty to suit the different site conditions. Due to their
elasticity, steel pipes adopt themselves to changes in relative ground level without
failure and hence are suitable for laying in ground liable to subsidence. If the pipes
are joined by a form of flexible joint it provides and additional safeguard against
failure. Steel pipe being flexible are best suited for high dynamic loading.
72
different methods to protect steel pipes. While laying, the pipes already stocked
along the trenches are lowered down into the trenches with the help of chain pulley
block. The formation of bed should be uniform. The pipes are laid true to the
alignment and gradient before joining. The ends of these pipes are butted against
each other, welded and a coat of rich cement mortar is applied after welding, Steel
pipes may be joined with flexible joints or by welding but lead or other filler joints,
hot or cold, are not recommended. The welded joint is to be preferred. In areas
prone to subsidence this joint is satisfactory but flexible joint must be provided to
isolate valves and branches.
For hydraulic testing of steel pipelines, the procedure described for cast iron
spun pipes and ductile iron pipes may be followed.
5.2.4.1) General
Ductile Iron is made by a metallurgical process which involves the addition of
magnesium into molten iron of low sulphur content. The magnesium causes the
graphite in the iron to precipitate in the form of microscopic (6.25 micron) spheres
rather than the flakes found in ordinary cast iron. The spheroidal graphite in iron
improves the properties of ductile iron. It possesses properties of high mechanical
strength, excellent impact resistance and good casing qualities of grey cast iron.
Ductile iron pipes are normally prepared using the centrifugal cast process. The
ductile iron pipes are usually provided with cement mortar lining at the factory by
centrifugal process to ensure a uniform thickness throughout its length. Cement
mortar lining is superior to bituminous lining as the former provides a smooth
surface and prevents tuberculation by creating a high pH at the pipe wall and
ultimately by providing a physical and chemical barrier to the water.
73
5.5 to 6 m. These pipes are being manufactured in the country with ISO 9002
accreditation.
Ductile iron pipes are lined with cement mortar in the factory by centrifugal
process and unlined ductile iron pipes are also available. For more details reference
may be made to IS 8329-1994 for Ductile Iron Pipes.
5.2.4.3) Joints
The joints for ductile iron pipes are suitable for use of rubber gaskets
conforming to IS 5383.
5.2.5.1) General
Asbestos cement pipes are made of a mixture of asbestos paste and cement
compressed by steel rollers to from laminated material of great strength and
density. Its carrying capacity remains substantially constant as when first laid,
irrespective of the quality of water. It can be drilled and tapped for connecting but
does not have the same strength or suitability for threading as iron and any leakage
at the thread will become worse as time passes. However, this difficulty can be
overcome by screwing the ferrules through malleable iron saddles fixed at the point
74
of service connections as is the general practice. These pipes are not suitable for use
in sulphate soils. Due to expansion and contraction of black cotton soil, usage of
these pipes may be avoided as far as possible in Black Cotton soils, except where the
depth of B.C. soil is clearly less than 0.9 meter below ground level.
The available safety against bursting under pressure and against failure in
longitudinal bending, though less than that for spun iron pipes, is nevertheless
adequate and increases as the pipe ages. In most cases, good bedding of the pipes
and the use of flexible joints are of greater importance in preventing failure by
bending than the strength of pipe itself. Flexible joints are used at regular intervals
to provide for repairing of pipes, if necessary.
AC pipe can meet the general requirements of water supply undertakings for
rising main as well as distribution main. It classified as class 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25,
which gave test pressure 5. 10, 15, 20 and 25 Kg/cm2 respectively. Working
pressures shall not be greater than 50% of test pressure for pumping mains and
67% for gravity mains.
5.2.5.2) Handling
Utmost care must be taken while loading, transportation, unloading, stacking
and retransporting to the side to avoid damage to the pipes.
The AC pipes to be laid are stacked along the trenches on the side or opposite
to the spoils. Each pipe should be examined for any defects such as cracks, chipped
ends, crusting of the sides etc. The defective pipes should be removed forthwith
from the site as otherwise they are likely to be mixed up with the good pipes. Before
use the inside of the pipes will have to be cleaned. The lighter pipes weighing less
than 80Kg can be lowered in the trench by hand. If the sides of the trench slope too
much, ropes must be use. The pipes of medium weight upto 200 Kg are lowered by
means of ropes looped around both the ends, One end of the rope is fastened to a
75
wooden or steel stack driven into the ground and the other end of the rope is held by
men and is slowly released to lower the pipe into the trench. After their being
lowered into the trench they are aligned for jointing. The bed of the trench should
be uniform.
a) At a time one section of the pipeline between two sluice valves is taken
up for testing. The section usually taken is about 500 meters long.
b) One of the valves is closed and the water is admitted into the pipe
through the other, manipulating air valves suitably.
(If there are no sluice valves in between the section, the end of the
section can be sealed temporarily with an end cap having an outlet
which can serve as an air relief vent or for filling the fine as may be
76
required. The pipeline after it is filled should be allowed to stand for 24
hours before pressure testing).
c) After filling, the sluice valve is closed and the pipe section is isolated.
d) Pressure gauges are fitted at suitable intervals on the crown into the
holes meant for the purpose.
f) The pump is then operated till the pressure inside reaches the
designed value which can be read from the pressure gauges fixed.
g) After the required pressure has been attained, the valve is closed and
the pump disconnected.
h) The pipe is then kept under the desired pressure during inspection for
any defect, i.e. leakages at the joints etc.The water will then be
emptied through scour valves and defects observed in the test will be
rectified.
5.2.6.1) General
Reinforced concrete pipes used in water supplies are classified as P1, P2 and
P3 with test Pressures of 2.0, 4.0, and 6.0 Kg/cm2 respectively. For use as gravity
mains, the working pressure should not exceed 2/3rd of the test pressure. For use as
pumping mains, the working pressure should not exceed half of the test pressure.
77
5.2.6.2) Laying and Jointing
The concrete pipes should be carefully loaded, transported and unloaded
avoiding impact. The use of inclined planes or chain pulley block is recommended.
Free working space on either side of the pipe shall be provided in the trench which
shall not be greater than 1/3rd of the diameter of the pipe but not less than 15 cm on
either side.
Laying of pipes shall proceed upgrade of a slope. If the pipes have spigot and
socket joints the socket ends shall face upstream, the pipes shall be joined in such a
way to provide as little unevenness as possible along the inside of the pipe. Where
the natural foundation is inadequate, the pipes shall be laid in a concrete cradle
supported on proper foundation or any other suitably designed structure. If a
concrete cradle is used, the depth of concrete below the bottom of the pipes shall be
at least 1/4th the internal diameter of pipe with the range of 10-30 cm. It shall
extend upto the sides of the pipe atleast to a distance of 1/4th the diameter for larger
than 300mm.
