canopy

Volume 26 No. 5 September - October 2000 ISSN-0115-0960

INTERNATIONAL

All articles are incumbent to the current period.

Published by the Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural Resources

What’s inside . . . Editorial

Pollution endangers Saving the Manila Bay

Manila Bay’s seagrass beds 2
Phytoplankton in the
Manila Bay waters: Their
ecological and economic
importance
The coral reefs of Manila
Bay: Their alarming decline 4
Overfishing depletes fish
population in the Manila
Bay
Carlo Castillo
3
M anila Bay provides a variety of uses: a source of food, employment,
income, services and recreation. It is well-known for its beautiful sunset
and is considered one of the best natural harbors in Eastern Asia.
More than 50% of the country’s gross national products comes from the Manila
Bay -- through fishing and aquaculture, manufacturing, shipping, agriculture,
mining and quarrying and tourism. Manila Bay also boasts of its wetlands,
mangroves, mudflats, coral reefs and seagrass beds, among other natural
wonders.
On the other hand, behind this grandeur is an ugly reality. The precious resources
of the Manila Bay are in serious environmental trouble. Pollution and destruction
of the habitats, population expansion and rapid urbanization, uncontrolled coast
and basin development, the red tide phenomenon (causing paralytic shellfish
poisoning) and mismanagement are some of the major threats to the sustainability
5 and productivity of the Manila Bay.

Transboundary pollution in Today, extensive exploitation of natural resources renders Nature incapable of
regenerating itself. Some ecosystems may eventually “die” and the delicate
the seas of East Asia: A balance of nature will be greatly disrupted. The burden of keeping the
glimpse of the Manila Bay sustainability of the ecosystems should be left not on nature alone, but also on
society. If the uncontrolled and destructive human activities in the Manila Bay
problem 6 continue, the bay in the long run could no longer provide all the benefits people
derive from it -- ecological, economic, or aesthetic. The result would be
Gone are the mangroves catastrophic.

of the Manila Bay 8 The prevailing threats in the Manila Bay are not isolated. Rather, they are
transboundary in nature with long-term (and perhaps irreversible) ecological and
Earthwatch 9 socioeconomic repercussions, especially for the East Asian Region. To address
these transboundary problems, the Partnerships in Environmental Management
for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA) was launched in October 1999. The
Wetlands of Manila Bay partnerships share a common vision: to formulate and implement strategies and
action plans to ensure that the “seas of East Asia can continue contributing to the
face rapid depletion 10 well-being of the people of the region.”

Pollution in the In the Philippines, local partnerships have paved the way for the Manila Bay
Declaration 2001 wherein stakeholders of the Manila Bay, individually and
Manila Bay threatens collectively, recognize “the clear linkage of environmental degradation
shellfisheries 12 and the serious consequences to coastal populations,

Off the Press September 2003 ) page 10

 Pollution endangers
Manila Bay’s seagrass beds
Michael Lopez
O ne of the major coastal
ecosystems with beneficial roles
in tropical coastal waters is the
seagrass community. Seagrass beds
are composed of rooted, seed-bearing
marine plants (halophytes). They occur
in shallow, near-shore coastal waters
that are sheltered from high wave
energy, and in estuaries and lagoons.
The seagrass epiphytes and the
abundant detritus found in seagrass
beds comprise a highly productive
habitat that supports a large quantity of
commercially-important organisms.
Importance of seagrass beds
Seagrass beds harbor a rich
assemblage of marine organisms that all
contribute to the important role of
seagrasses in the marine ecosystem.
Seagrass beds support at least 172
species of fish epiphytes, 46 species of
invertebrates, 51 species of seaweeds,
45 species of algae, one species of sea
turtle and of dugong.
A primary ecological function of
seagrass beds is to provide nursery
areas for a variety of fishes and
crustaceans that migrate to other
habitats. This contributes significantly to
fisheries productivity.
2 CANOPY International
Status of seagrass beds
in the Manila Bay
The Philippines has 16 known species of
seagrasses, the highest number in the
Indo-Pacific Region. Some of these
species are the tropical eelgrass
(Enhalus acoraides), the fiber-strand
grass (Halodule pinofolia) and the
Halodule uninervis.
A 1996 assessment of coastal habitats
in the Manila Bay revealed that six
seagrass species and 28 seaweeds
thrive in the bay. All seagrass species
recorded were from Patungan,
Maragondon, Cavite with Cymodocea
rotundata dominating the area. The
seaweed Sargassum spp. dominated
the coastal communities of Alas-asin,
Mariveles, Bataan and of Corregidor
Island. Another seaweed,
Chaetomorpha crassa, still thrives and
dominates the bed of Freedom Island,
Parañaque. The area surveyed in
Pamarawan, Bulacan was devoid of
vegetation due to the proliferation of
“baklads” (fish corrals), and perhaps
because of high sediment accumulation
and pollution carried along the Bulacan
River. The previous resource ecological
assessment made in 1993 reported that
Gracilaria verrucosa and Tolypiocladia
glomerulata were abundant in the area.
The seagrass beds surveyed covered
less than a hectare and they might be
considered remnants of the once-thriving
seagrass and seaweed communities.
These remaining seagrass beds
continuously face threats of degradation.
It is believed that only a much smaller
area of seagrass beds exists in the
Manila Bay.
Seagrass bed depletion
in the Manila Bay
The depletion of seagrass beds is known
to result in high water turbidity and lower
production of seagrasses and their
associated fauna. In the Manila Bay,
excessive sedimentation primarily
contributes to the fast depletion of
seagrasses. Excessive sedimentation
can physically smother the seagrasses.
Or it can cause extreme water turbidity
such that photosynthesis is impaired and
filter feeders eventually die. Major
sediment sources in the bay include
improper mining, agriculture and poor
forestry management. Other factors
affecting seagrasses are human
encroachment, seagrass modification,
introduction of water-borne pollutants
and destruction of submerged and
fringing vegetation.
