BIOLOGY SS1 3RD TERM E-NOTES (Reviewed)

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2023
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SCHEME OF WORK
WEEKS TOPICS CONTENT
Revision of work done in
1 second term
Towards better health (a) Control of harmful microorganisms
2 (b) Vectors (i) definition (ii) ways of controlling
vectors (c) Students’ health: Maintenance of
good health.
Aquatic Habitat- Marine (a) Characteristics of a marine habitat
Habitat (b) The major zones (i) Splash zone (ii) Inter-
3 tidal zone (iii) Sub-tidal zone
(c) Distribution of the organisms in the habitat
(d) Adaptive features of marine organisms
Aquatic Habitat- Estuarine (a) Characteristics of estuarine habitat
Habitat (b) Types of estuary
4 (c) Distribution of the plants and animals in
estuarine habitat (d) Adaptive features of
plants and animal in estuarine habitat.
Aquatic-Freshwater Habitat (a) Characteristics of freshwater habitat
and Terrestrial Mash (b) Types of freshwater (i) Stagnant ones (ii)
Running water (c) Fresh –water organisms (d)
5 Terrestrial Mash.
Terrestrial Habitat-Marsh and (a) Forest (i) Characteristics (ii) Strata in the
Forest: forest (iii) Distribution of plants and animals
6 that inhabit a forest (iv) Adaptive features of
the plants and animals
(b) Grassland (i) Characteristics of grassland (ii)
Types of grassland (iii) Distribution of plants
and animals in a grassland (iv) Some
adaptations of grassland communities
(c) Arid land (i) Characteristics of arid lands (ii)
Types of arid lands (iii) Distribution of the
organisms in the habitat (iv) Some adaptation
of organisms to arid lands
7 MID-TERM BREAK
Reproduction in unicellular (a) Reproduction in Amoeba by asexual
8 organisms and invertebrates reproduction (i) Binary fission (ii) Multiple
fission
(b) Reproduction in Paramecium by: (i) Asexual
reproduction (ii) Sexual reproduction
(c) Reproduction in Spirogyra by (i) Asexual or
vegetative reproduction (ii) Sexual
reproduction or conjugation (d) Reproduction
in the Earthworm (i) sexual reproduction only.
Reproduction in (a) Reproduction in cockroach
invertebrates (b) Reproduction in housefly (c) Reproduction
9 in the snail .
10 Revision.
11 Examination.
WEEK: one
TOPIC: Revision of work done in second term
LESSON OBJECTIVES: At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
(i) State the types of supporting tissues in plants
(ii) State the basic ecological concepts
(iii) State ways of classifying plants
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students have been taught the topics in the previous term
CONTENT:
PRACTICE EXERCISE: (5 fill in the gap question per subtopic, 3 short answer questions)
PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:

(Each topic should be enriched with worked examples, images, past WAEC SSCE/NECO SSCE / BECE JSCE
questions.)
INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES:

WEEK: Two
TOPIC: TOWARDS BETTER HEALTH
(i) Mention ways of controlling harmful microorganism
(ii) Define vectors
(iii) State ways of controlling vectors
(iv) Mention how a students can maintain good health
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students have learnt about effects of microorganism in the previous term.
SUB-TOPIC 1: TOWARDS BETTER HEALTH: CONTROL OF HARMFUL MICRO-ORGANISMS

CONTENT:
Better health can be achieved basically by controlling disease-causing micro-organisms and their animal
vectors and also by improving health facilities.
Harmful microorganisms can be controlled by;

(1) Use of high temperature e.g. sterilization by boiling, autoclaving or heating of food, water and other
products to kill micro-organisms.
(2) Use of drugs / antibiotics e.g. chloroquine kills plasmodium parasites.
(3) Use of antiseptics which kill or inhibit the growth of pathogenic micro-organisms.
(4) By immunization or vaccination against diseases such as measles, tuberculosis, polio, etc.
(5) Covering of food and water always to prevent contact with vectors.
(6) Destruction of vectors such as mosquitoes, flies, rats, etc.
(7) Use of disinfectants e.g. Lysol, carbonic acid, etc.
(8) Use of salt; this inhibits the growth of microbial cells and prevents their multiplication. Salt can be used
to preserve food and wash cuts and wounds to prevent infection.
(9) Dehydration inhibits the growth of microbes; food can be preserved by drying. Drying in the sun can be
used to kill micro-organisms in bedding blankets and clothes.
(10) Promoting health education.
(11) Quarantine services.
(12) Personal hygiene such as regular bathing, brushing of teeth, washing of hands before meal and after
defecating, etc.
(13) Maintaining good health: This helps us to resist most pathogenic micro-organisms.
(14) Use of ultra-violet radiation to kill bacteria
PRACTICE EXERCISE: fill in the gap question

1. ______ is introduced into the body to stimulate the body to produce antibodies
2. Diseases caused by bacteria can be treated with _________
3. ________ is an outbreak of disease that is widespread
4. Bathing, brushing, washing of hands are examples of _______
5. Diseases caused by fungi can be treated with _________
Answer the following
i. State 2 ways of maintaining personal hygiene
ii. List 3 ways of contolling microorganism
iii. Name two diseases for which babies are immunized
SUB-TOPIC 2: VECTORS
CONTENT: Non-living agents that carry micro-organisms from one place to another include air, water and
food.
Living agents that carry micro-organisms from place to place are animals. These animals that carry
pathogenic (disease causing) micro-organisms are known as vectors.
Examples of vectors are cockroaches, fleas, mosquitoes, tsetse-flies, black flies, house flies, bed-bugs, ticks,
rats, dogs, cats, etc. Vectors may transmit micro-organisms from place to place or person to person either
mechanically or biologically.
(a) Mechanical Method: The vectors carry pathogens on various parts of their bodies e.g. legs, wings,
mouthparts, hairs, etc. The pathogens do not grow or multiply on the body of the vectors. Pathogens carried
in this way include Salmonella typhi, Vibro cholerae and Entamoeba histolytica.
(b) Biological Method: The vector in this case becomes infected with the pathogen when it feeds on the
body fluid of an infected person or animal. The pathogen develops and multiplies in the body of the vector
which then infects a healthy person when it goes to feed. Thus part of the pathogen’s life cycle takes place
in the body of the vector. Examples of such vectors and the pathogen they carry are;
(i) Anopheles mosquito (female) carries plasmodium (protozoan) that causes malaria.
(ii) Tsetse fly carries Trypanosome (protozoan) which causes sleeping sickness (Trypanosomiasis).
(iii) Aedes mosquito carries a virus that causes yellow fever / dengue fever.
Tapeworm; an endoparasite Tick; an ectoparasite

Blood fluke; an endoparasite Life cycle of human blood fluke
Control of Vectors
Vectors can be controlled by;
(i) Killing the vectors e.g. by spraying with insecticides, use of traps and poisons for rats, etc.
(ii) Use of larvicides to kill larval stages.
(iii) Clearing bushes around houses.
(iv) Destruction of breeding spots e.g. stagnant water should be drained to prevent mosquitoes from
breeding.
(v) Use of drugs to kill the micro-organism in the host.
(vi) Keeping the environment clean etc.
PRACTICE EXERCISE: fill in the gap

1. _______ is the vector of malaria
2. Larvicides kills the ______ stage of microorganism
3. Tsetse fly are carriers of _______
4. ________ are disease causing organisms
5. Mechanical methods involves carrying of pathogens on _________
Answer all questions

1. Define the term ‘vector’
2. Enumerate four vectors, the pathogens they carry and the diseases caused by these pathogens
3. State three ways by which vectors can be controlled
SUB-TOPIC 3: STUDENT’S HEALTH: MAINTENANCE OF GOOD HEALTH

CONTENT:
Maintaining the health of students and the people in a community is the responsibility of the individuals, the
community, the government and health organization. Ways of maintaining good public health include;
1. Proper observance of personal hygiene. Keep yourself and your environment clean.
2. Proper refuse disposal e.g. burning in incinerators, burying in sanitary landfills, etc.

3. Proper sewage disposal e.g. use of pit toilets and water-closet toilets.
4. Protection of water supply by boiling, filtration, addition of chlorine, storage in clean containers, etc.
5. Protection of food by keeping them in clean containers, boiling or cooking properly before eating,
washing of fruits, vegetables and hands before eating, etc.
6. Health organizations such as United Nations Children’s Education Fund (UNCICEF), World Health
Organization (WHO), International Red Cross Society, etc. help to maintain the health of people in a
country through their corporate activities.

1. The organization in charge of children’s education fund is _________
2. The meaning of WHO is _________
3. Refuse are _________ waste
4. Liquid waste are called _______
5. Cholera is mostly spread by _________
Answer the following questions
1. List 2 functions of UNICEF
2. State 3 ways of maintaining good health habit as a students
3. Mention 2 functions of WHO
CONCLUSION
TOPICAL TEST: multiple Choice Questions
1. Which of these is not a vector? (a) Black fly (b) Dog (c) Snake (d) House fly
2. Deficiency of proteins the diet of young children will result in a disease called………. (a) Kwashiorkor
(b) marasmus (c) night blindness (d) river blindness
3. Which of these is not one of the uses of bacteria? (a) Production of amino-acids (b) manufacture of
lactic acid (c) Production of vinegar (d) leavening agent
4. The health organization that is saddled with the responsibility of providing for the emergency needs
of children in devastated areas is …..(a) International Red Cross Society (b) Nigerian Medical
association (c) United Nations Children’s Fund {UNICEF} (d) World Health Organization.
5. A way of providing good health in a community is……….(a) healthy living (b) control of diseases (c)
sewage disposal (d) all of the above
6. One of the methods of preventing measle is (a) vaccinating young children (b) attacking the
vectors (c) sleeping under mosquito nets (d) attacking the host
7. Viruses are pathogens of the following diseases except (a) measles (b) small pox (c) poliomyelitis
(d) tuberculosis
8. Which of this is a vector of malaria (a) male anopheles mosquito (b) Aedes mosquito (c) female
anopheles mosquito (d) culex mosquitoes
9. Which of the following parasites is a flatworm (a) ascaris (b) plasmodium (c) trypanosome (d)
amoeba

10. Which of the following is unlikely to respond to the treatment of antibiotics (a) typhoid fever (b)
measles (c) tetanus (d) ringworm
Answer
1. A balanced diet rich in ________________ and minerals is essential for maintaining good health.
2. Regular ________________ can help improve cardiovascular health and strengthen muscles.
3. Adequate _________ is crucial for staying hydrated and supporting various bodily functions.
4. ________ is a state of physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease.
5. Engaging in stress-reduction techniques like _____ and meditation can promote mental well-being.
6. Mosquitoes are known to be vectors for diseases such as ________________ fever and malaria.
7. Ticks can transmit illnesses like Lyme disease and ________________ encephalitis to humans.
8. Fleas are vectors for diseases like ________________ plague, which can be transmitted from
rodents to humans.
9. The tsetse fly is responsible for transmitting ________________ disease, a serious illness affecting
humans and animals.
10. Vectors are organisms that transmit pathogens from one host to another, contributing to the
spread of __________ diseases.
Theory
1. Explain briefly (i) diseases (ii) symptoms of diseases
2. State 3 functions of the world health organization
3. State 3 diseases associated with poor feeding hygiene
4. List 3 ways by which microorganisms can be controlled
5. State three ways by which mosquito can be controlled in the environment
GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

1. Immunity: this refer to the body’s ability to prevent the invasion of pathogens.
2. Vaccination: the act of introducing a vaccine into the body to produce protection from a specific
disease.
3. Immunization: a process by which a person becomes protected against a disease through
vaccination
4. Quarantine: This is a restriction on the movement of people, animals and goods which is intended
to prevent the spread of disease of pests.
Matching Game:
Practice:

1. Brushing teeth
2. Washing hands
3. Taking a shower
4. Using deodorant
5. Trimming nails
Description:
A. Helps remove dirt, bacteria, and germs from your hands.
B. Prevents bad breath and tooth decay.
C. Cleanses the body and removes sweat and dirt.
D. Controls body odor by reducing bacteria on the skin.
E. Prevents nails from becoming dirty and breaking.
INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES: “Time and health are two precious assets that we don’t recognize and
appreciate until they have been depleted”

WEEK: THREE
TOPIC: AQUATIC HABITAT; Marine Habitat
(i) State the characteristics of marine habitat
(ii) Mention the major zones in the marine habitat
(iii) State the distribution of plants and animals in the marine habitat
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students are familiar with their environment.
SUB-TOPIC 1: MARINE HABITAT
CONTENT:
An aquatic habitat is a body of water in which organisms live. Such organisms are called aquatic organisms
e.g. fish, algae, crabs, etc.
There are three types of aquatic habitat namely,

1. the marine/salt water habitat;
2. the estuarine/brackish water habitat and
3. the freshwater habitat.
The marine habitat is a body of salty water. It is made up of the shore and open sea. Examples are the oceans
and seas.
Characteristics of Marine Habitat

a. High salinity; about 35.2 parts of salt per 1000 parts of water.
b. High density of about 1.028; this enables organisms float in it.
c. Pressure increases with depth.
d. It is the largest of all habitats. It occupies over 70% of Earth’s total area.
e. There is action of waves.
f. There is tide action i.e. alternate rise and fall in level of sea water twice a day.
g. The water is alkaline with pH of 8.0 – 9.0 near the surface
h. Oxygen concentration decreases with depth.
i. Light penetration decreases with depth.
j. Currents are always produced by winds at the surface of the ocean.

1. Body water in which organism live is called __________
2. The degree of concentration of salt solution in ocean is called _________
3. ________ is the largest of all habitat
4. Currents are produced by __________
5. Pressure _______ with depth

Answer all question
1. Define the marine habitat
2. State 5 characteristics of the marine habitat
3. Define salinity
SUB-TOPIC 2: MAJOR ZONES OF A MARINE HABITAT

CONTENT:
It has two major zones
(i) Littoral zone
(ii) Bentic zone
I. LITTORAL ZONE (Continental shelf)

This zone is sub divided into:
a. splash zone
b. intertidal zone
c. sub-tidal zone
A. Splash zone: this zone is just above the high tide mark, and is wetted by the spray from breaking wave. It
has occasional moisture since it is the area where water splashes when the waves break at the shore.
B. Intertidal Zone: This covers the shoreline between the high and low tides. The zone is covered with water
during high tide and exposed to air during low tide. This happens twice daily. The zone is exposed to wave
action and has high photosynthetic activities because of abundant sunlight.
C. The Sub-tidal zone: This is the zone that extends over the continental shelf to a depth of about 200metres.
The zone experiences more variations in temperature, water turbulence, salinity and lightning more than
any other zone. It is the main site of commercial fish harvest. Its high productivity is attributed to its richness
in nutrients, a large part of it being in the lighted (photic) part of the ocean.
II. BENTHIC ZONE (Continental slope)
This zone is characterized by:

A. Benthic zone: This consists of the deep water that extends beyond the continental shelf, from about
500m to the very depths of the ocean. It has very low light penetration and low nutrients.
B. Pelagic or abyssal zone: this zone is about 3000m, and has low light penetration, high pressure, low
photosynthetic activities and the primary production of food is by chemosynthesis.
C. Hadal or aphotic zone: it is the deepest zone, ranging from 7000m, The water is dark and cold, i.e no
light penetration, and on photosynthetic activities.
PRACTICE EXERCISE: fill in the gap question

1. ______ zone is wetted by occasional moisture from the sea or oceans
2. The zones that is characterized by high photosynthetic action is called ______
3. Continental slope is also refered to as ________ zone
4. ______ are producers in the marine habitat
5. The zones in which little or no organism is found is called ______
Answer all questions
1. State the major zones in the marine habitat
2. State two characteristics each of the zones above
3. Why is the aphotic zone not suitable for live
SUB-TOPIC 3: DISTRIBUTION OF THE ORGANISMS IN THE HABITAT AND THEIR ADAPTIVE

FEATURES
CONTENT:
1. Splash zone/Shore organisms: On rocky shores, periwinkles and shore slaters are found in the area that
water splashes when waves break (also called splash zone). Barnacles, oysters, mussels and limpets are
found on the intertidal zone of the rocks. Anemones, sponges and seaweeds are found on sheltered parts
of rocks. Sea urchins, sea cucumbers and seaweeds are found in rock crevices. Most of these organisms have
adhesive structures so as to be able to withstand wave and tide action. Example;
(i) Sargassum (a seaweed) is attached to rocks by holdfasts.
(ii) Barnacles are cemented to the rocks
(iii) Limpets have feet with which they hold unto rocks.
Sandy shore organisms include starfish, ghost crabs, bivalves and annelids. Their major adaptation is to
burrow into the sand so as to escape being washed away by waves and tides.
(i) The shell of the starfish prevents it from drying up and it has tube feet which enable it to hold onto rocks.
(ii) Periwinkles have lungs to breath and foot for attachment.
(iii) The ghost crab has gills for breathing in water and a spongy structure for breathing on land.
(iv) Crabs can burrow into the mud quickly to protect themselves against predators, strong waves and tides.
Star fish holding unto a rock.

Mussels in a tide pool.
2. Intertidal organisms: These include bivalves, mollusks, barnacles, anemones, worms, etc.
These organisms face the challenge of exposure and drying out. To overcome this;
(i) Barnacles, mollusks and worms on rocky areas withdraw into their shells or tubes which hold some water.
(ii) Bivalves have special feet for digging into the sand or mud.
3. Sub-tidal organisms: These include lobsters, crayfish and fishes like the sting ray and sole.
The sting ray’s body is flattened from top to bottom and so it lives on the sea floor. The sole is also flat, it
lies on its lower side and has both eyes on the upper side. These fishes lie buried in the sandy sea floor and
hunt for small animals there.
The lobsters and crayfish have claws for seizing prey.
Crayfish Lobster
4. Benthic organisms: These are mainly consumers and decomposers. Fishes that live in the deep sea are
adapted to live under conditions of great pressure. Some have expandable mouths and stomachs for
swallowing large prey. Most live on dead remains of organisms from surface waters above.
The open waters support planktons and nektons.
Planktons are microscopic organisms which float, drift or swim slowly on the surface waters. They include
producers like diatoms and seaweeds and consumers such as protozoa, copepods, worms, larvae and
mollusks. Adaptations of planktons that help them stay afloat include; oil globules inside the body; gas-filled
external floats and bubble rafts; external spines and hair which (provide friction and prevent sinking).

Nektons are actively swimming animals e.g. fishes, whales, prawns and squids. Adaptive features of fishes
include;
(i) a streamlined muscular body coupled with fins which help them move swiftly in water.
(ii) bony fishes have gas-filled swim bladders which help them to move to different depths in water.
(iii) Sharks and dogfish have the ability to retain urea in their body to cope with high salinity.
(iv) The herring take in salt water to maintain osmotic balance between their tissue fluids and the salt water.
(v) Some bony fishes possess salt secreting glands in their gills for osmoregulation.
Squid
Ragged-tooth shark

1. Periwinkles have _________ to breath
2. lobsters and crayfish have _______ for seizing prey
3. bony fishes have _______ which help them to move to different depths in water.
4. The ghost crab has _______ for breathing in water
Answer the following question
1. List two organisms in the benthic zones and how they adapt to their environment
2. List two organisms in the splash zones and how they adapt to their environment
3. List two organisms in the intertidal zones and how they adapt to their environment
CONCLUSION
1. Which of the following best describes the marine habitat? A large body of water (a) which has no
distinct colour (b) with high concentration of salt (c) with no weeds (d) with little suspended
materials
2. Ponds, rivers, oceans, sea are grouped as _______ (a) ecosystem (b) terrestrial habitat (c) marine
habitat (d) aquatic habitat
3. Which of the following is not associated with aquatic habitats (a) salinity (b) turbidity (c) edaphic
(d) temperature
4. The surface of the marine habitat is called the…………… zone. (a) aphotic (b) splash (c) littoral
(d) sub-tidal
5. Floating plants are called….. (a) benthos (b) newtons (c) phytoplanktons (d) zooplanktons
6. The largest and deepest aquatic habitat is the…… (a) lake (b) ocean (c) river (d) sea
7. The benthos are found at the ……. of an aquatic habitat (a) bottom (b) middle (c) side (d) surface.
8. Starfish possess………..which help them hold unto rocks (a) cemented shells (b) Hard shells (c)
tube feet (d) tube shells
9. Plants found in aquatic habitat are generally refered to as (a) epiphytes (b) xerophytes (c)
hydrophytes (d) halophytes
10. What is the critical limiting factors of plants below the photic zone in an aquatic ecosystem (a)
availability of nutrients (b) availability of water (c) intensity of light (d) carbondioxide
concentration
SUB OBJECTIVES QUESTIONS
1. The marine habitat includes all the bodies of ______ on Earth, including oceans, seas, and gulfs.
2. The sunlight zone in the marine habitat is the uppermost layer where photosynthesis occurs,
allowing plants to thrive through __________ energy.
3. Coral reefs are diverse and intricate ecosystems found in the marine habitat, providing a habitat for
numerous marine ____________.
4. The deep sea, also known as the ________________ zone, is characterized by extreme pressure,
cold temperatures, and unique species adapted to this environment.
5. Estuaries are transitional areas where freshwater meets saltwater, creating a vital habitat for
various ___________ species.
6. ________________ zones are regions in the marine habitat where the water column transitions
from shallow to deep, and they often contain diverse ecosystems.
7. The ________________ is a cold ocean current that flows along the western coast of South
America, impacting marine life and weather patterns.

8. The marine habitat plays a crucial role in regulating the Earth's ________________ by absorbing and
storing a significant amount of heat.
9. Mangroves are unique coastal ecosystems found in the marine habitat that provide important
________________ habitats and protect shorelines from erosion.
10. Ocean ________________ refers to the accumulation of plastic waste in the marine habitat, posing
a significant threat to marine life and ecosystems.
Theory
1. What are nektons
2. State the major zones in the marine habitat
3. List 5 characteristics of marine habitats
4. Give 3 examples of organisms in the splash zones and their adaptive features
5. Give 2 examples of organisms in the intertidal zones and their adaptive features
1. Nektons: This refers to the actively swimming aquatic organisms in a body of water. E.g fish
2. Planktons: meaning “drifter or wanderer”. They are microscopic organisms that lives in the ocean
and rely on water currents to move.
3. Aphotic: meaning “without light”. Is the portion of a lake or ocean where there is no light.
4. Photic: is the uppermost layer of a body of water that receives sunlight.

questions.)
Match each coastal ecosystem with its description:
1. Mangrove Forests
2. Salt Marshes
3. Seagrass Beds
4. Rocky Shorelines
Descriptions:
1. Ecosystems that provide important nesting and breeding grounds for many fish and bird species.
2. Coastal wetlands that buffer against storm surges and provide habitat for various species.
3. Underwater habitats that support a variety of marine life and stabilize the seafloor.
4. Vegetated coastal habitats that offer protection from erosion and serve as nurseries for juvenile
fish.
INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES: “Ocean separates lands, not souls”

WEEK: FOUR
TOPIC: ESTUARINE HABITAT
(i) State the meaning of estuarine habitat
(ii) State the characteristics of estuarine habitat
(iii) State ways of classifying plants
SUB-TOPIC 1: CHARACTERISTICS OF ESTARINE HABITAT:
CONTENT:
An estuarine habitat is ecological zone where river and sea water meet, thus to establish brackish conditions.
Brackish water has a salinity which fluctuates with the tides and the wet and dry seasons. It is neither salt
water nor freshwater, but the intermediary between both. It occurs where freshwater interact with salt
water.
Characteristics of Estuarine Habitat
Some characteristics of estuarine habitat include:
i. It has a fluctuating salinity
ii. It has Poor aerated substratum or saturated soil that lack oxygen.
iii. There is mild wave action.
iv. There is high and low tidal influence.
v. Soil erosion is prominent.
vi. It is exposed and prone to flood periodically.
1. The salinity is the estuarine is always ________
2. Another name for estuarine is the __________
3. A place where freshwater interact with salt water is _________
4. Estuarine habitats are where freshwater from rivers and __________ from oceans mix.