The pipe shall be laid in the concrete bedding before the concrete has set.
Trenches shall be back filled immediately after the pipe has been laid to a
depth of 300mm above the pipe subject to the condition that the jointing material
has hardened (say 12 hours at the most). The backfill material shall be free from
boulders, roots of trees etc. The tamping shall be by hand or by other hand operated
mechanical means, the water content of the soil shall be as near the optimum
moisture content as possible. Filling of trench shall be carried on simultaneously on
both sides of the pipe to avoid development of unequal pressures. The back fill shall
be rammed in 150mm layers upto 900mm above the top of the pipe.
I. Bandage joint
For more details of jointing procedure, reference may be made to I.S. 783-
1985.
78
In all pressure pipelines, the recesses at the ends of the pipe shall be filled
with jute braiding dipped in hot bitumen. The quantity of jute and bitumen in the
ring shall be just sufficient to fill the recess in the pipe when pressed hard by
jacking or any other suitable method.
The number of pipes that shall be jacked together at a time depends upon the
diameter of the pipe and the bearing capacity of soil. For small pipe upto 250mm
diameter, six pipes can be jacked together at a time. Before and during jacking, care
should be taken to see that there is no offset at the joint. Loose collar shall be set
upto over the joint so as to have an even caulking space all round and into this
caulking space shall be rammed a 1:1.5 mixture of cement and sand just sufficiently
moistened to hold together in the form of a clod when compressed in the hand. The
caulking shall be so firm that it shall be difficult to drive the point of a penknife into
it. The caulking shall be employed at both the ends in a slope of 1:1. In the case of
non-pressure pipes the recess at the end of the pipes shall be filled with cement
mortar 1:2 instead of jute braiding soaked in bitumen. It shall be kept wet for 10
days for maturing.
5.2.7.1) General
While RCC pipes can cater to the needs where pressures are upto 6.0 kg/cm 2
and CI and steel pipes cater to the needs of higher pressures around 24 kg/cm 2, the
Prestressed Concrete (PSC) pipes cater to intermediate pressure range, while RCC
pipes would not be suitable.
The strength of a PSC pipe is achieved by helically binding high tensile steel
wire under tension around a concrete core thereby putting the core into
compression. When the pipe is pressurized the stresses induced relieve the
compressive stress but they are not sufficient to subject the core to tensile stresses.
The prestressing wire is protected against corrosion by a surround of cementatious
cover coat giving atleast 25mm thick cover.
79
The PSC pipes are suited for water supply mains where pressures in the
range of 6 kg/cm2 to 20 kg/cm2 are encountered.
(i) Cylinder type: Consists of a concrete lined steel cylinder with steel
joint rings welded to its ends wrapped with a helix of highly stressed
wire and coated with dense cement mortar or concrete.
(a) Steel Cylinder Prestressed Concrete Pipes are used in America and
Europe Confirming to AWWA C-301 and in Europe EN 642.
Prestressed Concrete Cylinder pipe has the following two general types
of construction: (1) a steel cylinder lined with a concrete core or (2) a
steel cylinder embedded in a concrete core. In either type of
construction, manufacturing begins with a full length welded steel
cylinder. Joint rings are attached to each end and the pipe is
hydrostatically tested to ensure water-tightness. A concrete core with a
minimum thickness of one-sixteenth time the pipe diameter is placed
either by the centrifugal process, radial compaction, or by vertical
casting. After the core is cured, the pipe is helically wrapped with high
strength, hard drawn wire using a stress of 75 percent of the minimum
specified tensile strength, hard drawn wire using a stress ranges
between 150,000 and 189,000 psi (1034 and 1303 Mpa) depending on
the wire size and class. The wire spacing is accurately controlled to
produce a predetermined residual compression in the concrete core.
The wire is embedded in thick cement slurry and coated with a dense
mortar that is rich in cement content.
80
The technology for manufacture of these pipes is now available with
some of the Indian manufactures.
Physical behavior of PSC pipes under internal and external load is superior
to RCC pipes. The PSC pipe wall is always in a state of compression which is the
most favorable factor for impermeability. These pipes can resist high external
loads. The protective cover of cement and mortar which covers the tensioned wire
wrapping by its ability to create and maintain alkaline environment around the
steel inhibits corrosion. PSC pipes are jointed with flexible rubber rings.
The deflection possible during laying of main is relatively small and the pipes
cannot be cut to size to close gaps in the pipeline. Special closure units (consisting of
a short double spigot piece and a plain ended concrete lined steel tube with a
follower ring assembled at each end) are manufactured for this purpose. The closure
unit (minimum length 1.27m) must be ordered specially to the exact length.
Specials such as bends, bevel pipes, flanged tees, tapers and adapters to
flange the couplings are generally fabricated as mild steel fittings lined and coated
with concrete.
81
5.2.7.3) Pressure Testing
Testing of PSC pipe is the same as given in the Para 5.2.2.10.2. However the
quantity of water added in order to re-establish the test pressure should not exceed
3 liters (instead of 0.1 liters ) per mm dia, per km per 24 hours per 30m head for
non-absorbent pipes as per the IS 783(Latest Version).
5.2.8.1) General
Bar Wrapped Steel Cylinder Concrete Pressure Pipes (confirming to AWWA
C 303 and EN 639 & EN 641) are reported to be manufactured in India. No Indian
Standard is presently available for these pipes. Bar Wrapped Steel Cylinder
Concrete Pressure Pipes are available in diameters of 250 mm to 1500 mm and
higher diameter pipes can be designed for working pressures upto 25 kgs per sq. cm.
Standard lengths are generally 5 to 6m. Longer length pipes can also be custom
made.
5.2.8.2) Manufacture
Manufacture of Bar Wrapped Steel Cylinder Concrete Pressure Pipes begins
with fabrication of a thin steel pipe cylinder. Thicker steel joint rings are welded at
both ends. Each pipe is hydrostatically tested. A cement mortar lining is placed by
centrifugal process inside the cylinder. The lining varies from 12 mm to 25 mm.
After the lining is cured by steam or water, mild steel rod is wrapped on the
cylinder using moderate tension in the bar. The wrapping is to be done under
controlled tension ensuring intimate contact with the cylinder. The cylinder and bar
wrapping are covered with a cement slurry and a dense mortar coating that is rich
in cement. The coating is cured by steam or water.
5.2.8.3) Joints
The standard joint consists of steel joint rings and a continuous solid rubber
rings gasket. The field joint can be over lapping/sliding, butt welded or with
confined rubber ring as per the clients requirement. In the case of welded & rubber
joints, the exterior joint recess is normally grouted and the internal joint space may
or may not be pointed with mortar. The AWWA C-303 provides for use of
elastomeric sealing ring (rubber joint), and EN 641 provides both elastomeric
sealing ring and steel end rings welded together on site. At present the pipes
available in India use steel end rings welded at site.