Encroachment by “land reclamation” for
development has reduced the habitat for
seagrasses. Both dredging and filling
have greatly disturbed the bottom and
largely removed areas for seagrasses to
grow, including those areas for soft-
bottom organisms. Shrimp farming and
fishing in the bay have displaced several
hectares of seagrass beds and
mangroves.
Pollution of near-shore waters comes
from domestic wastes, oil and gas spilled
from boats and ships and solid wastes
that have accumulated in shallow areas
within the bay. Pollution has greatly
damaged seagrass communities.
However, a major and long-term threat to
seagrasses in the world comes from
coastal eutrophication.
Surface water runoff and groundwater
containing excessive nutrients from
fertilizers or sewage promote harmful
algal bloom. Excessive algal growth
shades the seagrasses at the bottom,
interfering with the light passage and
)
page 11
September - October 2000
 Phytoplankton in the Manila Bay waters:
Their ecological and economic importance
Warren Bidaure
M arine organisms are grouped
into three: the benthos, which
are mostly the familiar plants
and animals living at the bottom of
tidepools; the nekton, which include the
free-swimming organisms; and the
plankton, a Greek term that means
“wandering”, which include the drifters of
the oceans. Generally, nekton are the
largest of the marine animals while the
plankton are the smallest. Most plankton
in Philippine coastal waters are
microscopic. The animal plankton are
called zooplankton and the plant
plankton, phytoplankton.
Phytoplankton: “Pastures of the
oceans”
Phytoplankton are described as the
“pastures of the oceans”. They consist
primarily of diatoms and dinoflagellates
and are known for their ability to produce
their own food through photosynthesis
(i.e., autotrophic). They need energy
from the sunlight, dissolved carbon
dioxide and nutrients in the water.
Phytoplankton include small fragments
of green algae, brown algae and red
algae.
Ecological importance
An estimated 80% of the oxygen of the
world is produced by the phytoplankton
through photosynthesis. Phytoplankton
use carbon dioxide and water as raw
materials to produce their own food, and
release oxygen into the marine
environment. Carbon dioxide is the
product of respiration of marine animals,
and from the decomposition of their
organic components. It is used by
marine plants to produce simple sugars
through photochemical reaction. Simple
sugars are then converted into complex
substances and stored as food reserves
for future use.
Chlorophyll pigments, the basic
biological component involved in the
photosynthesis of plants and algae, are
widely accepted as an indicator of
biomass productivity and the
physiological condition of algae. They
are also a useful indicator of water
quality, based on the ration of algal
September - October 2000
biomass to chlorophyll-a (i.e.,
autotrophic index).
Chlorophyll-a analysis describes the
biomass productivity of phytoplankton in
certain areas of Laguna Lake (Marinez-
Goss, 1999). Chlorophyll-a value in the
study sites ranged from 21.164 to
47.363 mg/L, suggesting high biomass
production of phytoplankton.
Another major ecological importance of
phytoplankton is that they are at the
bottom of the food chain in the marine
environment. They are consumed by
certain group of predators at the upper
level of the food chain. Decrease in the
number of phytoplankton indicates
lesser number of predators at a
particular trophic level.
Economic importance
Phytoplankton are economically
important for their rock-like deposits.
The siliceous walls of diatoms do not
decay, thus, a great number of empty
walls accumulate at the bottom of the
water for the plant to live. These rock-
like deposits are called diatomaceous
earth, which are very thick and many are
worked as open quarries. These
materials are used in the preparation of
certain solutions by filtering out
impurities; in the production of
dynamite as they absorb liquid
nitroglycerine; in the production of
cement as they increase the durability
and strength of concrete; and in the
production of metal polish and toothpaste
as they serve as mild abrasive agent.
Some diatoms found with oil deposits are
used by geologists to determine areas
with oil deposition.
Phytoplankton in the Manila Bay
No concrete data are available to support
any claim of declining population of
phytoplankton in the Manila Bay. Only
taxonomic identification of 61 genera are
found in the bay. Many changes have
been observed in its marine environment.
In a 1999 study, the highest diversity and
density of phytoplankton were observed
from January to March 1993; the lowest
were in April 1993 (PRRP, 1999).
Sampling of phytoplankton done in the
Manila Bay from November 1995 to April
1996 indicated that phytoplankton
population was dominated by diatoms.
Skeletonema was the most dominant
diatom during observation in November
1995 (86% relative abundance). In April
1996 observation, however,
Chactoceros was relatively most
abundant (52%). Observation of
)
page 10
CANOPY International 3
 The coral reefs of Manila Bay: Their alarming decline
Cynde Pagador
C oral reefs serve as breeding
grounds and home for fishes and
many other sea creatures. Coral
reefs help in maintaining ecological
balance, nurturing every species living
and depending on these reefs.
Along the Manila Bay area, where
fishing is the dwellers’ mainstay, the
economic and environmental importance
of coral reefs cannot be
overemphasized. The Manila Bay has
experienced tremendous pressure not
only from overfishing, illegal fishing and
destructive fishing, but also from
population expansion and industrial and
agricultural spin-offs.
A resource and ecological assessment
was conducted by the Bureau of
Fisheries and Aquatic Resources
(BFAR) in 1992-1993. The study
focused on coral cover, species diversity
and coral reef structure, location and
distribution. Results showed that coral
reefs could be found in Mariveles,
Bataan, in Cavite and in the Corregidor
Island. Data obtained during the study
may no longer represent the coral reef
status of the present. However, there
are some indications that coral reefs in
the Manila Bay have declined.