1. Define estuarine habitat.
2. Outline three characteristics of estuarine habitat.

SUB-TOPIC 2: TYPES OF ESTUARY
CONTENT:
1. Mashes
2. Deltas
3. Lagoons
4. Bay
5. Swamps
1. Mashes: brackish water mash is usually found in intertidal areas which are periodically flooded and
drained by the tides. They are especially common along the coastal areas near estuaries
2. Deltas: this is where a river divides into many channels before entering into oceans or sea. it is formed
at the mouth of a river as it enters the sea.
3. Lagoon: a body of ocean water that enters into the land through a canal therefore has the
opportunity of mixing with fresh water from rivers and streams.
4. Bay: it is a small body of sea water which enters into land and mixes up with fresh water from rivers
and streams.
5. Swamps: a swamp is wetland with vegetation found in temperate and tropical regions. Brackish
water mash is usually found along coastal areas or intertidal areas which are periodically flooded and
drained by the tides.
Types of Estuary based on salt mixing

We have the following:
a. Salt wedge estuary.
b. Vertically homogeneous estuary.
c. Partially mixed estuary.

Estuary
This diagram illustrates the three main types of estuarine mixing. Tides, wind, wave motions, and river runoff
all contribute to create various water conditions within estuaries. Salt wedge estuaries, such as the
Mississippi Delta, exist where the river current exceeds the tidal current. Equal river and tidal currents, such
as those in the Chesapeake Bay, create a partially mixed estuary. Where the tidal range exceeds the
freshwater inflow, as in the Bay of Fundy, mixing is more complete and a vertically homogenous estuary is
created.
1. A place where a river divides into many channels before entering into oceans or sea is called ______
2. A small body of sea water which enters into land and mixes up with fresh water from rivers and
streams is ______
3. _______ ia a body of ocean water that enters into the land through a canal therefore has the
opportunity of mixing with fresh water from rivers and streams.

1. Mention three types of estuary.
2. Explain the two aboved
SUB-TOPIC 3: DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANISMS IN AN ESTUARY

CONTENT:
Plants: we have
a. Red mangrove, Rhizophora sp. which is the main species of flowering plant in the lagoons or
estuaries and
b. White mangrove, Avicennia sp. occur in areas of higher salinity and drier land than the red plants.
c. Plankton protists such as diatoms, and flamentous algae.
d. Fern plant, Acrostil chumaureum (the only fern able to withstand salt water) grows in this habitat,
so also are
e. Numerous grasses (paspalum sp.)
Animals:
a. Invertebrates: mitten crabs, starfish, arenicola, mudskipper, lancelet and barnacles. The animals
commonly found in the estuaries or lagoons are those that can withstand salinity variations and they
include the bloody clam, common lagoon crab, hermit crab, the hairy mangrove crab, the fiddler crab,
cichlids, the prawns, Ethmalosa, Arins, and the grey mullet (Mugil).
b. Birds: such birds as the herons, waders and palm nut vulture are found here.
c. Mammals include bats and monkeys.

ADAPTATIONS OF ESTUARINE ORGANISMS
PLANTS:
White mangrove has breathing roots to permit intake of atmospheric air and their leaves can excrete salts.
The red mangrove has still roots to enable it to withstand strong ocean winds
To ensure development of the seedlings and to avoid being swept off by ocean current, some seeds
germinate on the parent plant.
ANIMALS:
Crabs have air-breathing lungs-like structures for breathing.
Starfish have tube feet to hold fast.
Barnacles and starfish have shell- like covering to protect them from drying up.
Food Chain in Estuarine Habitat
1. Diatoms Small fish Shark Man.
2. Detritus Shrimp Fish Bird.

1. White mangrove has _________ to permit intake of atmospheric air
2.
CONCLUSION
TOPICAL TEST: (10 multiple Choice Questions, 10 fill in the gap questions and 5 essay question)
1. Organisms living in the estuarine habitat are adapted to (a) withstand wide fluntuations in
temperature (b) survive only in water with low salinity (c) withstand wide fluctuations in salinity
(d) feed on phytoplanktons and dead matter
2. Which of the following is not a type of estuary (a) tidal marshes (b) river mouth (c) embayment
(d) pandanus
3. What is an estuary? A) A type of desert habitat B) A coastal area where freshwater from rivers
meets and mixes with saltwater from the ocean C) A high mountain range D) A type of rainforest
habitat
4. Which of the following words describes the mixture of freshwater and saltwater found in estuaries?
A) Brackish B) Freshwater C) Saline D) Pure water
5. What is the role of estuaries as nurseries for many species of fish? A) Estuaries provide a safe haven
for adult fish. B) Estuaries have deep waters that provide shelter for fish. C) Estuaries offer a rich

source of food and protection for young fish to grow and develop. D) Estuaries have a high salt
concentration that benefits fish growth.
6. Which of the following is a common plant found in estuarine habitats that can tolerate saltwater?
A) Cactus B) Maple tree C) Pine tree D) Mangrove tree
7. What important role do estuaries play in the environment? A) They provide a place for waste
disposal. B) They act as barriers against coastal storms. C) They help maintain water levels in rivers.
D) They filter pollutants and provide habitat for diverse species.
8. What is a salt marsh? A) A type of desert habitat B) A grassy wetland area flooded by the tides with
a mixture of saltwater and freshwater C) A mountainous region D) A forest habitat
9. Why are estuaries considered to be highly productive ecosystems? A) They have very few plants
and animals. B) They are home to only a few species. C) They have a high concentration of salt. D)
They provide abundant food and nutrients, supporting a wide variety of life.
10.

1. An _________ is a partially enclosed coastal body of water where freshwater from rivers and
streams meets and mixes with saltwater from the ocean.
2. Estuaries serve as critical __________ areas for various species of fish, crabs, and birds during
different stages of their life cycles.
3. The salinity of estuarine water can vary widely due to the _____ mixing of freshwater and saltwater.
4. ________ are important vegetation found in estuaries that stabilize shorelines, provide habitat, and
improve water quality.
5. Estuaries play a crucial role in ________ by filtering pollutants and nutrients from runoff before they
reach the ocean.
6. Estuaries are highly productive ecosystems that provide ________ for many species, including
migratory birds and commercially important fish.
7. The mixing of freshwater and saltwater in estuaries creates a unique gradient of ________________
that supports a diverse range of organisms.
8. _________ are important geological features found in estuaries, formed by the accumulation of
sediment at the meeting point of freshwater and saltwater.
9. Estuaries are vulnerable to _________ pollution, which can come from agricultural runoff, industrial
discharges, and urban development.
10. The tidal movements in estuaries contribute to the circulation of nutrients and _________, making
these habitats essential for marine food chains.
Theory questions
1. What is an estuary, and how does it form?
2. Describe the mixing of freshwater and saltwater in an estuary and how it affects salinity gradients.
3. Explain the concept of tides and their influence on water movement and nutrient distribution in
estuaries.
4. What are the major threats to estuarine ecosystems, and how can they be mitigated or managed?

5. Provide examples of animal species that rely on estuaries for different stages of their life cycles and
explain why these habitats are essential for their survival.

1. Breathing roots: specialized roots above the ground
2. Stilt roots: the adventitious roots that develop from the base of stem nodes
3. Estuary: A coastal area where freshwater from rivers meets and mixes with saltwater from the
ocean. Estuaries are characterized by fluctuating salinity levels and are important ecosystems for
many species.
4. Brackish: Refers to water that has a mix of both freshwater and saltwater, typically found in
estuarine environments.
5. Salt Marsh: A type of wetland habitat that is flooded and drained by tides, consisting of grasses,
sedges, and other salt-tolerant plants. Salt marshes serve as important nurseries for various marine
species.
6. Mangrove: A type of salt-tolerant tree that grows along coastal areas and estuaries. Mangroves
provide important habitat and protection for various marine species.
7. Tidal Flats: Coastal areas that are exposed during low tides and submerged during high tides. Tidal
flats are characterized by mud or sand and provide feeding grounds for birds and other organisms.
8. Nursery: A location, often estuarine habitats, where young fish, crustaceans, and other aquatic
organisms find protection and abundant food as they grow.
9. Filter Feeder: An organism that feeds by filtering out particles from the water, such as plankton and
algae. Many estuarine species are filter feeders.
10. Intertidal Zone: The area between the highest high tide and the lowest low tide, where organisms
are adapted to withstand exposure to air and changing water levels.
11. Salinity: The concentration of salt in water. Estuarine habitats have variable salinity due to the
mixing of freshwater and saltwater.
12. Fauna: The animal species present in a particular area or ecosystem. Estuarine habitats support a
diverse range of aquatic and avian fauna.
13. Flora: The plant species present in a particular area or ecosystem. Estuarine flora includes salt-
tolerant plants like mangroves and marsh grasses
14. Oyster Reef: A structure formed by the accumulation of oyster shells and live oysters. Oyster reefs
provide habitat for various species and help improve water quality.
15. Wetland: An area of land saturated with water, such as marshes, swamps, and bogs. Estuarine
habitats often include various

MESRTUYWSDIOTOTAFLATSLTOLTPROUNASRYNHTNADAPTAGOBDIVERSITY
NERREEFOSTEDOMLLIEOSYDTESLTNILILIVTAHTIDALFLATSREEEFSONLADA
CUALSCESEDIMENTTATDTILTISNILIMORATUAEBIODIVERSITYADAPTATIONI
ORECRELCONSERVATIONYSTIDALFLATSALTEUNNLAFLORATLLIEDAATIDALF
LATSA
Words to find:
1. Mangrove
2. Brackish
3. Tide
4. Salt marsh
5. Oyster reef
6. Estuary
7. Nursery
8. Wetland
9. Ecosystem
10. Biodiversity
11. Intertidal
12. Adaptation
13. Sediment
14. Conservation
15. Tidal flats
16. Flora
"Estuaries are a symbol of harmony between land and sea, a reminder that we must work together to
protect and preserve these precious habitats."

WEEK: FIVE
TOPIC: FRESHWATER HABITAT AND TERRESTRIAL MASH
(i) State the Characteristics of freshwater habitat
(ii) Mention various freshwater organisms.
(iii) Terrestrial habitat: marsh
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students have learnt about the aquatic habitat
SUB-TOPIC 1: CHARACERISTICS OF FRESHWATER HABITAT
CONTENT:
The freshwater habitat includes the lakes, ponds, streams, springs, and rivers. These water bodies are known
for low salt content or low salinity. The animals and plants in freshwater habitat vary from the ones in the
estuarine habitat. This is due to the salinity factor.
Some characteristics of freshwater habitat include:
1. It has low salt content.
2. Relatively small body of water.
3. The water is shallow.
4. Its temperature varies with depth and season.
5. Low density water.
6. Turbidity depends on season.
7. There is available oxygen in all parts of water but more at the surface.
8. Freshwater habitat accommodates bony fishes like tilapia.
TYPES OF FRESHWATER
Freshwater is divided into two broad types:
1. Stagnant water (lentic): pools, pond, puddles, and lakes.
2. Running water (lotic): Springs, streams, and rivers.