82
5.2.9.1) General
The chief advantages of PVC pipes are
Resistance to corrosion
Light weight
Toughness
Rigidity
Ease of fabrication
The PVC pipes are much lighter than conventional pipe materials. Because of
their lightweight, PVC pipes are easy to handle, transport, and install. Solvent
cementing technique for jointing PVC pipe lengths is cheaper, more efficient and far
simpler. PVC pipes do not become petted or tuberculated and are unaffected by
fungi and bacteria and are resistant to a wide range of chemicals. They are immune
to galvanic and electrolytic attack, a problem frequently encountered in metal pipes,
especially when buried in corrosive soils or near brackish waters. PVC pipes have
elastic properties and their resistance to deformation resulting from earth
movements is superior compared to conventional pipe materials specially AC.
Thermal conductivity of PVC is very low compared to metal. Consequently water
transported in these pipes remains at a more uniform temperature.
Rigid PVC pipes weight only 1/5th of conventional steel pipes of comparable
size. PVC pipes are available in sizes of outer dia, 20, 25, 32, 50, 63, 75, 90, 110,
140, 160, 250, 290, and 315 mm at working pressures of 2,5,4,6,10 Kg/cm 2 as per IS
4985 1988.
83
5.2.9.2) Laying and Jointing Procedure
The trench bottom should be carefully examined for the presence of hard
objects such as flints, rock, projection or tree roots. In uniform, relatively soft fine
grained soils found to be free of such objects and where the trench bottom can
readily be brought to an even finish providing a uniform support for the pipes over
their length, the pipes may normally be laid directly on the trench bottom. In other
cases, the trench should be cut correspondingly deeper and the pipes laid on
prepared under bedding, which may be drawn from the excavated material if
suitable.
If trucks, lorries, or other heavy traffic will pass across the pipeline, concrete
tiles 600 x 600 mm of suitable thickness and reinforcement should be laid about 2m
above the pipe to distribute the load. If the pipeline crosses a river, the pipe should
be buried at least 2m below bed level to protect the pipe.
For bending, the cleaned pipe is filled with sand and compacted by tapping
with wooden stick and pipe ends plugged. The pipe section is heated with flame and
the portion bent as required. The bend is then cooled with water, the plug removed,
the sand poured out and the pipe (bend) cooled again. Heating in hot air over hot oil
bath, hot gas or other heating devices are also practiced. Joints may be heat welded,
or flamed or with rubber gaskets or made with solvent cement. Threaded joints are
also feasible but are not recommended Jointing of PVC pipes can be made in
following ways:
a) Solvent cement
84
b) Rubber ring join
c) Flanged joint
d) Threaded joint
For further details on laying & jointing of PVC pipes, reference can be made
to IS 4985 1988, IS 7634 Part 1-3.
Socket and spigot joint is usually preferred for all PVC pipes upto 150 mm in
dia. The socket length should at least be one and half times the outer dia for sizes
upto 100 mm dia and equal to the outer dia for larger sizes.
For pipe installation, solvent gluing is preferable to welding. The glued spigot
socket connection has greater strength than can ever be achieved by welding. The
surfaces to be glued are thoroughly scoured with dry cloth and preferably chamfered
to 300. If the pipes have become heavily contaminated by grease or oil, methylene
cement is applied with a brush evenly to the outside surface of the spigot on one
pipe and to the inserted immediately in the socket upto the shoulder and thereafter
a quarter (900) turn is given to evenly distribute the cement over the treated
surface. The excess cement which is pushed out of the socket must be removed at
once with a clean cloth. Jointing must be carried out in minimum possible time,
time of making complete joint not being more than one minute. Joints should not be
disturbed for at least 5 minutes. Half strength is attained in 30 minutes and full in
24 hours. Gluing should be avoided in rainy or foggy weather, as the color of glue
will turn cloudy and milky as a result of water contamination.
85
glued spigot and socket joint. Before installation, the condition of the threads should
be carefully examined for cracks and impurities.
Glue can be used for making joints leak proof. Yam and other material
generally used with metal pipe and fittings should not be used. Generally, it is
advisable to use PVC as the spigot portion of the joint.
After the specified test time has elapsed, usually one hour, a measured
quantity of water is pumped into the line to bring it to the original test pressure, if
there has been loss of pressure during the test. The pipe shall be judged to have
passed the test satisfactorily if the quantity of water required to restore the test
pressure of 30m for 24 hours does not exceed 1.5 liters per 10 mm of nominal bore
for a length of 1 Km.
Rigid PVC and high density polyethylene pipes have been used for water
distribution systems mostly ranging from 15-150 mm dia and occasionally upto 350
mm.
86
HDPE pipes can be jointed by welding, for further details of PVC and HDPE pipes
refer to: IS 7834 1975 Parts 1-8, IS 8008 1976 Parts 1-7, IS 7634 1975 Parts 1-
3, IS 3076 1985, and IS 4984 1987.
MDPE compression fittings made of PP, AABS, and UPVC are also available
in India for use with MDPE pipes. The material used for the fittings are also
suitable for conveying potable water like MDPE pipes. The jointing materials of
fitting consists of thermoplastic resins of Polyethylene type, NBR O ring of Nitrile
and clamp of Polypropylene, copolymer body, Zinc plated steel reinforcing ring, nuts
and balls of special NBR gasket.
The MDPE pipes are lightweight, robust and non-corrodible. Since the pipes
are supplied in coils, there will be no joints under the roads and bends are avoided
resulting in fast, simple and efficient jointing.
Glass fibres Reinforced Plastic (GRP) Pipes are now being manufactured in
India conforming to IS 12709. The diameter range is from 350 mm to 2400mm. The
pressure class is 3,6,9,12 & 15 kgs/sq. cm. The field test pressure are 4.5, 9, 13.5, 18,
22.5 kgs/sq cm. The factory test pressures are 6, 12, 18, 24 & 30 kgs/sq cm.
Depending on the type of installation, overburden above the crown of the pipe and
the soil conditions, four types of stiffness class pipes are available. Standard lengths
87
are 6 & 12 metres, however custom made lengths can also be made. The specials are
made out of the same pipe material i.e. Glass fibre Reinforced Plastic (GRP).
The pipes are jointed as per the techniques: Double bell coupling (GRP) for
GRP to GRP; Flange Joint (GRP) for FRP to valves, CI pipes or flanged pipes.
Mechanical Coupling (Steel) for GRP to GRP / steel pipe and Butt - strap
joint (GRP) for GRP to GRP.