In the 1992 assessment, 14 families of
hard corals and one family of soft coral
4 CANOPY International
were observed, comprising 38 genera
and 53 species. In 1996, the ICLARM
report showed that live coral cover (both
hard and soft) ranged from 10.9% to
70.9%. Living hard corals were mainly
dominated by massive and encrusting
nonacroporal species.
Calumpang, a marine reserve in Cavite,
was observed to have the largest live
coral cover with an average of 69.4% in
good condition. Fair coral condition was
observed in Marbella (36.3%), Alas-asin
(37.39%) and Corregidor (25.1%), Reef
cover in Lucanin, Mariveles was 10.85%
in poor condition.
The report also identified dynamite
fishing, cyanide fishing, siltation, trawl
fishing, among other activities, as agents
of coral reef destruction. Coral reef
destruction would mean loss of habitat
for fish, crustaceans and other marine
species; reduced fishing production;
lessened tourism potential; diminished
physical protection; degraded
biodiversity; and less carbon
sequestration.
Possible recommendations for coral reef
rehabilitation should come from both
public and private sectors. Information
campaigns specifically on the importance
of coral reefs should be conducted to
educate more people, especially the
Coral reefs expose the richness of the
sea. They create a landscape of tranquility
and bounty; and a picture of life and
diversity. Coral reefs offer the feeling of
amazement… They are a wonder beneath
the vast Manila Bay surface waters. But
how long will the wonder last? With the
seemingly unabated deterioration of the
bay, does the wonder cease?
stakeholders of the Manila Bay.
To establish a more credible and useful
database, BFAR, or any other government
agency, or any private institution, should
conduct another ecological and resource
assessment of the Manila Bay. With the
expected data, more relevant programs
can be mapped out and responsive
projects carried out to rehabilitate the
remaining coral reefs.
Reference
ICLARM, 1996. Resource and Ecological
Assessment of Manila Bay Philippines:
Results of Monitoring Activities (1995-
1996).
The author is Senior Science Research
Specialist of the Technology Transfer
and Information Division, DENR-
Region III.
September - October 2000
 Overfishing depletes fish population in the Manila Bay
Francisco Evasco
T he Manila Bay is one of the
oldest traditional fishing grounds
in the Philippines and a habitat of
335 known species of pelagic and
demersal fishes. Two types of fishing
operations are observed in the bay:
commercial fishing and municipal and/
or small-scale fishing. The former is
defined in the Philippine Fisheries
Decree of 1975 (Presidential Decree
704) as fishing for commercial purposes
in waters more than 7 fathoms deep with
the use of fishing boats more than 3 gt.
The latter uses vessels weighing 0.40 gt.
This also involves fisheries that use
bagnets and ringnets and nonmotorized
bancas with an average distance travel
of 11 km.
Fisheries and aquaculture are among
the major sources of livelihood around
Manila Bay, constituting about 2.77% of
the total commercial fish production in
the country. Total fish production from
Manila Bay generally increased from
851,020 t in 1992 to 963,657 t in 1996.
Around 30% of the country’s population
dwells near the Manila Bay. As of May
2000 (National Statistics Office, 2001),
23,045,442 people were living in the
area and 42.6% or 9,826,662 were
staying along coastal areas.
One of the most important fishery
products from the bay is bangus
(milkfish); it is a popular food item in the
Filipino diet. The cost-benefit analysis
for milkfish culture prepared by the
DENR in 1997 suggested a net income
of P115,939.50. This income was
derived from an initial 60,000 pieces of
bangus fry with an annual production
cost of P168,330.50. This number of fry
could produce about 4.061 t of fish
within a year. The total municipal fish
production in the bay from 1980 to 2000
showed an increasing trend from 14,588
t to 20,358 t, with a peak production
recorded in 1990 followed by a steady
decline.
Aquaculture is currently considered
ecologically-advantageous because it
increases fish yield, thereby, decreasing
fishing pressure. Fishpond development
September - October 2000
is considered an environmentally-critical
project, for it may create a negative
impact (e.g., water pollution) on the
environment, if not properly planned and
managed.
The tremendously growing population
within the bay area creates greater
demand for food. Filipinos consume 40
kg of fish per capita annually. This could
mean an alarming decline in fish catch of
almost 69%, where catch per unit of
effort is the number or weight (in kg) of
fish caught by a unit of fishing effort per
hour of fishing (BFAR, 1995; Tambuyog
Development Center, 1990). This is often
used as a measure of fish abundance or
fishing gear efficiency.
Such decline in fish population was
further observed in the trawlable
demersal biomass. The bottom-dwelling
or demersal biomass was measured via
the “swept-area” method. Results
showed that from a surface area of 1,800
sq km established in 1947, stalk density
was 4.61 t/sq km, or about 8,290 t of
demersal biomass. In 1993, however,
stalk density was only about 0.47 t/sq
km, or 840 t of demersal biomass.
Similarly, low fish yield was observed in
the bay, particularly the composition of
species caught. The population of finfish
decreased which led to a corresponding
increase in the relative abundance of
demersal invertebrates. Major changes
noted in catch composition included an
increase in the relative abundance of
squid, shrimp and small pelagic species
such as herring and anchovies. The
disappearance of turbot and lactarid, and
the decline of usually large commercial
species like snapper, sea catfish and
mackerel, were further noted.
One particular species, the “kalaso” or
the common lizard fish (Saurida tumbil),
used to be caught in large numbers, has
now dwindled in number and size.
Another quantified evidence of fish
decline was the relative shortness and
high exploitation of abundant species.
Fishes were caught easily such that most
of them had no chance to grow at
harvestable size.
Due to excessive fishing and the
eventual decline of mature fish
population, some fishes were unable to
complete their life cycle, with more being
caught while juvenile. Fishing pressure
has eventually led to the disappearance
or reduction of fish population.