Tidal Pool
The fluctuation of the tide allows for a unique environment along shorelines. The current continually
circulates and replenishes a rich supply of nutrients along beaches, but organisms living there must be
adapted to both buffeting waves and frequent shifts from open air to complete submersion. Marine
organisms adapt to the constantly changing surroundings in a variety of ways. Starfish use suction-cup feet,
barnacles fix permanently to large objects like rocks and boats, and seaweed anchors firmly to the ocean
floor. When the tide goes out, pockets of water remain trapped in rocks, depressions in the sand, and natural
basins called tidal pools, like the one shown here during low tide.
1. In freshwater, the water is _________________
2. Freshwater is mainly characterized with _______ salt content
3. Stagnant water also called _______
4. Lotic is refered to as ________ water

1. Mention five water bodies that can be categorise as freshwater habitat.
2. List two major types of freshwater habitat with three examples each.
SUB-TOPIC 2: FRESH WATER ORGANISM

CONTENT:
Zones in Fresh Water Habitat

In freshwater habitat, four major zones are considered:
1. The edge of the water.
2. Water surface.
3. Body of water.
4. Bottom of water.
Fresh Water Organism

Some organisms in freshwater habitat include:
PLANTS: grasses, raffia palm, algae, bamboos, sedges, water lettuce, duckweed, microscopic plankton,
water hyacinth, submerged plants such as phytoplankton(algae), ceratophylum, , bacteria, water lilies,
spirogyra, hornwort and bladderwort.
ANIMALS: crabs, water snails, dragon flies, water snakes, toads, frogs, mosquito larvae/pupae, water
scorpion, tadpoles, water bugs, diving beetles, fishes such as tilapia, flatworms, insect larvae, molluscs,
worms, copepods, water skaters, water beetles, mud fish and cat fish, planarian, and dragonfly nymph.
Stream Life
(Left): At the stream’s source, animals must be able to withstand both the cold and the rapid current of the
strong headwater. Some organisms, especially the smaller ones, have hooks and suckers to help them cling
to the rocks; most have streamlined bodies that minimize drag.
(Right): Free-swimming organisms populate the lower, slower areas of the stream.
Adaptation of Organisms to Fresh Water
Those features of organisms which structurally, physiologically, and behaviorally fit them for life in their
particular habitats and improve their chances of survival are known as adaptations. They are adapted to the
environment in the following ways:
1. Some animals attach to stationary objects by adhesive structures like suckers (leech), foot (water
snail) and hooked claws (mayfly nymph).
2. Most submerged water plants have extensive parenchyma with large air spaces which enable oxygen
to diffuse to all parts of the plants during photosynthesis.
3. Crustaceans use antennal gland as osmo-regulatory organ.
4. The lung fishes (protopterus) use gills for respiration but when the water dries up, they dig into the
mud and breathe with lungs until the rains.
5. The presence of chloroplasts even in the epidermal cells of leaves and stems of submerged plants for
photosynthesis.
6. A streamlined body is typical of many animals from insect larvae to fish for swimming
7. Roots are shorter and less branched, while rootless are devoid of root hairs for support.
8. Submerged plants absorb water and nutrients directly due to lack of cuticle.
Pond and Lake Life

Still water, in general are much warmer than rivers and streams, and can support many different
kinds of plant and animal life. The silty bed of ponds and the shallower parts of lakes support rooted
plants and burrowing larva, food for free-swimming animals such as fish and frogs. In deeper zones,
where oxygen is less abundant, only animals adapted to the cold environment exist. Plankton
develop at all levels.
1. In a freshwater habitat, the shallow, sunlit area near the shoreline is known as the ________ zone.
2. The ________ zone is typically inhabited by bottom-dwelling organisms such as insects,
crustaceans, and fish that can tolerate low oxygen levels.
3. The ________ zone is where decomposition of organic matter occurs, playing a crucial role in
nutrient cycling within the freshwater habitat.
4. The ________ zone of a freshwater habitat experiences the most fluctuation in water levels due to
changing weather patterns and human activities.
5. The ________ zone is home to scavengers and detritus feeders that help break down dead plant
and animal material, contributing to the ecosystem's health. Answer: benthic

1. Outline four zones or areas of freshwater habitat.
2. List 3 plants and animals of freshwater habitat.
3. Enumerate five adaptive measures of plants and animals
SUB-TOPIC 3: TERRESTRIAL HABITAT-MARSH

CONTENT:
Marshland is a treeless land in which the water table is at, above, or just below the surface of the ground; it
is dominated by grasses, reeds, sedges, and cattails. These plants typify emergent vegetation, which has its
roots in soil covered or saturated with water and its leaves held above water.

Llanrhidian Marsh
The salt marsh channels on Llanrhidian Marsh in South Wales slowly fill with water on the incoming tide,
watched by a flock of oystercatchers and gulls. The diurnal cycle of the tides flooding and exposing the
flats generates a unique ecosystem rich in marine life. Salt marshes are found in the intertidal zone along
low-energy coastlines, forming along the margins of estuaries, where freshwater from the land mixes with
sea water. The extensive root systems of salt marsh plants enable them to withstand strong winds, waves,
and flooding from storms, and act as natural buffers against storm damage to upland development.
Marshes may be freshwater or salt. Freshwater marshes develop along the shallow margins of lakes and
slow-moving rivers, forming when ponds and lakes become filled with sediment. Salt marshes occur on
coastal tidal flats. Inland salt marshes occupy the edges of saline lakes. The nature of a marsh—its plant
composition, species richness, and productivity—is strongly influenced by its relationship to surrounding
ecosystems. They affect the supply of nutrients, the movement of water, and the type and deposition of
sediment.
In the prairie pothole country of glaciated central North America, freshwater marshes undergo a cyclic
renewal that is induced by periodic drought and dependent on the feeding habits of muskrats. The cycle
begins with a nearly dry marsh in which seeds of aquatic plants germinate in the mud. When the marsh fills,
the aquatic plants grow densely. Muskrats eat large areas of the emergent vegetation, creating patches of
open water. This causes the shallow-water emergent to decline, but the submerged and floating species
persist. When the next drought comes, the cycle begins again.
Salt marshes are best developed on the Atlantic coasts of North America and Europe. In eastern North
America the low marsh is dominated by a single species, salt-marsh cord grass. The high marsh consists of a
short cord grass called hay, spike grass, and glasswort. Glasswort is the dominant plant of Pacific Coast salt
marshes.
WATER AND VEGETATION PATTERN

In some marshes, such as the saw-grass wetlands of the Everglades or in salt marshes that are swept twice
daily by tidal floods, water flows like a sheet across the surface, and the terrain is typically dominated by
one or two species of emergent vegetation. In other marshes the water flows in channels rather than in
sheets, flooding only at times of snowmelt and heavy precipitation and bringing in nutrients and sediment.
Such irregular deposition of sediments provides variations in water depth, thus creating conditions
favourable for a variety of wetland species. Deep marsh water is colonized by aquatic submerged plants
(pond weeds) and floating plants (pond lilies). Shallower water supports reeds and wild rice. Very shallow
water supports sedges, bulrushes, and cattails.
As sediments and organic deposits raise the bottom of a marsh above the water table, aquatic vegetation is
gradually replaced by shrubs and eventually by a terrestrial ecosystem of upland grasses or forest trees.
IMPORTANCE
Freshwater marshes provide nesting and wintering habitats for waterfowl and shorebirds, muskrats, frogs,
and many aquatic insects (see Freshwater Life). Salt marshes are wintering grounds for snow geese and
ducks, a nesting habitat for herons and rails, and a source of nutrients for estuarine waters (see Estuary).
Marshes are important in flood control, in sustaining high-water tables, and as settling basins to reduce
pollution downstream. Despite their great environmental value, marshes are continually being destroyed by
drainage and filling.
Marsh Deer
Blastocerus dichtomus A female marsh deer shows off her summer colour of bright chestnut brown. The
unique colour and large ears of this deer distinguish it from smaller South American deer. As its name
suggests, the marsh deer lives in marshy areas with dense brush where it can feed on grasses and legumes.
The species is rare throughout its range because of habitat destruction, overhunting, and susceptibility to
diseases contracted from agricultural livestock.
Characteristics of Marshland
i. Marshes are low-lying wetlands covered under shallow waters for long periods of time.
ii. They are usually formed in lowlands and plains near lakes and creeks, river banks or river mouths
where water drainage is poor.
iii. They consist of grass-like vegetations which is able to grow in a waterlogged soil.
iv. Due to abundance of nutrients and mineral present in the water, marshes are breeding and nursing
grounds for wide variety of organisms.
v. The relative humidity in the atmosphere over the habitat is usually high.
vi. The water bodies usually contain much decaying organic matter.
vii. The decay of organic matter takes place on a large scale in a marsh and this causes a decrease in the
oxygen content of the water. Under the mainly anaerobic conditions in the water or soil, foul smelling
gases may be produced in which hydrogen sulphide and methane may be present. The products of

this decomposition change the chemical properties of the marsh. For instance, some marshes are
very strongly acidic.
TYPES OF MARSHES
Marshes may be either saltwater or freshwater marshes. In Nigeria, salt water marshes are found along the
Atlantic coast, which is influenced by the tides. Usually, freshwater flowing down the river, which empty into
the sea, mixes with tidal sea water in the estuaries, creeks and lagoons. However, in the dry season, the
volume of river water is relatively small, and large in the rainy season. This large volume of river water mixes
together with tidal seawater in estuaries, creeks, and lagoons, filling them up and causing them to overflow
their banks.
The water that floods the land near the estuaries, creeks and lagoons is a mix of fresh and salt water; hence
the marshes are called saltwater marshes.
Freshwater marshes occur inland, just beyond the limits of the saltwater marshes and beyond the areas
influenced by tides. In this zone, only the freshwater of the rivers overflows the river banks to flood the
adjoining lowland, forming freshwater marshes.
PLANTS AND ANIMALS IN THE MARSHES

Plants found in saltwater marshes include various grasses and also algae that float on the water surface.
Major animals include mangrove crab, lagoon crab, hermit crab, mudskipper fish, bloody calm (Arcasenillis),
oysters, barnacles and angel-fish.
Freshwater marshes also have floating plants in standing water like algae, water lettuce, Lemna and Salvinia
(water arum), various ferns and varieties of sword grass. The animals include frogs and toads, as well as
fishes and birds that wade into the water to feed on fish for example, the heron.
ADAPTIVE FEATURES OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS IN MARSHES

The varying condition of the marsh makes the organisms ready to adapt to all kinds of condition:
a. A soft muddy bottom that provides little support and anchorage;
b. Low oxygen levels or an anaerobic environment in the soil;
c. High salinity in salt marshes and
d. Change in water levels due to the ebb and flow of tides.
Animals
a. Invertebrates such as clams, shellfishes, shrimps and oysters;
b. Reptiles like the salt marsh snakes and diamondback turtles;
c. Amphibians such as frogs and salamanders;

d. Birds like the great blue herons and clapper rails and
e. Mammals such as muskrats, racoons, rabbits, and river otters.
SUMMARILY
In saltwater marshes, all the organisms have to be able to tolerate the salinity of the soil or water. They also
have to tolerate the low oxygen concentration in the soil and water.
In freshwater marshes, the plants show adaptations similar to those of freshwater plants. Saprophytic
organisms such as bacteria, which live on the dead organic matters in marshes, have to adapt to the mainly
anaerobic conditions here.
1. Marshes are wetland habitats that are often found in areas with ________ water, such as along
coastlines or near rivers.
2. Marshes are characterized by their __________ vegetation, including grasses, reeds, and sedges.
3. Marshes play a vital role in filtering pollutants from water, acting as natural ________ systems for
surrounding areas.
4. The two main types of marshes are ________ marshes and salt marshes, which are determined by
their proximity to saltwater sources
5. One of the key functions of marshes is to provide habitat and breeding grounds for a diverse range
of ________ species, including birds, amphibians, and insects.