GRP pipes are corrosion resistant, have smooth surface and high strength to
weight ratio. It is lighter in weight compared to metallic and concrete pipes. Longer
lengths and hence minimum joints enable faster installation.
G.R.P. pipes are widely used in other countries where corrosion resistant
pipes are required at reasonable costs. GRP can be used as a lining material for
conventional pipes, which are subject to corrosion. These pipes can resist external
and internal corrosion whether the corrosion mechanism is galvanic or chemical in
nature.
II. Lubricate the rubber gasket with the vegetable oil based soap which is
supplied along with the pipes and inserted in the grooves.
III. With uniform pressure,. Push each loop of the rubber gasket into the
gasket groove. Apply a thin film of lubricant over the gaskets.
IV. Apply a thin film of lubricant to the pipe from the end of the pipe to the
back positioning stripe.
88
V. Lift manually or mechanically the double bell coupling and align with
the pipe section.
VI. Push the coupling onto the pipe by using levers. For large dia pipe, the
coupling may be pushed mechanically with even force on the coupling
ring.
VII. Apply a thin film of lubricant over the pipe to be pushed into the
coupling just assembled until the stripes on the pipe are aligned
between the edge of the coupling.
Thus pipes are coupled together and the rubber gasket acts as a seal making
the joint leak-proof. Joint types are normally adhesive bonded, however reinforced
overlay and mechanical types such as flanged, threaded, compressed couplings or
commercial/proprietary joints are available.
External loads generally arise from the weight to the pipe and its contents
and that of the trench filling from superimposed loads, including impact from
traffic, from subsidence and from wind loads in the case of pipes laid above ground.
If a pipe is laid on good and uniform continuous bed and the cover does not greatly
exceed the normal, no special strengthening to resist external loading is generally
necessary. Loading likely to arise from subsidence is best dealt with by the use of
flexible joints and steel pipes. External loading becomes important usually when a
line is laid on a foundation providing uneven support (e.g. across a sever, trench or
in rock under deep cover) or is subjected to heavy superimposed surface loads at less
89
than normal cover. The necessity of stronger pipes can often be avoided by careful
bedding and trench filling to give additional support. The importance of good
bedding under and around the pipe upto at least the horizontal diameter cannot be
overemphasized and in some cases concreting may be required.
Excessive distortion of a steel pipe may cause failure of its protective coating
but can be limited by the use of strengthening rings. This problem is only likely to
arise in very large mains. Distortions at flexible joints can cause leakage.
When a pipeline has to be laid above ground over some obstruction, such as
waterway or railway, it may either be carried on a pipe-bridge or be supported on
pillars. In the latter case, the pipe ends must be properly designed to resists shear,
if the full strength of the pipe as a beam is to be realized. A small diameter pipe is
usually thick enough to span short lengths with its ends simply supported, but as
diameter and lengths of span increase, the problem becomes more complex and the
ends must be supported in saddles or restrained by ring girder. For pipes of more
than 900 mm in dia the ring girder method will probably provide the most
economical design.
a) Internal pressure equal to the full head of water to which the conduit
can be subjected (see.)
90
b) Unbalanced pressures at bends, contractions, and closures
d) External loads in the form of backfill, traffic, and their own weight
between external supports (piers or hangers). A reference may be made
to the Manual on Sewerage an Sewage Treatment.
91
capacity is a direct function of the hydraulic radius, full circles or half circles posses
the highest hydraulic capacity, by virtue of their largest hydraulic radius or
smallest frictional surface for a given area. Hence circular cross sections are
preferred for closed conduits and the semicircular ones for open conduits whenever
structural conditions permit. The cross sections preferred next are those in which
circles or semicircles can be inscribed. The following cross sections are generally
used:
(b) Rectangles with widths equal to twice the depths for canal in rock and
flumes of masonry or wood,
Pressure surges may be high and can result in significant damage to piping,
pumps and other components of the irrigation system. Designers should be aware
that water hammer effects are always possible and must consider possible effects on
the design loads for the system.
92
Water velocity contributes significantly to the effects of water hammer.
Lower velocities limit the adverse effects of water hammer.
A water hammer analysis may be necessary and mitigation measures specified to
lessen the risk of damage. Such analysis is complex and specialized engineering
services may be required to analyze the proposed mainline design.
5.3.1) Occurrence
If the velocity of water flowing in a pipe is suddenly diminished, the energy given
up by the water will be divided between compressing the water itself, stretching the
pipe walls and frictional resistance to wave propagation. This pressure rise or water
hammer is manifest as a series of shocks, sounding like hammer blows, which may
have sufficient magnitude to rupture the pipe or damage connected equipment.
It may be caused by nearly instantaneous or too rapid closing of a valve in the line,
or by an equivalent stoppage of flow such as would take lace with the sudden failure
of electricity supply to a motor driven pump. The shock pressure is not concentrated
to the valve and if rupture occurs, it may take place near the valve simply because
it acts there first. The pressure wave due to water hammer ravels back upstream to
the inlet end of the pipe, getting weaker on each successive reversal. The velocity of
the wave is that of acoustic wave in an elastic medium, the elasticity of the medium
in this case being a compromise between that of liquid and the pipe. The excess
pressure due to water hammer is additive to the normal hydrostatic pressure in the
pipe and depends on the elastic properties of the liquid and pipe and on the
magnitude and rapidity of change in velocity. Complete stoppage of flow is not
necessary to produce water hammer, as any sudden changes in velocity will create it
to a greater or lesser degree depending on the conditions mentioned above.
93
Fig 5.1.Thrust at a bend & Thrust block
(Ref: CPHEEO Manual on water supply and treatment)
5.3.2) Computations
Maximum Water Hammer Pressure (which occur at the critical time of closure or
any time less than ) is given as below
Where,
1425
=
1 +
1
94
Where,
= diameter of pipe in m
Material E (kg/m2)
Polyethylene - Soft 1.2 107
Polyethylene- Hard 9 107
PVC 3 108
Concrete 2.8 109
Asbestos Cement 3 109
Reinforced Cement Concrete 3.1 109
Prestressed Concrete 3.5 109
Cast Iron 7.5 109
Ductile Iron 1.7 1010
Wrought Iron 1.8 1010
Steel 2.1 1010
Table 5.9 modulus of elasticity of different pipe material
(Ref: CPHEEO Manual on water supply and treatment)
b) If the sum exceeds 1.1 times the internal design pressure, then protective
devices should be installed and
95
c) In no case the sum of the maximum operating pressure and the calculated
surge pressure should exceed the field hydrostatic test pressure
Depending upon the layout of the plant, the profile and the length of the pipeline,
surging in pipelines can be counteracted in two fundamentally different ways
Since the maximum water hammer pressure in meters is about 125 times the
velocity of flow in m/s and the time of closure of gate valves varies inversely with
the size of the main, water hammer is held within bounds in small pipelines by
operating them at moderate velocities of 1 to 2 m/s. In large mains, the pressure is
held down by changing velocities at sufficiently slow rate so that the relief valve
returns to position of control before excessive pressures are reached. If this is not
practicable, pressure relief or surge valves are used. For mains larger than 1.75 m,
which operate economically at relatively high velocities of 2 to 3 m/s and cannot be
designed to withstand water hammer without prohibitive cost, the energy is
dissipated slowly by employing surge tanks. In its simplest form, a surge tank is a
stand pipe placed at the end of the line next to the point of velocity control. If this
control is a gate, the surge tank accepts water and builds up backpressure when
velocities are regulated downward. When the demand on the line increases, the
surge tank affords an intermediate supply of water and, in so doing, generates the
excess hydraulic gradient needed to accelerate the flow through the conduit
following a change in the discharge rate. The water tank oscillates slowly till the
excess energy is dissipated by hydraulic friction through the system.