Overfishing has been identified the most
likely cause of rapidly declining fish
population and catch, both in terms of
species composition and size. This
) page 9
CANOPY International 5
C oastal and marine resources
have become a vital component
of the economies of many
coastal states and archipelagic countries
in the East Asian Region. Economic
development in these countries is
inextricably linked with the productivity
and utilization of coastal and marine
resources. In the developing countries of
the region, a large segment of the
population (which constitutes the
fisherfolk, or families belonging to the
low-income bracket) depends heavily on
coastal resources for living. The trend of
increasing population along coastal
zones, where most of the economic
activities take place, has affected the
regenerative capacity of the coastal and
marine resources.
Pollution from land and sea has become
a major cause of the depletion of coastal
and marine resources. Therefore, the
management of coastal and marine
resources must be anchored on
integrated and holistic strategies. This
requires the unwavering support and
cooperation of the government, both
local and national, in dealing with
domestic concerns and in addressing
the pressing problem of transboundary
pollution in the seas of East Asian
countries.
The pollution of the seas:
A regional perspective
The pollution of seawaters defies
boundaries, as sea debris and polluted
seawater tend to move toward low
gradient, unspoiled water. This is due to
the inherent characteristics of the open
seas and the ocean wave patterns
which are influenced by the movement
and direction of air masses, bottom
topography of the sea and geography.
The countries comprising the East Asian
Region are: Brunei Darussalam,
Cambodia, China, Democratic People’s
Republic of Korea, Indonesia, Japan,
Malaysia, the Philippines, Republic of
Korea, Singapore, Thailand and
Vietnam. These countries share not only
common sea and ocean borders, but
also numerous commonalities with
respect to demography, culture, history,
and to some extent, racial origin.
The economic development of East
Asian Region is growing at a fast pace
fueled by strong development of the
Region’s sea-based industries. These
industries are ironically the main
6 CANOPY International
Transboundary pollution in the seas
of East Asia: A glimpse of the
Manila Bay problem
source of spoilage and degradation of
seawaters, reversing the sustained
productivity and decimating the life-
support system of marine waters. The
vast bodies of water which dovetail all
these nations into a single regional
cooperating entity includes the South
China Sea, the East China Sea, the
Sulu-Celebes Sea, the Yellow Sea and
the Indonesian Sea -- all these are vital
in the development of the economies of
East Asia.
Countries of the East Asian Region are a
home to more than 1.8 billion people.
They boast of rich marine resources,
coral reefs and mangrove areas. The
seas of East Asia are rich fishing
grounds, contributing more than 40% of
the world’s fisheries production.
Framework for regional cooperation
Collective action to address coastal and
marine environmental problems can be
achieved by identifying common
concerns among affected countries and
by establishing strong cooperation
among them. Common concerns among
East Asian countries include political,
social, cultural and environmental
welfare. Although these nations are
separated by sea boundaries, each is not
isolated from transboundary pollution.
Building partnership among nations has
become the rallying point for regional
cooperation. Establishing a genuine,
collective effort among the governments
of East Asia is deemed necessary to
resolve transboundary pollution problems
of their respective seas.
Manila Bay: A pollution hotspot?
Manila Bay is a semi enclosed estuary,
connected to the South China Sea via a
16.7 km-wide entrance. It covers three
regions: Region III (Central Luzon),
Region IV and the National Capital
Region (NCR). It is bordered by NCR
and the provinces of Bataan, Pampanga,
Bulacan and Cavite. It receives drainage
from approximately 17,000 sq km of
watershed with 26 catchment areas.
Vicente Tuddao, Jr.
The catchment areas are bounded by the
Sierra Madre mountain range to the east,
the Caraballo mountains to the north, the
Zambales mountains to the northwest
and the Bataan mountains to the west.
Freshwater inflow has been estimated at
6.25 cu km/year. Seasonal and annual
variations in discharges are pronounced,
with the largest input occurring in August
and the lowest in April.
Manila Bay has a coastline of
approximately 190 km and a surface
area of about 1,800 sq km. It consists of
a gently sloping basin with depth
increasing at a rate of 1 m/km from the
interior to the entrance. The bay has a
mean depth of 17 m and volume of 31 cu
km.
For its crucial importance to the economy
and ecological balance of the country’s
capital, the Manila Bay was declared a
pollution hotspot by the Partnerships in
Environmental Management for the Seas
of East Asia (PEMSEA). Through the
years, Manila Bay has become a “sink” of
heavy pollutions emanating from land-
based activities such as mining,
deforestation, indiscriminate disposal of
toxic liquid and solid wastes from
industries, commercial and domestic
activities. In addition, the overexploitation
of marine resources, the use of illegal
fishing gears and methods and the
continuing oil spill from sea vessels
immensely contribute to the degradation
of the bay.
More specifically, primary activities in
catchment areas and along the perimeter
of the bay like agriculture, forestry and
fishery further deteriorate the bay. Many
industries ranging form manufacturing to
quarrying aggravate the problem. Major
manufacturing industries include food
and beverage companies, chemical
companies, pharmaceuticals,
petrochemical and electronics industries.
) page 7
September - October 2000
Transboundary… from page 6
Reclamation and construction activities
contribute to the accumulation of
suspended particulates in the bay.
Agriculture and forestry, especially along
the catchment areas of the rivers, also
contribute to pollution by discharging
agrochemical and agricultural wastes
and by promoting excessive soil erosion.
Domestic wastes and sewage from river
catchment and from communities
around the bay enter into the bay.
Pollution brought about by inadequate
solid waste management program
continues to be a serious environmental
problem. Between 5,000 and 6,000 t of
solid wastes are generated annually in
Metro Manila, with only a small volume
handled in the solid waste management
facilities.
At present, less than 7% of the
population in 11 major areas in Metro
Manila, or an estimated combined
population of about 8.4 million (based on
the 1995 census), has access to
adequate sewerage system. About 8.0
million people in these areas are
contributing to waste pollution, directly at
the bay or via river systems.