1. Define Marsh.
2. List types of Marshes.
3. State four characteristics of Marsh.
CONCLUSION
1. What is the primary source of freshwater in a freshwater habitat? a) Rainfall b) Ocean water c)
Groundwater d) Saltwater
2. Which type of plant is commonly found in marsh habitats due to its ability to tolerate wet
conditions? a) Cactus b) Pine tree c) Grasses d) Palm tree
3. What is a major function of marsh habitats in terms of water quality? a) Producing oxygen b)
Releasing carbon dioxide c) Purifying water d) Generating heat
4. What is the key difference between freshwater marshes and saltwater marshes? a) Freshwater
marshes have more plant species. b) Freshwater marshes are located further from the coastline. c)
Saltwater marshes have higher salt concentrations. d) Saltwater marshes are always dry.

5. Which type of habitat is characterized by slow-moving or still water and is commonly found near
rivers and lakes? a) Desert b) Rainforest c) Marsh d) Tundra
6. What role do marsh habitats play in flood control? a) They absorb excess water during heavy
rainfall. b) They increase water levels during floods. c) They redirect floodwaters towards
residential areas. d) They have no impact on flood control.
7. What is the terrestrial zone of a marsh habitat? a) The submerged area with aquatic vegetation b)
The transition zone between open water and land c) The area with emergent plants above water d)
The deep zone with no light penetration
8. What is the primary purpose of conserving marsh habitats? a) Providing habitat for urban
development b) Enhancing pollution in surrounding areas c) Preserving biodiversity and ecosystem
services d) Increasing flooding risk
9. What type of species are commonly found in marsh habitats due to the availability of water and
vegetation? a) Desert animals b) Polar bears c) Tropical birds d) Amphibians and insects
10. What type of water source is commonly found in marsh habitats? a) Fast-flowing rivers b) Saltwater
oceans c) Stagnant or slow-moving water d) Hot springs
SUBOBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. In a freshwater ecosystem, the main source of water is _______ such as lakes, rivers, and ponds.
2. The region where a river meets a lake or the sea is known as a ________, which often exhibits
unique ecological characteristics.
3. Aquatic plants, such as _________, are well-adapted to live submerged in freshwater habitats.
4. Freshwater habitats are home to a diverse range of aquatic ________________, including fish,
amphibians, and insects.
5. Wetlands are a type of freshwater habitat that provides essential services like _______ purification
and flood control.
6. A marsh is a type of wetland characterized by ________________ vegetation and saturated soil.
7. Marshes are often found in areas with slow-moving or __________ water, such as along coastlines
or in floodplains.
8. One common type of marsh is the ________ marsh, which is known for its tall grasses and sedges.
9. Marshes play a crucial role in ________________ habitats for various bird species during migration.
10. The dense vegetation in marsh habitats provides habitat and __________ for many aquatic and
terrestrial species.
ANSWER THE FOLLOWING

1. Explain the difference between lentic and lotic freshwater ecosystems, and provide examples of
each.
2. Discuss the importance of freshwater ecosystems for human communities and various organisms.
3. Explain the unique characteristics of marsh habitats and their ecological significance.
4. Describe the types of plants commonly found in marshes and their adaptations to the wetland
environment.

5. Discuss the role of marshes in providing habitat for wildlife, including migratory birds and
amphibians.
1. Emergent Vegetation: Tall plants that grow above the water's surface in marsh habitats, such as
reeds and cattails.
2. Aquatic Plants: Plants that grow in water, including submerged, floating, and emergent varieties.
3. Salt Marsh: A type of marsh habitat located in coastal areas, characterized by high salt
concentrations.
4. Freshwater Marsh: A marsh habitat found in areas with slow-moving freshwater, like rivers and
lakes.
5. Wetland: A land area saturated with water, often hosting marsh and other aquatic habitats.
6. Microhabitats: Small, specialized areas within a habitat that provide unique conditions for specific
species.
7. Purification: The process of removing pollutants and impurities from water in marsh habitats.
8. Flood Control: The ability of marsh habitats to absorb excess water during heavy rainfall, reducing
the risk of flooding.
9. Tidal Influence: The effect of changing tides on water levels in marsh habitats located near
coastlines.
10. Bird Roosting: Resting or nesting behavior of birds in marsh habitats, often in emergent
vegetation.

I am a habitat filled with water,
Home to fish, ducks, and otters,
With plants that float upon my surface,
Can you guess where I am?
"We won't have a society if we destroy the environment." - Margaret Mead

WEEK: SIX
TOPIC: TERRESTRIAL HABITAT – FOREST, GRASSLAND AND ARID LANDS
(i) State the characteristics, distribution and adaptation of organisms in the forest
(ii) State the characteristics, distribution and adaptation of organisms in the grasslands
(iii) State the characteristics, distribution and adaptation of organisms in the desert
(iv)
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students have learnt about the meaning of terrestrial habitat
SUB-TOPIC 1: FOREST
CONTENT:
A forest is a plant community in which tree species are dominant. There are different kinds of forests, whose
distribution is determined mainly by climate (particularly rainfall and temperature), but sometimes by
elevation, soil factors and the activities of man, such as farming lumbering, cutting of firewood, bush
burning, road construction and building construction. Forest used to cover most of southern Nigeria but the
area covered by forest has been reduced by human activity. The rain forest is the major type of forest in
Nigeria.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TROPICAL RAIN FOREST

i. The forest is rich in epiphytes and climbers.
ii. The interior of the forest has high humidity, low light intensity and damp floor.
iii. Tall trees with canopy strata.
iv. Trees are mesophytes with broad leaves.
v. Leaves of all trees have long drip tips to facilitate dripping off of water.
vi. The vegetation has a pattern of arrangement in storeys or layers.
vii. The forest floor is usually open with little vegetation.
viii. There is usually a large amount of leaf litter on the forest floor
ix. Leaves of all trees have long drip tips to facilitate dripping off of water.
x. Rainfall is usually very high.
STRATA IN A RAIN FOREST

The plants in a forest may be classified into five storeys or layers which are briefly described as follows:
1. The Emergent layer
2. The Upper layer
3. The Middle layer
4. The lower layer
5. The Ground layer/forest floor
1. The Emergent Layer: This is the topmost layer or storey made up of the tallest trees, over 40m tall,
called emergents. The crowns of the emergents do not normally touch one another.
2. The Upper Layer: this is the second storey or layer and is made up of tall trees, between 20m and
40m tall. Their crowns touch, forming a continuous canopy below the emergents.
3. The Middle Layer: The third layer is made up of small trees, less than 20m tall, which also form a
continuous canopy below the second or upper storey.
4. The Lower Layer: Below the third layer of trees is the shrub layer.
5. The Ground Layer/forest floor: the ground layer consists of shade-tolerant plants, including mosses
and ferns.
DITRIBUTION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS IN THE RAIN FOREST

Plants: Plants such as Mahogany, Mango trees, Coconut trees, Oil palm, Orchids Ferns and herbs.
Animals: There are Birds, Squirrels, Snakes, Toads and Snails.
ADAPTIVE FEATURES OF TROPICAL RAINFOREST ORGANISMS

Plants (Morphological features)
1. Trees have broad leaves to increase rates of transpiration or gaseous exchange of leaves pointed to
increases exposure to sunlight.
2. Leaves have pointed draw-out tips, for easy dripping of water or to prevent growth of fungi or algae
underneath.
3. Trees have thin back, to facilitate transpiration or gaseous exchange.
4. Plants with twining stems, for climbing up to source of light.
5. Presence of hydathodes, for guttations etc.

Temperate Rain Forest
Although scattered pockets of temperate rain forest are found from Mount Rainier northward into coastal
British Columbia, nowhere is their development as pronounced as in the Hoh, Queets, and Quinault river
drainages along the Pacific coast of the Olympic Peninsula in Washington State. These bowl-shaped river
valleys were scoured out during the last ice age, and the river valley shape and climate combine to allow
these temperate rain forests to flourish.
Animals: These include animals with gasping pads, e.g. tree frogs, grasping scales, e.g. snakes, the ability to
fly, e.g. birds, ability to jump, e.g. monkeys.
Example of food chain existing in the Habitat

Palm fruit Squirrel Snake Bird.
1. Animals found in the forest are called _______
2. A forest is characterized with _______
3. The topmost layer of the treses in the forest is called _______ layer
4. The major type of forest in Nigeria is the _______ forest
5. the amount of _______ determines the tropical rain forest

1. State four characteristics of the rain forest.

2. Outline the strata in the rain forest.
3. Mention five plants and animals in the rain forest.
SUB-TOPIC 2: GRASS LAND

CONTENT:
Grasslands are areas where the vegetation is dominated by grasses and other herbaceous plants. In West
Africa, savannah vegetation is about the most important types of vegetation. In Nigeria, over 80% of the
vegetation is one type of savannah or another.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GRASSLAND
1. The savanna vegetation is typified by tall grasses and scattered trees and shrubs. The species of
grasses in the sudan and sahel savannah are annuals which often have cylindrical leaves to reduce
transportation. During the dry season, the leaves of the grass turn yellow and die but the roots
remain dormant. The grasses are deciduous.
2. Savannah trees have thick barks which protect them from the effect of fire. Most of the trees are
deciduous, they shed their leaves in dry season to reduce loss of water by transpiration and because
of annual fire. The trees have long roots (e.g. acacia) to search to search for ground water.
3. Savannah vegetation is usually not as luxuriant as the forest vegetation. This is because the trees are
fewer, smaller in structure and scattered within the savannah habitat.
4. The annual burning and fire in the savanna reduce the quality of the humus in the soil, while the ash
retains some minerals salts which are washed into the soil during rains.
5. Rainfall is usually moderate (1000 -1500 min per year) distributed over 6 to 8 months of the year. The
dry season is longer in the savanna than the forest region.
6. Savannah soil is usually sandy, shallow of relative lower fertility than the forest soils.
7. Dry seasons bush fires and livestock grazing are common in the tropical savannah.