The summary of the method of the water hammer protection are provided in the
table 5.10.
96
97
Table 5.10.Summary of the methods of water hammer protection
(Ref: CPHEEO Manual on water supply and treatment)
5.4) Appurtences
To isolate and drain pipe sections for test, installation, cleaning and repairs, a
number of appurtenances or auxiliaries are generally installed in the line.
Normally valves are sized slightly smaller than the pipe diameter and
installed with a reducer on either side. In choosing the size; the cost of the valve
should be weighed against the cost of head loss through it, although in certain
circumstances it may be desirable to maintain the full pipe bore (to prevent erosion
or blockage).
98
spindle which is attached to the gate and does not rotate with the hand wheel, and a
non rising spindle which is rotated in a screwed attachment in the gate. The rising
spindle is easy to lubricate.
The gate may be parallel sided or wedge shaped. The wedge gate seals best,
but may be damaged by grit. For low pressure, resilient or gunmetal scaling faces
may be used. For high pressure, stainless steel seal are preferred.
Sluice valves are not intended to be used for continuous throttling, as erosion
of the seats and body cavitations may occur. If small flows are required the bypass,
valve is more suitable for this duty.
Despite sluice valves simplicity and positive action, they are sometimes
troublesome to operate. They need a big force to unseat them against high
unbalanced pressure and large valves take many minutes to turn open or closed, for
which power operated or manual operated actuators are also used. Some of these
problems can be overcome by installing a valve with a smaller bore then the pipeline
diameter.
In special situations variations of sluice valves suited to the need are used,
needle valves are preferred for fine control of flow, butterfly valves for ease of
operation and cone valves for regulating the time of closure and controlling water
hammer.
These would involve slightly higher head loss than sluice valves and also are
not suitable for continuous throttling. The sealing is sometimes not as effective as
for sluice valves especially at high pressures. They also offer a fairly high resistance
to flow even in fully open state, because the thickness of the disc obstructs the flow
even when it is rotated to fully open position. Butterfly valves as well as sluice
valves are not suited for operation in partly open positions as gates and seatings
would erode rapidly. Both types require high torques to open them against high
pressure, they often have geared hand wheels or power driven actuators.
99
Butterfly Valves with loose sealing ring are sometimes not effective,
especially at higher pressures. Butterfly valves with fixed liner can overcome this
shortcoming, further the butterfly valves with fixed liner need no frequent
maintenance for replacement of scaling ring as in the case of butterfly valves with
loose scaling ring. The fixed liner design butterfly valves are now available in India
suitable for working pressures up to 16 kgs /sq cm. Presently there is no Indian
Standard for the fixed Butterfly valves.
The needle and cone valves are not commonly used in water supply but are
occasionally used as water hammer release valves when coupled to an electric or
hydraulic actuator.
100
will usually be a low point in the line, but if the main goes under the stream or
drain, it cannot be completely drained into the channel. In such a situation it is
butter to locate a scour connection at the lowest point that will drain by gravity and
provide for pumping out the part below the drain pipeline.
The size depends on local circumstances especially upon the time in which a
given section of line is designed to be emptied and upon the resulting velocity of
flow. Calculations are based upon orifice under a falling head, equal to the
difference in elevation of the water surface in the conduit and the blow off less the
friction head. Frequency of operation depends upon the quality of the water carried,
especially on silt loads.
Without air valves, vacuum may occur at peaks and the pipe could collapse or
it may not be possible to drain the pipeline completely.
Air valves require care in selection and even more care in siting and it is good
practice to plan the pipeline alignment to avoid air troubles altogether. A special
study of the possible air problems is necessary at the design stage itself and
provision should be made for suitable corrective measures rather than positioning
arbitrary air valves at pipeline peaks.
101
The valve usually takes the form of a rigid buoyant vulcanite or rubber-
covered ball seated on a rubber or metal ring. The sealing element i.e., the ball is
slated against an opening at the top of the valve when the pipe is full and seals the
opening. When the pressure inside the pipe falls below external pressure, the ball
drops there by permitting air to be drawn into the pipe. The valves are mainly
available in two forms, either single-ball. The single ball type can have either a
large orifice or a small orifice, the former being only suitable for emptying and
valves are available which can be classified as dual purpose with a large orifice and
small orifice in unit, with a common connection to the main. For large aqueduct
pipelines, a triple orifice air valve is available with two large orifices and one small.
For high pressures, stainless steel floats are used instead of the vulcanite-covered
balls.
Special designs of air valves are also available which operate satisfactorily
with high-velocity air discharges. If normal air valves are used under these
conditions, there is a danger that the ball might be carried on to its seat by the air
stream before the accumulated air has been fully released.
Air valves can be provided with an integral stop valve or alternatively and
preferably, a standard sluice valve can be bolted to the inlet flange, which must be
of adequate size for its duty. Regular maintenance checks on at least an annual
basis should be carried out to ensure that the balls are free to move and that the
seats do not leak. If an air valve is isolated for any reason in very cold weather, the
body should be drained to prevent frost damage; a plug, cock can be fitted at the
base of the body for this purpose. Trapped chamber drainage is essential to prevent
any possibility of stagnant or polluted water or air entering the pipeline.
The following ratios of air valves to conduit diameter provide common but
rough estimates of needed sizes:
102
An analysis of air-inlet valves for steel pipelines, Parmakian takes the
compressibility of air into account and combines equations for safe differential
pressures of cylindrical steel pipe, pipe flow, and air flow, in the following
approximate relationships:
= 1.99 102 1 2 0.288 0.25
1
For P2 0.53 P1, because air flow cannot increase beyond a critical differential
of 0.488 Kg/cm2 .