Furthermore, the existing sewerage
system directly leads to an outfall into
the bay. Untreated domestic sewage are
discharged directly into river systems
along the shorelines.
Finding structural solution
The Philippine government, through the
September - October 2000
Department of Environment and Natural
Resources (DENR), recognizes its
commitment in addressing problems of
coastal and marine environment
degradation and in establishing regional
cooperation in finding appropriate
solutions. The DENR Administrative
Order No 2000-38, establishes the
support system for the GEF/UNDP/IMO
Regional Program on Building
Partnership for the Seas of East Asia. In
line with this, the Manila Bay
Environmental Management Project
(MBEMP) was born.
The MBEMP is implemented by the
DENR to come up with strategic plans for
the protection, conservation and
rehabilitation of the Manila Bay and its
watershed areas. under its five-year plan,
MBEMP aims to develop coastal
strategy, environmental risk assessment,
integrated information management
system and environmental investment. It
also aims to formulate and implement
operational plan, develop economic
master plan and formulate integrated
monitoring and resource valuation
scheme.
More specifically, the project seeks to
apply environmental risk assessment and
risk management strategies to address
transboundary environmental problems/
issues in seas of East Asia.
Environmental risk assessment involves
estimating potential harm of human
activities to the ecosystem or to public
health. Environmental risk management,
on the other hand, involves the
identification, selection and
implementation of appropriate actions to
control risk. The basic premise of risk
management is that not all human
activities have adverse affect on the
environment. Risk management
recognizes that environmental protection
also entails certain economic costs.
Concluding note
Finding solution to transboundary
pollution in the seas of East Asia requires
concerted effort and strong cooperative
action among affected countries. In the
Philippines, the creation of the MBEMP is
a welcome initiative towards regional
cooperation to address transboundary
pollution of the seas. It is hoped that
through this project, the Philippines
would be able to conserve and protect
the Manila Bay and its watershed areas,
and, eventually, contribute to saving the
seas of East Asia and invigorate
economic development in the region.
References
Department of Environment and Natural
Resources. DAO No. 2000-38. Quezon
City.
____________. Special Order No. 2000-57.
Quezon City.
The author is Senior Science Research
Specialist of the Technology Transfer
and Information Division, DENR-
Region III.
The aim of science is not
to open the door to infinite
wisdom, but to set a limit
to infinite error.
Bertolt Brecht 1898-1956
The Life of Galileo (1939)
The unleashed power of the
atom has changed everything
save our modes of thinking and
we thus drift toward
unparalleled catastrophe.
Albert Einstein 1879-1955
Telegram to prominent Americans,
24 May 1946, in New York Times
25 May 1946
CANOPY International 7
 Gone are the mangroves
of the Manila Bay
Leonor Santos
M anila Bay is one of the
country’s national assets.
Aside from being a venue of
many of the country’s historical events,
the bay has been popularly known as
the country’s “gateway” to political,
economic and social centers. Over
several decades, the Manila Bay has
been endowed with vast and beautiful
natural resources and unspoiled
ecosystem. Its mangrove ecosystem
used to be one of the best to mention.
The Manila Bay mangrove ecosystem is
a unique association of plant and animal
species with great potential for both
ecological and socioeconomic uses.
Mangroves are found in coastal areas
and estuaries along the bay.
Ecological and economic importance
Ecologically, mangroves protect the
open coasts from strong winds and
waves and support in the building up of
lands. They serve as buffers that protect
seagrasses and seaweeds as well as
coral reefs from excessive
sedimentation.
Mangrove ecosystem serves as
reservoir and habitat for a wide range of
aquatic and other marine species. They
provide nesting for migratory birds and
feeding areas for other commercially
important fishes and invertebrates.
8 CANOPY International
Economically, mangroves provide
numerous resources, including security
for livelihood of coastal dwellers. They
are sources of tannin, timber, fuelwood,
pole and other forest products.
Generally, the mangrove ecosystem
along the Manila Bay reveals its
importance as a “life-support system” for
sustained production and survival of the
living components of the bay, and of its
symbiotic association with its nonliving
components.
Degradation of mangrove forests
Today, mangrove forests along the
Manila Bay are getting scarce. In terms
of land area, an estimated 54,000 ha of
mangrove forest occurred along the
Manila Bay during the latter part of the
nineteenth century. After about a
hundred years, 1990 estimate showed
that only 2,000 ha of mangrove forest
was left, which further declined to 794 ha
in 1995. The provinces of Pampanga,
Bataan and Bulacan, and the town of
Navotas in Metro Manila, had the most
significant losses of mangrove forests.
Only five families of mangrove species
now dominate in these areas, namely:
Rhizophora mucronata, Nypa fruticans,
Sonneratia alba, Avicennia marina, A.
officinalis and Aegiceras corniculatum.
Major causes of mangrove loss
Major causes of mangrove loss along the
Manila Bay include conversion of land
areas to give way to aquaculture, salt
bed, land reclamation for human
settlement and industrial development.
Logging or clear-cutting of mangrove
species for fuelwood also causes
mangrove decline.
Other possible causes include pollutions
(i.e., oil spill, chemical discharge, solid
wastes and excessive sediments) that
clog root systems of mangrove stands.
Pest infestation and lahar suffocation
have further caused the destruction and
loss of mangrove areas in the National
Capital Region and in Pampanga.
Potential impact of mangrove
loss in the Manila Bay
If mangrove destruction continues, the
Manila Bay would eventually lose all
valuable natural resources, as well as the
living organisms that depend on such
resources. Regardless of the extent of
destruction, mangrove loss could disrupt
vital ecological functions. This include
breeding, spawning and nursery grounds
for various marine organisms; natural
buffer from strong wave impact; and
protective barrier against coastal erosion
and siltation.