Fouta Djallon Savanna
While most of the Fouta Djallon region in Guinea is a rugged mountain plateau cut by deep valleys, the
eastern portion is gently sloping land covered in part by savanna. The largest ethnic group of the region is
the Fulani, many of whom raise cattle on the grasslands. The Fulani arrived in the region in about the 10th
century, and later established a series of kingdoms throughout the area which stood until defeated by
colonial powers in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
TYPES OF GRASSLANDS
The two main types of grassland are tropical and temperate savanna. Tropical savannas occur in
West and East Africa, Southern Africa, north of the tropic of Capricorn, part of Brazil, north and east of
Astralian Desert and part of Indian deccan Plateau. About 80% of the vegetation of Nigeria is savanna type.
The different types of savanna vegetation in West Africa include – the Guinea savanna, the Sudan savanna
and the Sahel savanna.
Temperate grassland includes the Steppe of Asia, Prairies of North America, Pampas of Argentina, Veldt of
South Africa and Downs of Murray Darling Basin of grasslands are almost treeless. Among the trees of
temperate grassland are poplars, willows and alders.
World map showing the tropical and temperate grassland. Nelson Functional Biology, by KOLA SOYIBO Book
1 page 222

Savanna Elephant
The savanna elephant is the largest of the three species of elephants. Savanna elephants live in grasslands
and drier woodlands throughout Kenya, Tanzania, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Namibia, and South Africa.
Stephen Krasemann
DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS IN GRASSLANDS

Grass is the dominant vegetation of the savanna. These shrubs and herbs are scattered in the savanna while
grasses cover the soil within them. In the guinea savanna are broad leaved trees, while further north in the
sudan and sahel savanna the trees are more scattered and shorter. There are thorny trees with narrow
leaves- to reduce transpiration and withstand the prolonged drought.
Palms which cannot withstand the drought are restricted to the wettest area or along the rivers.
Tropical savanna is the home of wild animals. The animals population include herbivores like caterpillars,
grasshoppers and birds which feed on grass seeds, grazing animals like cows, goats, sheep and wild
herbivores like antelope, deer, elephant, giraffe and okapi.
Carnivores include lion tiger, leopard panter, jacka; and cheetah. Along the rivers and marshy lakes are
several species of reptiles such as alligators, crocodiles, giant and monitor lizards; and mammals such as
hippopotamus and rhinoceros. There are also numerous species of birds, butterflies, moth and other insects.
SOME ADAPTATION OF GRASSLAND COMMUNITIES

The main adaptations of savanna animals include the following:

i. Adaptation for drought which include burrowing into the ground by animals such as the rats and
building of well ventilated terminals by termites.
ii. Adaptations such as sharp claw and teeth of the carnivores for catching their prey; and fast
movement to catch them.
iii. Sharp vision, sharp hearing and fast movement of prey to escape from the predators and living
together in groups or herd to ensure protection for their members.
The main adaptations of the savanna plants include the following:

1. Adaptation of savanna plants for drought include shedding of leaves, possession of tiny leaves with
highly reduced surface area, possession of thick cuticle over the leaf surface and reduction in the
number of stomata on the leaves. Many plants possess underground stem through which tides them
over the drought period.
2. Adaptation of savanna plants for annual fire include: the thick and cropybarts of thewoody plants,
possession of fire – restricted twigs; rapid regeneration shortly after fires by suckering and coppicing,
possession of various methods of regeneration vegetative after fires by herbs. This is by the use of
organs such as bulbs, tubers, corms and rhizomes, which are buried below. The plants also produce
numerous seeds which can remain buried in the soil and sprout quickly during the rains.

1. Grasslands are areas where the vegetation is mainly dominated by _________
2. Tropical savanah is the home of ________ animals
3. The savanna grasses can live for many months without water because ________
4. The two main types of grasslands are ________ grasslands and temperate grasslands.
5. ________ are large, herbivorous mammals that are commonly found in grasslands.
Answer the following questions.
1. State four characteristics of tropical grassland.
2. What are the adaptive features of grassland animals?
3. State three ways by which savanna plants adapts themselves to the annual bush burning
SUB-TOPIC 3: ARID LAND

CONTENT: Arid lands are places of water scarcity or where water remains frozen. Tropical hot desert is
known for excessive heat and inadequate rainfall resulting in dryness. In the cold deserts the soil is frozen
for most of the year. The heat of the sun is so weak that the ice does not melt in many places. As a result
water is not available for plant use.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ARID LANDS

i. They are characterised by very little rainfall which is very irregular in distribution, therefore water is
very and shortly supply.
ii. The temperatures are usually in the extreme, very high in the day time and very low in the night time.
iii. Atmospheric humidity is very low.
iv. Sunshine is very intense and penetrating in the hot deserts.
v. The mean annual evaporation is very high.
vi. The environment is naturally very windy.
vii. They have very scanty vegetation
viii. The ground may in many places have sand dunes.
The tundra is covered with ice in most periods of the year.
TYPES OF ARID LANDS

Arid are terrestrial habitats without water. There are two types of these arid lands.
i. Hot and dry deserts: here the temperature is usually as high as 80%. These include the hot deserts of
the world such as Sahara desert of North Africa, Kalahari and Namib desert of Peru in south America.
ii. Cold and frozen desert: they have very low temperature of below 00 during winter. The top soil is
frozen all the year round and the long winter lasts about 9 months annually. Cold desert include Gobi
desert in china, the Pantagonian desert of south America, and the Tundra in Greenland and USSR.
DISTIBUTION OF ORGANISM IN ARID LANDS.

Very few plants survive in the arid lands and include the cactus family, grasses and thorny shrubs. As soon
as rain falls the seeds germinate and make food available for a short time for primary consumers. Grasses
grow during the short wet periods.
Fewer animals live under vegetable litters or branches, leaves and trunk of trees and shrubs while many
more live in burrows in the soil. Among the primary consumers are bettles, larvae of insects, ants,
grasshoppers and small animals like rodents. They feed partly on seeds and partly on dry remains of desert
vegetation. Higher – order consumers are centipedes and scorpions. The predators are carnivores such as
lizards, geckos, vipers and spiders.
SOME ADAPTATION OF ORGANISMS TO ARID LANDS.

The adaptation of plants and animals in arid lands are similar to those exhibited by the savanna plants and
animals to survive drought and high temperatures. Many of the arid land plants also have their modified into
scales or thorns. Some such as cactus also store water. The carmel is an example of arid land animal which
can go about for a long time without water.

Farming Village, Nigeria
Most of the woodland savanna and forests of the Jos Plateau in central Nigeria have been cleared for
agriculture. Farmers usually live in small villages composed of separate compounds, such as this one, where
several related families make their homes.
ADAPTIVE FEATURES OF PLANTS IN ARID LAND

Plants that are adapted to dry habitat are called Xerotypes. They possess the following characteristics.
i. Elongated, slender, branching and roots capable of penetrating great depths.
ii. Possession of water storage tissue in their stem.
iii. Possession of adaptive features such as waxy leaves with thick waterproof cuticle, sunken stomata
covered with air and thick layer over stems and roots which help to reduce transpiration.
ADAPTIVE FEATURES OF ANIMALS IN ARID LANDS ARE:

i. Body covering is dry and impermeable to water
ii. Engaged in burrowing during the day and are active at night to avoid daytime heat.
iii. Possession of excretory system that reabsorb water efficiently and only excrete concentrated urine
and faeces.
iv. Possession of mechanisms of reducing water lost with exhaled air.
v. Possession of fringed feet and toes to enhance walking on loose sand.
vi. Possession sand coloured body to aid camouflage and to remain undetected by predators.

vii. Examples of animals in arid lands include camels, Lizards, snakes, locust, birds, fox, antelopes and
jerboa.
Game Preserve in Kenya

A giraffe towers over zebras on the savanna of a Kenyan game preserve. Home to many
endangered species of wildlife, the African republic of Kenya shelters its wild animals in game
preserves and national parks. Kenya outlawed hunting in 1977, but poachers continue to hunt
many of these commercially valuable animals. Tourists can observe and photograph the animals
in safaris through the parks and preserves.
Gregory Dimijian/Photo Researchers, Inc.

1. Aridlands, also known as ________________ regions, receive very little annual rainfall and are
characterized by water scarcity.
2. ____________ is a term used to describe the process of turning arid or semi-arid land into desert
due to human activities.
3. Organisms in aridlands often have adaptations to conserve _________ and withstand extreme
temperatures.
4. One common type of aridland vegetation is __________, which consists of drought-resistant plants.
5. ________ are temporary water bodies in aridlands that form after rainfall and provide habitats for
various organisms.
1. List three characteristics of arid lands.
2. Name two lot deserts and one cold desert of the world.

3. State three ways by which organisms adapt to the long drought of arid lands.
CONCLUSION
1. One of these is a determinant factor of the tropical rain forest (a) Sunshine (b) Climate (c)
Temperature (d) Humidity (e) Rainfall.
2. One of these is not a plant of the rain forest (a) Mahogany (b) cocoa tree (c) Kolanut tree (d) Elephant
grass (e) Oil palm.
3. The savanna is a _______ that has a lot of rainfall during some seasons and very little rainfall. (a)
wetland (b) grassland (c) arid land (d) forests
4. Which biome is characterized by vast open spaces, tall grasses, and few trees? a) Forest b) Grassland
c) Arid land d) Tundra
5. In which biome do you find animals like lions, zebras, and elephants? a) Forest b) Grassland c) Arid
land d) Tundra
6. Which biome has limited water availability and is home to plants like cacti and animals like camels? a)
Grassland b) Forest c) Arid land d) Tundra
7. Which biome experiences extreme temperature fluctuations, with hot days and cold nights? a) Forest
b) Grassland c) Arid land d) Tundra
8. Which biome has a high fire risk due to dry conditions and frequent lightning strikes? a) Grassland b)
Forest c) Arid land d) Tundra
9. Which biome has the highest levels of biodiversity, with a wide variety of plant and animal species? a)
Grassland b) Forest c) Arid land d) Tundra
10. Which biome is characterized by low rainfall, sparse vegetation, and sandy soil? a) Grassland b) Forest
c) Arid land d) Tundra
SUB OBJECTIVES QUESTIONS
1. Forests with primarily _______ trees, such as pine and spruce, are common in colder regions with
long winters.
2. The layer of tall trees that forms the uppermost canopy in a forest is called the ______________.
3. Forests play a significant role in __________ by absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
4. Grasslands with a mixture of grasses and scattered trees are known as ________________.
5. _______ grasslands are found in regions with distinct wet and dry seasons, while ___
6. ________ grasslands have more consistent precipitation.
7. Grazing animals like _______ play a crucial role in maintaining the balance of grassland ecosystems.
8. Grasslands are susceptible to ________________ due to factors like overgrazing and conversion to
agriculture.
9. Grasslands are characterized by their _________ vegetation, which is well-suited to periodic fires.

10. Arid lands, also known as __________ regions, receive very little annual rainfall and are
characterized by water scarcity.
ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the importance of biodiversity in forest ecosystems and how it contributes to ecological
stability.
2. Explain the concept of deforestation and its environmental impacts, as well as potential strategies
for mitigating deforestation.
3. Discuss the role of forests in the carbon cycle and their potential as carbon sinks to mitigate climate
change.
4. Compare and contrast temperate grasslands and tropical grasslands (savannas) in terms of climate,
vegetation, and animal adaptations.
5. Explain the benefits and challenges of grazing management in maintaining healthy grassland
ecosystems.

Grasslands
1. Savanna: A type of grassland characterized by scattered trees and shrubs, often found in tropical
regions.
2. Prairie: A North American grassland ecosystem with tall grasses and few trees.
3. Steppe: A large, flat grassland region with moderate rainfall, typically found in Eurasia.
4. Grazing: The act of animals feeding on grasses and other plants in a grassland ecosystem.
5. Bison: A large mammal commonly found in grasslands, known for its humpback and shaggy fur.
Forests:
1. Canopy: The uppermost layer of a forest where tall trees create a dense covering.
2. Understory: The layer of vegetation beneath the forest canopy, consisting of smaller trees, shrubs,
and plants.
3. Deciduous: Trees that shed their leaves during the fall season.
4. Coniferous: Trees that produce cones and needles, often found in colder regions.
5. Biodiversity: The variety of plant and animal species in a forest ecosystem.
Arid Lands:
1. Desert: A dry, barren land with little rainfall and limited vegetation.
2. Xerophyte: A plant adapted to survive in arid conditions, often with water-storing features.
3. Drought: An extended period of abnormally low rainfall that can lead to water shortages.
4. Oasis: A small area in a desert where water is present, allowing vegetation to grow.
5. Sand Dune: A mound of sand formed by wind action, common in arid regions.

questions.)
Five animals – fox, bear, deer, rabbit, and owl – each prefer a different terrestrial habitat: forest, grassland,
or wetland.
Use the clues to match each animal to its preferred habitat
"Terrestrial habitats teach us that life's strength lies in adaptation and cooperation."