In these equations,
103
recommended. At all times the designer must follow the manufacturers
recommendation regarding sizing / installation of valves.
Air Release valves are designed specifically to vent, automatically and when
necessary, air accumulations from lines in which water is flowing. Such
accumulations of air tend to collect at high points in the pipeline. Air which
accumulates at such peaks, reduces the useful cross sectional area of the pipe, and
there induces a friction head factor that lowers the pumping capacity of the entire
line. The use of air release valves eliminates the possibility of this air binding and
permits the flow of water without damage to pipeline.
Small orifice air valves are designated by their inlet connection size, usually
12 to 50m diameter. This has nothing to do with the air release orifice size which
may be from 1 to 10mm diameter. The larger the pressure in the pipeline, the
smaller need be the orifice size. The volume of air to be released will be a function of
the air entrained which is on the average 2% of the volume of water (at atmospheric
pressure).
The small orifice release valves are sealed by a floating ball, or needle which
is attached to a flat. When a certain amount of air has accumulated in the
connection on top of the pipe, the ball will drop or the needle valve will open and
release the air. Small orifice release valves are often combined with large orifice air
vent valves on a common connection on top of the pipe. The arrangement is called a
double air valve. An isolating sluice valve is normally fitted between the pipe and
the air valves.
Double air valves should be installed at peaks in the pipeline, both with
respect to the horizontal and the maximum hydraulic gradient. They should also be
installed at the ends and intermediate points along a length of pipeline which is
parallel to the hydraulic grade line. It should be borne in mind that air may be
dragged along in the direction of flow in the pipeline and may even accumulate in
sections falling slowly in relation to the hydraulic gradient. Double air valves should
be fitted every 1/2 to 1 KM along descending sections, especially at points where the
pipe dips steeply.
Air release valves should also be installed all along ascending lengths of
pipeline where air is likely to be released from solution due to the lowering of the
pressure, again especially at points of decrease in gradient. Other places where air
valves are required are on the discharge side of pumps and at high points on large
mains and upstream of orifice plates and reducing tapers.
104
Air- Relief towers are provided at the first summit of the line to remove air
that is mechanically entrained as water is drawn into the entrance of the pipeline.
These valves, normally held shut by water pressure, automatically open when
this pressure is reduced to slightly below atmosphere, permitting large quantities of
air to enter the pipe, thus effectively preventing the formation of any vaccum. In
addition to offering positive protection against extensive damage to large pipelines,
by prevention of vacuum, they also facilitate the initial filling of the line by the
expulsion of air wherever the valves are installed.
Air inlet valves should be installed at peaks in the pipeline, both relative to
the horizontal and relative to the hydraulic gradient. Various possible hydraulic
gradients, including reverse gradients scouring, should be considered. They are
normally fitted in combination with an air release valve.
Often air release valves are used in conjunction with them, the purpose of the
being to vent air accumulations that may occur at the peaks after the line has been
put into operation.
(a) Once the ball goes up, it does not come down even when air accumulates
in the ball chamber and
(b) due to air rushing in, it stirs the ball making it stick to the upper opening
which does not fall down unless the pressure in the main drops.
The Kinetic air valve, overcomes these deficiencies since the air or water
enters from the bottom side of the ball and the air rushing around ball exerts the
105
pressure and loosens the contact with the top opening and allows the ball to drop
down.
These, also called as over-flow towers, are provided in one or more summits of
the conveyance main to keep the pressure in the line below given value by causing
water to flow to waste when the pressure builds up beyond the design valve. Usually
they are spring or weight loaded and is not sufficiently responsive to rapid
fluctuations of pressure to be used as surge protection devices.
106
seriously limited. On the other hand, pipelines larger than necessary add to the cost
of system and may cause uneven flow. Control stands must be high enough to allow
sufficient operating head for the pipe lines. Stands higher than necessary may
permit high heads of water to build up, leading to excessive line pressure.
The permissible velocities in the pipes should be ideally between 0.6 m/sec
and 2.0 m/sec. For gravity lines, under no circumstances the velocities should be
less than 0.6 m/sec.
While deciding pressure class of the pipe, safety factor of 25% should be
sufficient. That means, 4.0 kg/cm2 pipes should be designed only up to 3.0 kg/cm2
pressure considering water hammer and other factors.
The Main Pipeline is provided with branch outlets along its length so as to
feed the distribution system of each chak. For controlling the flow of water, sluice
valves or Tee Valves are provided. Similarly, along the main pipe itself sluice
valves/Tee Valves are required to be provided at suitable distances (1 km to 1.5 km)
to stop the flow in case of emergency. A sluice valve commonly used on water supply
lines is standardized (IS:780 & IS:2906 of 1984) for operating at comparatively high
pressures (10 kg/cm2) . Hence, the use of such sluice valves for regulatory purpose
(in fully closed or fully open position) on pipelines where the operating pressures
are low, be, comes expensive. Excepting at critical points such as the starting point
107
of main pipe line and branches, the sluice valve has been replaced by fabricated MS
Tee valves which are simple to manufacture and cost about one third of the cost of
the sluice valve.
108
Chapter-6 PUMPING STATIONS
6.1) Requirements
109
In case of pressurized irrigation system, pumping machinery serves the following
purposes:
a) To transport water from low to high elevated area for distribution purposes.
While deciding the type of pump for the specific requirements, it is necessary to
analysis different type of pumps and their suitability to meet the requirements.
a) Nature of liquid
b) Type of duty required i.e. whether continuous, intermittent or cyclic
c) Present and projected demand and pattern of change in demand
d) The details of head and flow rate required
e) Type and duration of the availability of the power supply
f) Selecting the operating speed of the pump and suitable drive/ driving gear.
g) The efficiency of the pump/s and consequent influence on power consumption
and the running coats.
h) Various option possible by permuting the parameter of the pumping system,
including the capacity and number of pumps including standbys, combining
them in series or in parallel,
i) Options of deferent modes of installation their influence on the costs on the
civil structural construction, on the case of operation and maintenance and
on the overall economics.
6.2.2) Consideration of the parameters of head, discharge and speed in the selection
of a pump
This parameters are combined together in the term specific speed of a pump
which is calculate by the following formula
3.65 0.5
=
0.75
Where,
= Specific speed
110
= The rate of flow in cubic meters per second
(a) Positive displacement pumps are prominently used when high pressure high
heads are to be developed or for metering / dosing duties as also handling
sludge.
(b) Centrifugal pumps are made with specific speeds above 36. Fig.6.1 illustrates
the relationships amongst the pump efficiency, the shape of the impeller and
the nature of the curves of Head (H) versus Discharge (Q), Power versus Q
and Efficiency versus Q as influenced by the specific speed of the pump. The
figure also helps in obtaining estimates of pump efficiency, which are useful
in planning 3 pumping plant.