Another potential impact of mangrove
loss is the eventual destruction of coral
reefs, seagrass beds and other important
marine habitats. The productivity of
marine animals would also be affected,
particularly those commercially-important
species. If this happens, people who
depend largely on fishing and other
coastal-based or marine-based livelihood
would suffer economically.
Reference
Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources.
1995. Fisheries sector program -
Resources and ecological assessment of
the Manila Bay. Final report. BFAR-
Department of Agriculture, Quezon City.
The author is Science Research
Specialist I of the Technology Transfer
and Information Division, DENR-
Region III.
September - October 2000
 Earthwatch
Praxedes Silvoza
H eavy metals in agricultural soils
are a major concern. Taken up
by crops, these heavy metals
may enter the food chain and
contaminate human food. Studies of
crops growing in contaminated soils
show that levels of heavy metals are
generally higher in the roots than in the
edible grain or leaves. Even as little as
2 ppm of elements such as cadmium
and mercury can be detrimental to
human health.
*****
Wastewater from factories is becoming a
problem for many Asian farmers. Even
after treatment, it often contains a high
level of heavy metals, or toxic
compounds. From the factory, the
wastewater flows into rivers and
irrigation canals, and eventually into
farmers’ fields as irrigation water .
*****
Fertilizers are a common cause of
contamination of groundwater. A quarter
of water wells fro drinking in Malaysia
contains nitrates higher than the
acceptable level, while 9% contains high
level of phosphorous.
*****
Overfishing… from page 5
can be correlated with the corresponding
increase in the number of fishers per
kilometer of the coastline from 70 to 253
in 1987 up to 1993. Associated with the
increase of fishers is an increase in the
number of boats (municipal) per
kilometer of the coastline, estimated by
the number of boats reported divided by
an approximate length of the Manila Bay
coastline (220 km). The number of boats
increased from 74 units/km to 1,980
units/km (NSO Census on Fisheries,
1980, as cited by Tambuyog
Development Center, 1990). In 1990
alone, there were 90 units/km, indicating
the intensity of fishing in the bay.
In addition, destructive (e.g., the use of
explosives) and illegal fishing, habitat
destruction, pollution and conflicting use
September - October 2000
Roughly 2.8 billion people live in cities,
according to the United Nations
Population Fund (UNPF). By 2015, that
number will have risen to 3.9 billion,
nearly three-quarters of them in the
developing world.
*****
Baseline surveys revealed that Nairobi in
Africa consumes approximately 91,250 t
of charcoal annually, equating to the
destruction of over 900,000 t of
greenwood each year.
*****
Costa Rica is considered one of the most
biologically diverse regions of the world.
It is estimated that 5% of all insects
(approximately 500,000) is found in this
small tropical country, although it covers
only 0.01% of the earth’s landmass.
*****
Air in Asia’s cities is among the dirtiest in
the world, the Asian Development Bank
says. Smoke particles and dust -- a
major cause of respiratory diseases in
these cities -- are generally twice the
world’s average.
*****
of water by various sectors have also
been observed.
Socioeconomic factors could also affect
the density of fish resources in the
Manila Bay. Since there are more
municipal fishers than commercial
fishers, most municipal fishers
concentrate along zone 4-20 km from the
shore. Close competition for higher yield
would result in overfishing and lead to
the decline of fish resources.
Growth and recruitment of overfishing,
two forms of extreme fishing, can further
lead to ecosystem overfishing and
economic overfishing. Ecosystem
overfishing occurs when multispecies
stock have been overfished. This is
evidenced by the change in species
composition and by decrease of average
sizes of fish through time.
According to a report, acid rain problem
in the Philippines and in other Asian
countries would grow rapidly in the early
21st century, as sulfur dioxide pollution
would triple in 2010.
*****
According to some scientists at the
United States Geological Survey, the
seas are rising nearly one-tenth of an
inch each year, fed by rivers of melting
glaciers and ice sheets around the
globe. At the current rate of melting, the
seas could rise another foot over the
next 50 years; Iceland’s glacier could
disappear by 2200. That event alone
could raise sea levels by 20 ft.
*****
The United Nations Environment
Programme warned that more than 40
Himalayan glacial lakes were
dangerously close to bursting,
threatening the lives of thousands of
people, because of the melting of ice
caused by global warming.
*****
Metro Manila’s pollution level is fast
swelling despite the passing of the
Clean Air Act of 1999. The country’s
pollution deaths reported have reached
8,000 from 6,000 just a year ago.
The compiler is Librarian II of the ERDB.
Such would eventually result in economic
overfishing.
References
Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources.
1995. Fisheries sector program -
Resources and ecological assessment of
the Manila Bay. Final report. BFAR-
Department of Agriculture, Quezon City.
National Statistics Office. 1980.
National Statistics Office. 2001. Philippine
Annual Report.
Tambuyog Development Center. 1990.
Diliman, Quezon City.
The author is Senior Science Research
Specialist of the Technology Transfer
and Information Division, DENR-
Region III.
CANOPY International 9
E cologists have done numerous
assessments and studies on
marine resources and habitats in
the Manila Bay, particularly mangroves,
fisheries, shellfisheries, coral reefs and
seaweeds. However, very few studies
regarding wetlands: mudflats, sandflats,
swamps, beaches and rocky shores
have been published. These habitats
constitute vital components making up
the coastal ecosystem of the Manila
Bay.
The wetlands of the Manila Bay
Based on the resources and ecological
assessment done on the Manila Bay,
wetlands cover about 4,600 ha (BFAR,
1995). These wetlands include mudflats,
sandflats, swamps, beaches and rocky
shores. Fifty-three percent of the
mudflats are found in Bulacan, 29% in
Pampanga and 17% in Bataan. Total
sandflat area is 1,500 ha and this
composite is distributed in Bataan
(47%), Cavite (36%) and Metro Manila
(16%).