WEEK: EIGHT
TOPIC: REPRODUCTION IN UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS AND INVERTEBRATES
(i) Describe reproduction in amoeba
(ii) Describe reproduction in paramecium
(iii) Describe reproduction in spirogyra
(iv) Describe reproduction in earthworm
SUB-TOPIC 1:
CONTENT: REPRODUCTION IN AMOEBA
Amoeba is a unicellular protozoa. Its mode of reproduction is asexual by fission and multiple fission.
Binary Fission
It occurs under normal condition in water when the organism grows to a particular size, the nucleus divides
into two equal daughter nucleus divides nuclei and each of the daughter nuclei become enclosed by half of
the protoplast leading to the production of two daughter cells. The cell division is simply mitotic.
Diagram of binary fission in amoeba

Multiple fission
In some unicellular organisms such as Amoeba, the cells rounds up to a cyst-like structure. The protoplasm
undergo fission as the nucleus of the parent divides into several daughter nuclei by amitosis (repeated
divisions). This is followed by the enclosing one nucleus. Several cells are released from the cyst. The type
of asexual reproduction occurs under adverse condition.
A diagram showing binary and multiple fission in amoeba
1. Amoebas reproduce asexually through a process called __________
2. The amoeba's cytoplasm then divides, resulting in the formation of two _________
3. Binary fission in amoebas leads to the formation of two genetically ________ offspring.
4. This type of asexual reproduction allows amoebas to rapidly _______ their population.
5. Asexual reproduction in amoebas does not involve the _______ of gametes.
1. Define asexual reproduction.
2. Name two forms of asexual reproduction in amoeba;
3. State two difference between binary fission and multiple fission.
SUB-TOPIC 2:
CONTENT: REPRODUCTION IN PARAMECIUM
Paramecium is a protozoa that is more developed than Amoeba. It reproduces both sexually and asexually.
Asexual reproduction is by binary fission and sexual reproduction is by conjugation.
(a) Binary fission in paramecium
At maturity the cell stops moving. The two nuclei (macro nucleus and micro nucleus divide mitotically to give
four nuclei). This is followed by the movement of the daughter nuclei in opposite direction to the anterior
and posterior ends respectively, of a now elongated cell. After this the cell divides transversely along the
region of the oral groove and the daughter cells become separated under normal condition this occurs after
8 to 12 hours.
Sexual reproduction in Paramecium

Sexual reproduction by conjugation takes in Paramecium in the following steps:
1. Two individuals called conjugant come together and lie side by side.
2. The meganucleus of each conjugants disintegrate.
3. The micronucleus of each conjugants divides into two parts twice, forming four micronuclei. Three
of the four micro – nuclei in each conjugant disintegrate. The remaining micronucleus again divides
into two.
4. One micronucleus from each conjugal migrates into the other conjugant. In other words, the
conjugants exchange nuclear material.

5. The migratory nucleus of one conjugant and the stationary nucleus of the other conjugant fuse in
each individual to form a fusion nucleus in each ex-conjugal divides into four new individuals, each
with a new
6. The fusion nucleus in each ex-conjugant divides into four individuals each, with a new meganucleus
and micronucleus.
Stages in conjugation in paramecium

REPRODUCTION IN SPYROGYRA
Spirogyra is a filamentous algae. It reproduces asexually by conjugation.
1. Asexual reproduction in spirogyra: fragmentation under ideal condition of food, sunlight and water
a mature filament of spirogyra simply breaks into pieces. Each fragment forms a new filament.
Fragmentation in spirogyra
2. Sexual reproduction in spirogyra: there are two types of sexual reproduction in spirogyra. These are:
lateral conjugation and scalariform conjugation.
a. Scalariform conjugation: in this, two filaments lie side by side, particularly or fully along their lengths.
One cell from each filament produces tubular protuberances called conjugation tubes. These
elongated and fuse to form conjugation canal. The mobile cytoplasm (male cytoplasm) moves
through the canal and fuses with the cytoplasm of the other filament. The gametes in both fuses to
form a zygospore. The zygospore germinates and forms a new filament.

Scalariform conjugation in spirogyra
b. Lateral conjugation: conjugation occurs between two adjacent cells on the same filament. Two
common adjoining cells near their common transverse wall produce protuberances called
conjugation tubes, which further form conjugation canal upon contact. The male cytoplasm migrates
through the conjugation canal, fuses with the female. This union produces a zygospore. Each
zygospores germinates and forms a new filament.

Lateral conjugation in spirogyra
1. Spirogyra reproduces asexually through a process known as _________
2. Each fragment of Spirogyra is capable of growing into a new __________
3. Sexual reproduction in Spirogyra involves the formation of ___________
4. During germination, the zygospore gives rise to a new Spirogyra _________
5. Both asexual and sexual reproduction in Spirogyra contribute to its __________
ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS

1. With the aid of diagram, describe stages of conjugation in paramecium
2. Describe the binary fission in paramecium
3. Describe conjugation in spirogyra
SUB-TOPIC 3: REPRODUCTION IN EARTHWORM

CONTENT:
Earthworms are hermaphrodites. Each earthworm has both tests and ovaries. The sexual organs and their
ducts are paired on each side of the worms’ body.
Sexual reproduction in Earthworm
Copulation usually occurs only at night. Two copulating earthworms lie head to tail and side by side. In this
way the clitellia secrete a mucus tube that surrounds the worm from before the reproductive segment to
the clitellia segments. Sperms receive from a partner worm is stored in the spermathecal openings and then
the two worms separate. Both secret a new mucus tube that is enriched with album from the clitellum and
wrapped in a membrane. the eggs are shed into this tube along with some sperm. The worm then backs out
of the tube which now becomes the egg cocoon. Fertilization occurs inside the cocoon. The cocoon is left
there, underground to attach to some leaves. It often changes shape. Becoming darker small and harder,
the fertilised egg grows into a tiny earthworm.
Copulation in earthworm parent earthworm and cocoon

Parent earthworm and emerging earthworms
Emerged earthworm

1. Earthworms are hermaphrodites, meaning they have both ______ and _______ reproductive
organs.
2. During the process of copulation, two earthworms align their bodies with their ventral surfaces
touching and exchange _____________ with each other.
3. After copulation, each earthworm forms a ____________, a mucous-covered structure containing
fertilized eggs.
4. Earthworm eggs develop within the ____________ and hatch into juvenile worms.
5. The juvenile worms go through a process of growth and ______ before reaching sexual maturity.
1. Explain the concept of hermaphroditism in earthworms and how it affects their reproductive
process.
2. Describe the process of copulation in earthworms, including the roles of the two mating individuals.
3. Explain the role of the cocoon in earthworm reproduction and the development of eggs within it.
CONCLUSION
1. Which of these statements is incorrect (a) asexual reproduction involves only a single organism (b)
amoeba and spirogyra reproduces by binary fission (c) paramecium reproduces by sexual
reproduction (d) amoeba reproduces by fragmentation
2. Which of these statements is false? (a) amoeba and paramecium are protozoa (b) a matured cell of
amoeba gives rise to two daughter cell by binary fission (c) spirogyra reproduces only by conjugation
(d) copulation in earthworm occurs at night
3. Which of the following structures is not associated with reproduction in earthworm? (a) clitellum (b)
ditellia (c) oral groove (d) cocoon
4. In earthworm, cocoon or egg case is secreted by the (a) spermathacae (b) clitellum (c) otheca (d)
ditellia
5. How does Amoeba reproduce? a) Binary fission b) Budding c) Fragmentation d) Spore formation
6. During binary fission in Amoeba, what happens first? a) Nucleus divides b) Cell membrane pinches in
c) Cytoplasm splits d) DNA replication
7. What is the result of Amoeba's binary fission? a) Two identical daughter cells b) Two different
daughter cells c) One large daughter cell d) Multiple small daughter cells
8. Paramecium reproduces asexually by: a) Binary fission b) Budding c) Fragmentation d) Cross-
fertilization
9. Which part of Paramecium is responsible for its asexual reproduction? a) Oral groove b) Contractile
vacuole c) Pellicle d) Micronucleus

10. Earthworms are an example of animals that reproduce by: a) Binary fission b) Budding c)
Fragmentation d) Parthenogenesis

1. Amoeba reproduces asexually through a process called _________, where the cell simply divides
into two daughter cells.
2. During binary fission, the nucleus of the amoeba undergoes ________________ division.
3. Each daughter cell produced during binary fission inherits a copy of the ________________.
4. Binary fission in amoeba results in the formation of two genetically __________ daughter cells.
5. Paramecium reproduces asexually through a process called __________, where the cell divides into
two daughter cells.
6. Paramecium's _____________ undergoes multiple divisions before cell division occurs.
7. During binary fission in paramecium, a small, temporary nucleus called the ______ is also involved.
8. Conjugation contributes to genetic diversity in paramecium and allows for the exchange of
_______.
9. Spirogyra reproduces asexually through a process called __________, where the cell breaks into
smaller fragments.
10. Each fragment formed during fragmentation in spirogyra is capable of developing into a _________
individual.
1. Binary Fission: A form of asexual reproduction where a single organism divides into two nearly
identical daughter cells.
2. Asexual Reproduction: Reproduction that does not involve the fusion of gametes and produces
offspring identical to the parent.
3. Conjugation: A form of sexual reproduction in some protists like Paramecium, involving the
exchange of genetic material through temporary fusion.
4. Micronucleus: A smaller nucleus in Paramecium responsible for genetic exchange during
conjugation.
5. Hermaphroditic: Having both male and female reproductive organs in the same individual.
6. Copulation: The sexual activity where two individuals come into physical contact to exchange
sperm for fertilization.
7. Clitellum: A swollen glandular segment in earthworms that secretes a mucus cocoon for enclosing
eggs and sperm during reproduction.
8. Spermatheca: A storage organ in female earthworms for receiving and storing sperm from mating.
9. Regeneration: The ability of earthworms to regrow lost body segments or parts, which also aids in
reproduction.

"In a microscopic world, three organisms engage in unique reproductive feats. The first divides in two with
precision, while the second exchanges genetic secrets in an intricate dance. The third, a humble dweller of
the soil, practices both unity and division in its quest for renewal. What are these three organisms, and
what distinctive methods of reproduction do they employ?"
"Amidst the green threads of Spirogyra, life weaves its own tapestry, reminding us that even the smallest
organisms hold the beauty of creation."

WEEK: NINE
TOPIC: REPRODUCTION IN INVERTEBRATES
(i) Describe reproduction in cockroach
(ii) Describe reproduction in housefly
(iii) Describe reproduction in snail
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students have learnt about reproduction in some invertebrates in the previous
lesson
SUB-TOPIC 1: REPRODUCTION IN COCKROACH
CONTENT:
Reproduction is one of the activities that differentiate living organism from Non-living organisms. It is a
process through which living organism replicate themselves to ensure continuity of life. Living organisms
that fail to reproduce will come to extinct when all living member die.
Thus cockroaches, houseflies, snails and all invertebrates give rise to young ones after their kind. There are
two types of reproduction-Asexual and sexual reproduction.
Reproduction in cockroach is sexual. The process occurs as follows:
1. Male and female mate. Sperm cells from the male are stored in a pouch on the 7th abdominal segment
of the female cockroach. This pouch is called Spermatheca.
2. Fertilisation occurs in pouch.
3. Spermatheca (Sperm pouch) forms the egg case called Ootheca. Ootheca contains between 10-16
eggs.
4. Ootheca is carried about by the female between its two hind legs for a number of days.
5. Female eventually deposit Ootheca containing the fertilised eggs in a suitable place like dark cornear
of a cupboard for incubation.
6. Incubation period is about 30 days. At the end of incubation, the eggs hatch to give small ones that
are similar to the adult except for the absence of wings, small size and pale colour. This small
cockroach is called Nymph. Nymph moults a number of times to get to a full grown cockroach.