(c) For high discharges, by which specific speed becomes high the corresponding.
Net Positive suction Head required also becomes high, it can be arranged
that the discharge be shared by two impellers or by two side of an impeller as
in a double suction pump. While estimating the attainable efficiency for such
pumps, only half of the total Q should be considered.
(d) Similarly, for high head, by which the specific speed becomes low, and hence
the attainable efficiency becomes low, it can be arranged that the head be
distributed amongst a number of impellers as in multi stage pumps, thus
improving the specific speed of each stage and consequently attainable
efficiency.
111
Fig.6.1.Speed and Efficiency Characteristics
(Ref: CPHEEO Manual on water supply and treatment)
112
6.2.3) CONSIDERATION OF THE SUCTION LIFT CAPACITY IN PUMP
SELECTION
Celsius (mWC)
0 0.054
5 0.092
10 0.125
15 0.177
20 0.238
25 0.329
30 0.427
35 0.579
40 0.762
45 1.006
50 1.281
114
cavitation erosion or due to the vibration and noise associated with the collapsing of
the vapour bubbles.
To insure against cavitation, the pumping system has to be devised that the
water at the pump suction will have adequate energy. Providing for this is called as
providing adequate Net positive suction head available (NPSHa). The formula for
NPSHa hence becomes as follows.
115
Table 6.2.Atmosheric Pressure in mWC at different Altitudes above MSL
(Ref: CPHEEO Manual on water supply and treatment)
A Pump or a set of pimps has to satisfy the needs of the pumping system.
Hence one has to first evaluate the head needed to be developed by the pump for
delivering different values of flow rate. A plot of these values is called as the
system Head Curve.
116
Fig.6.3. System Head Curve
(Ref: CPHEEO Manual on water supply and treatment)
Each point on the system Head Curve denotes the head comprised of the following.
117
Static Head
This is the difference between the level of the liquid suction sump and the
level of highest point of the delivery piping, obviously the static head is more at the
low water level (LWL) and less at high water level (SWL)
Friction Head
This is sum of the head losses in the entire length of the piping, from the foot
valve to the final point of delivery piping, also the losses in all the valve i.e. the foot
valve, the none return (reflex) valve and the isolating (Generally, Sluice or
Butterfly) valve, and the losses in all pipe fittings such a bends tees, elbows,
reducers, etc. The friction head varies particularly with the rate of flow.
Velocity Head
At the final point of delivery, the kinetic energy is lost to the atmosphere. To
recover part of the loss, a well mouth is often provided at the final point of delivery.
The kinetic energy at the final point of delivery has also to be a part of the velocity
head.Figs.6.3 (a, b & c) show typical system head curves. As shown in Fig.6.2(b) the
system head curves for HWL and LWL are parallel to each other.
The system head curve will change by any changes made in the system, such
as change in the length or size of the pipings, change in size and/ or number of
pipes fitting, changes in the size, number and type of valve by operating the valve
semi open or fully open. These changes can cause the system head curve to be
steep or flat as shown in fig 6.22(c).
118
Suction-capacity to Head range Discharge range
lift
Pump type
Low Medium High Low Medium High Low Medium High
3.5m 6m 8.5m upto 10-40m Above upto upto Above
10m 40m 30 500 L/s 500
L/s L/s
Centrifugal
Horizontal Ok Ok Ok Ok Ok No Ok Ok No
End-suction
Centrifugal
Horizontal
Ok No No Ok Ok No No Ok Ok
Axial split
casing
Centrifugal
Horizontal Ok Ok No No Ok Ok Ok Ok No
multistage
Jet - When limitations of
Centrifugal Suction lift are to be Ok Ok No Ok No No
combinations overcome
Centrifugal
When suction lift is to
Vertical Ok Ok Ok Ok Ok Ok
be avoided
turbine
Centrifugal
When suction lift is to
Vertical Ok Ok Ok Ok Ok Ok
be avoided
submersible
Positive Normally self Limited only by the Ok Ok NO
displacement priming pressure which casing Easy adaptation for
pumps can withstand dosing or metering
119
6.2.7) Defining the Operating Point or the Operating Range of the Pump
a) If the level of water in the suction sump would deplete during pumping from
HWL to LWL, the operating point of the pump would vary from a low head-
high discharge point in a high head low discharge point see fig. 6.4(B)
Similarly, a pumping system can be devised with flat or steep system head
curve. Alternatively, throttling the delivery valve would shift the system
head curve from flat to steep.
c) The most average water level in the suction sump and the most average
system head curve would define the operating point of the pump. For such
operating point of the pump, the pump should have its point of maximum
efficiency at or nearest to it. To provide for marginal changes in the operating
point e.g. between HWL and LWL the nature of the efficiency characteristics
of the pump should be as flat as possible in the vicinity of the point of its best
efficiency, often called as the BFP.
When specifying the operating point of the pump, margins and safety factors,
especially in specifying head should be avoided. On providing margins and safety
factors, the rated head for the pump would work out high.In actual running the
pump would work at a head less than the rated head and yield high discharge.
120
By working at high discharge, the NPSHr demanded by the pump would be
higher. If NPSHa is not adequate for this higher NPSHr, the pump may
cavitate.
Due to the high discharge included, the pump may vibrate. Sometimes, this
may result in serious damage to the shaft and bearings.
121
Fig.6.4 (B).Change in operating point of pump with change in water level in suction
sump (Ref: CPHEEO Manual on water supply and treatment)
122
Fig.6.4(C).Change in operating point of pump by operation of delivery valve (Ref:
CPHEEO Manual on water supply and treatment)
c. VT Pumps 80%
In absence of electrical power, if the project can be designed with Solar Pumping
Systems. Such projects MUST be designed with operating hours of 7-8 per day only.
All necessary pre-requisites such as shadow free land availability for panels etc to
be ensured before submitting such proposals. While designing the project, it must
be ensured that pumping requirements are kept minimal and therefore energy
requirements are also minimum.
123
Chapter 6 Delivery system
Once the water is being transported to delivery system, from there it could be
transferred to field via micro irrigation system. Delivery system could be of any
types like outlet, service reservoir, RCC/Steel tank etc.
The whole delivery system shall be automated by using SCADA system which
ensures the supply all the time.
Considering the size of the project and requirements of the project, this will
have to be provided suitably. There should be a provision of level control, flow
control and pressure control. It will be automation for irrigation system and SCADA
control for Pump Station. Because of automation and SCADA control mechanism,
one is able to see how much water has been applied for a crop and how much water
is wasted. Provision of solenoid valves, controllers and Remote Terminal Units
should be made in the network order to automate and decide proper irrigation
scheduling.