Beaches are found in Ternate, Cavite; in
the southern part of Metro Manila; and in
Cochinos Point, Mariveles, Bataan.
Beaches are great places for swimming,
surfing, fishing, or just meeting friends.
Yet many beaches are losing their
golden sands to erosion. The sand is
loose and can be easily blown away by
winds, or moved by waves. It is often
moved towards and off the beach by the
sea as part of the natural cycle of beach
building and erosion.
Saving… from page 1
in particular the poor and other
marginalized groups in Filipino society
who depend extensively on the natural
resources of Manila Bay for sustenance,
and the need to address these two
issues in an integrated fashion.”
Phytoplankton… from page 3
dinoflagellates was not done during
sampling (PRRP, 1999).
In November 1995 and April 1996
sampling, diversity index of
phytoplankton was computed based on
water quality analysis of three stations:
forest/mangrove area; coral reef/
10 CANOPY International
Wetlands of Manila Bay
face rapid depletion
Dolores Castro and Olivia Lamparas
Human activities can disrupt this cycle.
That is, when plants are destroyed,
sands are removed and buildings are
constructed on dunes. These would
cause the beach to erode unless action
is taken to restore nature’s balance.
The plants that bind the dunes are very
important. They hold sands in place and
further trap those sands that have been
blown by winds. If plants are destroyed,
dry sands can be easily blown away.
Drifting sands cause problems as they
bury land, block roads, cover camping
grounds and fill lakes and harbors. A
whole dune can eventually disappear.
Swamps occur on tidal flats along coasts.
They are found finging the shores of the
archipelago, extending inland along the
streams with brackish water. However,
development of swamps into aquaculture
ponds, salt beds, reclamation areas and
other agricultural uses has extensively
denuded these valuable resources.
Disruption of wetland ecosystems
Disturbance of an ecosystem adversely
affects the dynamics of the whole
ecology. A wetland ecosystem is
As for the Department of Environment
and Natural Resources (DENR), the
Manila Bay Environmental Management
Project (MBEMP) was established in
2000. Generally, expected output of the
five-year plan of the MBEMP includes
strategic plans for the protection,
conservation and rehabilitation of the
Manila Bay and its watershed areas.
seagrass/seaweed area; and deep area.
Results showed that in Station I (Forest/
mangrove area), Ternate River had the
most diverse phytoplankton population
(2.34 in 1995 and 1.04 in 1996). In
Station II (Coral reef/seagrass/seaweed
area), Calumpang had the highest
diversity index (1.42 in 1995) and 1.41 in
1996). In Station III (Deep area),
however, Deep 1 showed the most
vulnerable both to disturbances caused
by nature and those made by humans.
With its location, it has to contend with
the onslaught of waves. Pests and
diseases also pose natural stresses on
wetlands. Conversion of wetlands into
fishponds, human settlements, salt beds,
wharves and docks disrupts ecological
balance. Similarly, the conversion of
swamps into brackish water ponds is a
principal cause for the loss of Philippine
wetlands.
Other factors contributory to the
degradation of the wetlands of the Manila
Bay include reclamation and continuous
wetland conversion, pollution and oil spill.
References
Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources.
1995. Fisheries sector program -
Resources and ecological assessment of
the Manila Bay. Final report. BFAR-
Department of Agriculture, Quezon City.
The first author is Science Research
Assistant and the second is Science
Research Aide of the Technology Transfer
and Information Division,
DENR-Region III.
Through these initiatives to save the
Manila Bay, the future is promising for
the next generations to enjoy the benefits
that the present generation obtains from
the Manila Bay. Individual and collective
actions would keep the Manila Bay alive -
and its wonder would never cease.
diverse phytoplankton population in 1995
(1.22), but Deep 2 had relatively the most
diverse phytoplankton in 1996 (1.36).
In the case of paralytic shellfish
poisoning brought about by red tide, or
harmful algal bloom as described by
experts, there was a pronounced
increase in dinoglagellate
) page 11
September - October 2000
Seagrass beds… from page 2
photosynthesis. In addition, excessive
amount of dying algae would strip the
water of oxygen making it anoxic, or
giving way to sediments. All this may
severely limit seagrass survival, or
gradually kill every seagrass species, or
leave only those species fit enough to
survive.
The destruction of fringing vegetation,
such as mangroves, allows more
sediments and pollutants to enter into
the water. Such destructive human
activity also removes significant sources
of nutrients that help sustain seagrasses
and coral reefs. Blast fishing (i.e., use of
dynamite) gouges large holes on the
sea bottom, killing plants and creating
erosions that may affect more plants.
Dragging boats, nets, anchors and other
gears can dislodge seagrasses as much
as churning of shallow waters from small
boats and jet skis can. In addition,
planting of mangroves on seagrass beds
is destructive to seagrasses, and,
therefore inappropriate.
Phytoplankton… from page 10
population in Bataan from northeast
monsoon to trade winds to southwest
monsoon (Azanza and Miranda, 1999).
The red tide in the Manila Bay consists
of billions of tiny dinoflagellates, usually
Pyrodinium, and maybe 60 million of
these organisms can be found in 1| of
water. They appear reddish on the
ocean surface due to their cell pigments.
These organisms produce toxics that
may result in the massive fish kill and
shellfish poisoning. Dinoflagellates can
be ingested by mussels, which, in turn,
may become dangerous for human
consumption as toxins from
dinoflagellates accumulate in the
mussels.
The first algal bloom in the Manila Bay
was in 1988. Since then, the
phenomenon occurs every year. In
Cavite, dinoflagelates constitute a minor
population of phytoplankton community
in the bay during a year. In 1998,
harmful algal bloom in Bataan and
Cavite started in April/May and lasted
until October (Azanza and Miranda,
1999).