Cockroaches Mating
Ootheca between the hind legs

Ootheca of a cockroach
Emerging nymph Emerging nymph

Emerged nymph Nymph and Adult cockroaches
PRACTICE EXERCISE:
1. cockroaches, the male reproductive system consists of a pair of _______, which produce sperm.
2. The female cockroach has two ovaries that produce ________.
3. After mating, the female carries the _______ containing fertilized eggs, which are then deposited in
a suitable location for hatching.
4. Cockroach nymphs undergo a series of molts, shedding their exoskeletons in a process called
________
5. The ________ resemble adult cockroaches but lack fully developed wings and reproductive organs.
1. Describe sexual reproduction in cockroach.
2. Make a diagrammatic reproduction of the process.
3. Itemise the differences between adult cockroach and a Nymph.
SUB-TOPIC 2: REPRODUCTION IN HOUSEFLY

CONTENT:

Housefly reproduces sexually, fertilisation is internal and it undergo Complete Metamorphosis Mating occur
between adult male and female housefly. Sperms mature before the eggs thus sperms are stored in sperm
sacs until eggs are matured for fertilisation.
Mating in housefly

Life cycle of a housefly
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT AND IN HOUSEFLY
1. Egg stage: after mating and fertilization, eggs are laid in batches of about 100 – 150 eggs.
2. Larva stage: under favourable conditions, eggs hatch after about 24 hours into larva. Another name for
larva is maggot. Maggots are cylindrical in shape; they are layer towards the anterior region and have 12
segments. At this stage, the maggot (Larva) has two spiracles, one on the 2nd segment and the other on the
12th segment for respiring. It has a mouth on the first segment which has a hook. Larvae grow very fast and
start moulting two days after hatching from the egg. Ventral pads for movement are located on the 8th, 9th,
10th segments of the larva. The larva moults twice before metamorphosing into a pupa.
3. Pupa: By covering itself with a case known as pupa case after 3 moulting the larva changes into a Pupa.
Pupa is barrel-shaped and inactive. The cylindrical shape of the larva shortens and burrows into the soil. The
skin hardens up and twin dark brown. Within 3-5 days under favourable conditions, the pupa hatches to give
a young housefly. Cold weather however could delay hatching.
4. Imago or young adult: fully formed adult emerges from the pupa is the pupa case breaks open out of
decaying matter. The imago step for a few houses on a spot for its wings to dry up, harden and expand and
flies off in search of food.
Housefly laying its eggs

Eggs laid in batches
Larval form(maggot) of a housefly

Pupal stage of a housefly
1. Houseflies undergo a type of metamorphosis called _______ metamorphosis, which involves
distinct stages of development.
2. The female housefly uses specialized structures called ____________ to cut through substrates and
lay her eggs.
3. After hatching from eggs, housefly larvae are commonly referred to as ____________.
4. Housefly pupae are enclosed in a protective case known as the ____________, where the
transformation into adult flies occurs.
5. Housefly deposits her eggs on ____________________
1. List the stages involves in reproduction in housefly
2. With the aid of diagram describe the reproduction in housefly
SUB-TOPIC 3: REPRODUCTION IN SNAILS:

CONTENT:
Terrestrials snails are hermaphrodites, a few aquatic species have separate sexes. However, self-
fertilization does not occur. Mating occurs and fertilization is internal.
To replace, two matured snails pair up to inseminate each other. Each member produces a special
structure called spermatophore. The spermatophore is pushed into the partner’s body thereby
transferring sperm cells into the sperm pouch of each other each partner’s egg ate then fertilised with
the sperm cells from the copulating partner when each is ready to lay eggs. Eggs are laid in shallow top
soil while the weather is warm and damp. After about 2-4 weeks, the eggs hatch and the young ones
emerge. Snails are prolific breeders. They can lay up to 100 eggs in a single breed and can lay eggs once
every mouth.
Mating in snail
Reproductive structure of a snail

1. Snails are hermaphrodites, which means they have both ____________ and ____________
reproductive organs.
2. During mating, snails exchange ____________ containing sperm, facilitating cross-fertilization.
3. After mating, snails lay eggs in a moist environment, which eventually hatch into ____________.
4. In some species of snails, ____________ reproduction can occur, allowing them to reproduce
without mating.
5. Snails use a specialized mucus called a ____________ to protect their eggs and keep them moist.
Answer the question below
1. Describe the reproductive organs and their functions in snails. Explain how snails are hermaphrodites.
2. Discuss the process of copulation in snails. How do snails exchange sperm, and what happens after
copulation?
3. Explain the role of the love dart in snail reproduction. What purpose does it serve in the mating process?
CONCLUSION
TOPICAL TEST: (10 multiple Choice Questions,
1. How do cockroaches reproduce? a) Binary fission b) Budding c) Parthenogenesis d) Sexual
reproduction
2. What is the name of the egg case that female cockroaches produce? a) Ovipositor b) Ootheca c)
Cocoon d) Chrysalis
3. Cockroach nymphs resemble adult cockroaches but lack: a) Antennae b) Legs c) Wings d) Eyes
4. Which stage of metamorphosis involves the transformation of a housefly larva into an adult? a)
Larva b) Pupa c) Egg d) Nymph
5. What is the process by which a female housefly lays her eggs? a) Oviposition b) Copulation c)
Conjugation d) Fragmentation
6. Houseflies are attracted to lay their eggs in: a) Clean environments b) Dry surfaces c) Decaying
organic matter d) Flowers
7. Snails are considered hermaphrodites because they have both: a) Antennae and tentacles b) Eyes
and sensory organs c) Male and female reproductive organs d) Shells and foot
8. What is the protective mucus structure used by snails to protect their eggs? a) Cocoon b) Chrysalis
c) Ootheca d) Ovipositor
9. Some species of snails can reproduce without mating. This phenomenon is known as: a)
Metamorphosis b) Oviposition c) Parthenogenesis d) Copulation
10. The ______ is responsible for producing eggs in female cockroaches. a) Ovary b) Gizzard c) Crop d)
Nephridium

1. Snails are ________________ organisms, possessing both male and female reproductive organs.
2. The reproductive organs of snails are located in the ________________ cavity of their body.
3. During copulation, snails exchange ____________ with each other, which is stored for later use.
4. Snails lay their eggs in a protective ________________ made of calcium carbonate.
5. After hatching, young snails emerge as ________________ and go through a period of growth.
6. Cockroaches reproduce through ________________, a process in which females produce eggs that
develop without fertilization.
7. In cockroaches, the egg case containing the developing embryos is called a ________________.
8. The reproductive organs of male cockroaches include ________ for transferring sperm to females.
9. Houseflies reproduce through _______, a type of reproduction that involves the laying of fertilized
eggs.
10. Housefly eggs are usually laid on _____ materials, which serve as a food source for the developing
larvae.
Answer the questions below

1. What is metamorphosis
2. State two types of metamorphosis
3. List three differences between the answer in (2)
4. Discuss the reproductive strategy of houseflies, including the importance of oviposition and the
materials on which they lay their eggs.
5. Describe the stages of cockroach development, from egg to nymph to adult. How do
environmental conditions influence the development of cockroach populations?
1. Hermaphrodite: An organism that possesses both male and female reproductive organs.
2. Ootheca: The protective egg case produced by female cockroaches to enclose and protect their
eggs.
3. Spermatophore: A package containing sperm that is transferred from the male to the female
during mating.
4. Metamorphosis: The process of transformation from one developmental stage to another, such as
egg to nymph to adult in cockroaches.
5. Oviposition: The process of laying eggs by a female insect, such as a housefly.
6. Pupa: The developmental stage between the larva and the adult in complete metamorphosis,
where significant changes occur.
7. Maggot: The legless, worm-like larval stage of the housefly.
8. Siphoning: A method of feeding in which insects, like houseflies, use a tube-like mouthpart to
consume liquids.
9. Hermaphroditic: Having both male and female reproductive organs within the same individual.

10. Radula: A specialized feeding organ found in snails and other mollusks, used to scrape and ingest
food.
11. Nephridium: A tubular excretory organ responsible for removing waste products from the body.
12. Gastropoda: A class of mollusks that includes snails, known for their coiled shells and distinct body
structure.

Find the reproductive terms related to cockroaches, houseflies, and snails in the word search below:
U V Y I J C A H W O M O Y
O Q X C I A L D I K O O P
U V D H Z V V I D T A A V
T U K M O O X E S A V U O
O L S E A K R K R H P V L
C E J E O R H G A M C R G
V N E O P E C E D A L H B
T S A R M O S A T O J S A
V E L X P X R E I G L O O
B X T L M D N I T U R B G
Y A V F N M F U W I T P T
T M X T S T A G E S D D Y
P U P A G V T P I I S E I I
J R W Z M A G G O T P A
R R O S I O V V U R F A S
"The snail's gradual pace reminds us that life's most beautiful processes unfold at their own rhythm, never
to be rushed."
"In the hidden corners of our world, the cockroach teaches us that even amidst darkness, life finds a way
to persist and adapt."
"The housefly's life cycle speaks of renewal, reminding us that even the briefest moments can hold
profound transformations."

BIOLOGY SS1 3RD TERM E-NOTES (Reviewed)

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BIOLOGY SS1 3RD TERM E-NOTES (Reviewed)

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©Deeper Life High School.

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PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:

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SUB-TOPIC 1: TOWARDS BETTER HEALTH: CONTROL OF HARMFUL MICRO-ORGANISMS

Harmful microorganisms can be controlled by;

PRACTICE EXERCISE: fill in the gap question

Tapeworm; an endoparasite Tick; an ectoparasite

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PRACTICE EXERCISE: fill in the gap

Answer all questions

SUB-TOPIC 3: STUDENT’S HEALTH: MAINTENANCE OF GOOD HEALTH

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PRACTICE EXERCISE: fill in the gap

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GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

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There are three types of aquatic habitat namely,

Characteristics of Marine Habitat

PRACTICE EXERCISE: fill in the gap

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SUB-TOPIC 2: MAJOR ZONES OF A MARINE HABITAT

I. LITTORAL ZONE (Continental shelf)

II. BENTHIC ZONE (Continental slope)

This zone is characterized by:

PRACTICE EXERCISE: fill in the gap question

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SUB-TOPIC 3: DISTRIBUTION OF THE ORGANISMS IN THE HABITAT AND THEIR ADAPTIVE

Star fish holding unto a rock.

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PRACTICE EXERCISE: fill in the gap

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PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:

INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES: “Ocean separates lands, not souls”

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Answer the following

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Types of Estuary based on salt mixing

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Answer the following

SUB-TOPIC 3: DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANISMS IN AN ESTUARY

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PRACTICE EXERCISE: fill in the gap

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Answer the following questions

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GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:

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Answer the following questions

SUB-TOPIC 2: FRESH WATER ORGANISM

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Fresh Water Organism

Pond and Lake Life

Answer the following

SUB-TOPIC 3: TERRESTRIAL HABITAT-MARSH

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WATER AND VEGETATION PATTERN

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PLANTS AND ANIMALS IN THE MARSHES

ADAPTIVE FEATURES OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS IN MARSHES

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