124
CHAPTER - 7 CONCLUSIONS
1) Considering the scarcity of water, it is recommended that irrigation in command
shall be popularized through pipeline distribution system.
2) Local pipe fabrication industries should be encouraged and given incentives and
avoid excessive transportation cost of pipe. Concession in various excise duties
should be given to keep less manufacturing cost of pipe.
3) Large scale pipe manufacturing industries should be established.
4) The Planning for deriving maximum benefits from pipeline distribution system
should be effectively implemented.
5) Farmer is the primary beneficiary of the system. His involvement should be
given prime importance for maximization of production.
6) For accurate climatological data, climatological stations should be installed in
the command.
7) For perishable agriculture products, market facilities shall be made available.
8) In case of major and medium projects, instead of the minors and field channels,
low pressure pipeline system for irrigation should be adopted. In case of minor
irrigation project, entire distribution system may be of pipeline.
9) There is substantial water saving over conventional open channel system.
10) The pipe line distribution system should be preferred where land cost is
comparatively high and farmers are reluctant for sparing the valuable land.
11) For judicious use of water the modern techniques namely sprinkler and drip
irrigation can be enlarged. The pipe line distribution system would be more
suitable implementation of advance techniques.
12) Canal falls and steep gradients are most favourable for introduction pipe line
distribution system.
13) Operation and Maintenance Cost is minimum compared to conventional
irrigation.
14) Advanced material like PVC - RIBLOCK, Fibre Glass-RP is more suitable
because of low cost, light in handling and smooth finishing and easy repair
facility.
125
PRESSURIED PIPE IRRIGATION SYSTEM -PROJECTS
DETAIL SUMMARY (ACROSS INDIA)
Concept: Under this project Water is proposed to lift from River Beas and will
provide the irrigation facility to 14 No. panchayats with 2980ha area. Desilting tank
is proposed at intake. Water is lifted from the river and proposed to deliver in the
Main Delivery Tank (MDT). Further water is conveyed from these MDTs to
Chak/Outlets through HDPE pipe distribution network as per water requirement.
Outlet to each 1 to 1.5ha area is proposed to irrigate. The HDPE pipe distribution
network is proposed as to maintain sufficient residual head to operate the Sprinkler
System. To enhance the intensity of irrigation and proper water management in the
fields on each outlet HDPE pipe with detachable joints are proposed @90mtr per ha.
General Information:
Proposed Components:
1. Intake structure (2 Nos)
2. Pump House cum Chowkidar Quarter (4 Nos)
3. Desilting Tank ( 2 Nos)
4. Main Collection Tanks/Zonal Tanks (22 Nos)
5. Thrust Blocks (392 Nos)
6. RCC Bridge 15 Mtr Span
126
7. HDPE Pipe Distribution system (550Km)
8. Outlet RCC Pipe Chamber (2235Nos)
Concept: Under this project Water is proposed to lift from delivery chamber
provided under Marol Lift Irrigation scheme. Main water source is Narayanpur
reservoir backwater. At this delivery chamber sump and centralised pump house is
proposed from where water is lifted through HDPE/PVC pipe distribution network
and proposed to provide irrigation Facility to 12300ha area by drip irrigation
system as on farm system. Centralised self-cleaning filtration units are proposed at
pump house. Secondary automated filtration units are proposed at each approx.
100ha block level. Automated irrigation control is proposed at each farmer level
through wireless automation system. Fertigation equipment is provided at farmer
level for the drip system.
General Information:
Proposed Components:
1. Pumping Units with SCADA to pumping machinery (12 No of Pumps)
2. Centralised self-cleaning filtration units at pumping unit.
3. HDPE/PVC Pipe Distribution Network from centralised pumping unit to
Block level (Approx. 100ha area of each block) (Total 129.54Km)
4. Secondary filtration units at each block level.
127
5. Secondary PVC Pipe Distribution network from block level to each farmer
level ( Total 1980Km)
6. Drip Irrigation System (12300ha area)
7. Wireless automation system with SCADA to Drip Irrigation System.
8. Formation of 28 Water User Associations
9. Training to the farmers/WUAs and the Dept. officials.
10. Operation and Maintenance of the project for 5 years.
Concept: Under this project water is proposed to lift from Hingangaon Talav which
is feeded by Tembhu Lift Irrigation scheme. Water from Hingangaon talav is lifted
by 4.16km 900mm HDPE rising main and delivered into Main Delivery Chamber of
2000cum capacity. Secondary pumping and Centralised Self-cleaning filtration unit
is proposed at MDC. From secondary pumping unit Primary HDPE/PVC pipe
distribution network is proposed to the block level. (Block of approx. 40-45 acre
area). From Block level secondary PVC piping network is provided up to the farm
level. Sectional (each section is of approx. 4 acre area) automated operated drip
system is provided at farm level and total area of 2009acre is covered under
irrigation.
General Information:
Proposed Components:
128
1. Centralised self-cleaning filtration units at pumping unit.
2. HDPE/PVC Pipe Distribution Network from centralised pumping unit to
Block level (Approx. 40-45 acre area of each block)
3. Secondary PVC Pipe Distribution network from block level to each farmer
level
4. Drip Irrigation System (2009 Acre area)
5. Wireless automation system with SCADA to Drip Irrigation System.
6. Training to the farmers/WUAs
Concept
Kandi CMI project (Community Micro Irrigation) is unique type of Irrigation
Project where solar PV energy is being used for pumping water from a canal to
irrigate area under command with micro irrigation either by sprinkler or drip
irrigation. This is going to be largest of its type. Canal water is lifted with solar
pumps. HDPE pipes are being used for rising main. PVC pipes for distribution
network for 1730 Acres. of command area.
General Information
129
Proposed Components:
A. Stage I
1. Intake from Canal by Siphon using HDPE pipes At three pumping locations
along Canal
2. R.C.C. Sumps at three pumping locations
3. Pump Houses at three Canal Pump Stations
4. HDPE Rising Main 180 mm to 450 mm total length 8160 Rmt.
5. Solar Pumping System with Solar PV panels for 560 KW.
B. Stage II
1. Solar Pumping stations at pond intermediate stage at 11 locations
2. Sumps and pump room at these pump stations at 11 locations
3. PVC pipe distribution network 359152 Rmt. of 63 mm to 180 mm diameter.
4. Solar Pumping System with Solar PV panels for 320 KW
Special Features
1. Solar Pumping LIS with MIS
2. Solar pumping with 1000 Kw PV panels.
3. Complete Concept to commissioning Project
4. 7 Years Operation and Maintenance
5. Training of farmers for advance farming and cropping pattern
130
REFERENCES
131
ANNEXURE-1
I
ANNEXURE-2
II
ANNEXURE-3
III
ANNEXURE-4
IV
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
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