September - October 2000
Decline of seagrass beds would lead to
the loss of economically-important
species, loss of protection from strong
waves, loss of habitats and nursery
grounds and reduction of detrital matters.
Management interventions
The harsh condition of seagrasses in the
Manila Bay calls for interventions that
would protect the remaining seagrass
beds. Management interventions
addressing the loss of seagrass and soft-
bottom habitats include the following:
• Mapping and identification of
seagrass beds to catalogue the
extent and location of the resource.
• Zoning to prioritize use of space
between pristine seagrass meadows
and those that are disturbed, altered,
or emergent.
• Controlling of fishing methods to ban
bottom trawling, blast fishing and
other ways of harvesting which tear
up the bottom and cause turbidity.
• Reducing of pollution by enforcing
prohibitions against discharge of
Concluding note
Analysis of phytoplankton population is
an important tool in the proper
management of toxic red tide in the
country. The phytoplankton community
was found dominated by diatoms in all
sampling stations for three seasons in
three years (Azanza and Miranda, 1999).
There were 10 families of diatoms and 2
marine flagellates found in the Manila
Bay.
Although no decline of phytoplankton
population was observed in the Manila
Bay, the effect of high-suspended solid
nutrients and other pollutants can ruin
the breathtaking beauty of the
phytoplankton community. The
productivity of phytoplankton significantly
maintains the plant at the bottom of the
food chain in marine environment. Many
valuable marine organisms of higher
trophic level depend on these
phytoplankton for food and survival.
Ecological balance can be disrupted if
these minute marine plants would be
taken for granted and eventually lost.
urban and industrial effluents and
dumping of solid wastes into the sea.
• Maintaining of vegetated buffers
along the shoreline and around
disturbed sites to filter the runoff and
promote infiltration of water into the
ground.
• Preventing erosion by controlling
logging, mining and agricultural
practices.
• Controlling of coastal construction
and beach nourishment.
• Transplanting of seagrasses.
However, selection of the transplant
site in regard to light, nutrient and
sediment type and stability is
important while considering relative
cost and benefits.
• Promoting of outdoor recreation and
tourism opportunities as alternative
sources of income.
The author is Project Development
Officer of the Manila Bay Environmental
Management Project, DENR-Region III.
References
Azanza, R.V. and I.N. Miranda. 1999.
Phytoplankton composition and
Pyrodinium bahamense toxic blooms in
Manila Bay, Philippines.
Marinez-Goss, M.L. 1999. Estimation of fish
biomass in Laguna de Bay based on
primary productivity - A special study of
the National Statistical Coordination
Board.
Pasig River Rehabilitation Program. 1999.
Manila Bay monitoring status for 1996-99
and recommendation for continued
monitoring.
The author is Project Development
Officer of the Manila Bay Environmental
Management Project, DENR-Region III.
If A is a success in life,
then A equals x plus y plus z.
Work is x; y is play; and z is
keeping your mouth shut..
Albert Einstein 1879-1955
in Observer 15 January 1950
CANOPY International 11
 EDITORIAL BOARD
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Executive Adviser
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Executive Editor
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Editor
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Associate Editor
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Colorist
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Circulation Manager
Eduardo M. Tolentino
Circulation Assistant
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Canopy International was entered as second-
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30 May 2003.
Whatever Nature has in store for
mankind, unpleasant as it may be,
men must accept, for ignorance is
never better than knowledge.
Laura Fermi
Atoms in the Family (1955)
12 CANOPY International
Pollution in the Manila Bay
threatens shellfisheries
“kapis”, was also noted. The species
Janet Mas was used to be gathered and cultured
east of the Manila Bay. Results of
M
assessment showed that shellfish tissue
ussels (Perna viridis), locally
had been highly contaminated by
known as “tahong”, and rock
coliform bacteria, heavy metals and
oyster (Crassostrea iredale),
pesticides.
locally known as “talaba”, are primary
shellfish species found and cultured in
The decline of shellfish in the Manila
the Manila Bay. Other species are crabs
Bay could be attributed to:
and prawns which can especially be
overharvesting/overcollection; dumping
found along the coastal areas of the
in the bay of domestic and industrial
town of Orani, Bataan to the coastal
sewage, heavy metals, pesticides, oil
towns of Pampanga.
and grease; and destruction of shellfish
habitat through reclamation and
Shellfish farms which thrive well in
conversion for development. Red tide
mudflat areas can be found in the
poses another major threat. The spin-off
western side of the Manila Bay, off the
effect of red tide lowers the public
coast of Bataan, from Orion to Orani.
demand for shellfish because of the fatal
They are also found in mudflat areas of
effects of paralytic shellfish poisoning
Pampanga, the northeastern side of the
from eating red-tide-infected shellfish.
bay, and off the coast of Bulacan and
Red tide has serious socioeconomic
Malabon, north to northeastern side of
impact on the Manila Bay.
the bay. About 6,000 ha of mudflat/
sandflat area of cultured farms can be
With all these threats, almost all
found from Bataan to Cavite.
economically-important species have
started to disappear and shellfish yield
In the 1995 analysis of shellfish
continues to decline.
industries in the Manila Bay conducted
by BFAR, an unstable production of References
oyster was found from 1988 to 1992:
6,600 t in 1988; and 892 t in 1992;
Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources.
(BFAR, 1995). An unstable production 1995, 1999. Fisheries sector program -
of mussel was noted from 1982 to 1999: Resources and ecological assessment
3,105 t in 1982; 10,827 t in 1993; and of the Manila Bay. Final report. BFAR-
Department of Agriculture, Quezon City.
5,143 t in 1999. The reduction of
shellfish species diversity was likewise
observed, from 43 to 45 species, or less
(BFAR, 1999). The author is Science Research
Specialist I of the Technology Transfer
The absence of the windowpane oyster and Information Division, DENR-
(Placuna placenta), locally known as
Region III.
September - October 2000