Intellligent Power Sharing of Transformers With Auto Protection PDF

Intelligent power sharing of transformer with auto protection 1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 General Background
The transformer is a static device, which converts energy at one voltage level to another
voltage level. The project is all about protecting the transformer under overload condition.
Due to overload on the transformer, the efficiency drops and the secondary winding gets
over heated and may burnt. So, by reducing the load on the transformer, the transformer is
protected. This will be done by arranging another transformer through a micro-controller.
The micro-controller compares the load on the first transformer with a reference value.
When the load exceeds the reference value, the second transformer will share the extra
load. Therefore, the two transformers work efficiently under overload condition and the
damage is prevented.
In this project three modules are used to control the load current. The first module is
Sensing unit, which is used to sense the current of the load; the second module is control
unit. In this module Electromagnetic relay is the main role, and its function is to change
the position with respect to the control signal and last module is microcontroller. It will
read the analogue signal and perform some calculation and finally gives control signal to
the relay. When designing low-voltage power systems to supply large load currents,
paralleled lower-current modules are often preferred over a single, large power converter
for several reasons. These include the efficiencies of designing and manufacturing
standard modular converters which can be combined in whatever number necessary to
meet a given load requirement; and the enhanced reliability gained through redundancy.
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1.2 Literature Review
At present load sharing of transformer is done by paralleling

the transformer. That is primary of the transformer is always energized. This method is
following on olden days also.
The challenge in paralleling modular supplies is to insure

predictable, uniform current sharing-regardless of load levels and the number of modules.
It provide enhanced system reliability through complete redundancy such that the failure
of one or more modules could be tolerated as long as the total remaining capacity is equal
to or greater than the demands of the load.
1.3 Aim and Scope of Project
This Project describes about, how to use power supply

when critical load. Using this module can protect the transformer form the over load. This
project will connect and disconnect the transformer automatically. This will be done by
arranging another transformer through a microcontroller. It has the advantage to maintain
a stable level of short circuit current. It reduces the voltage drop and balances the current
and it is reverse power protection. It has applications in electrical substation and industry
too.
1.4 Organization of project report
The project is all about protecting the transformer under overload condition. Due to
overload on the transformer, the efficiency drops and the secondary winding gets over
heated and may burnt. So, by reducing the load on the transformer, the transformer is
protected. By introducing this method it have advantage to maintain a stable level of short
circuit current. It reduces the voltage drop and balances the current and it is reverse power
protection.
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CHAPTER 2
SUBSTATION
2.1 Introduction
The substation may be defined as “an assembly of apparatus which transforms

the characteristics of electrical energy from one form to another say for example from
alternating current to direct current or from one voltage to another”. For economical
transmission, higher and higher voltages should be achieved. At present normal voltages
are 66kV, 110kV and 220kV; however 440kVwill be used for the national grid system in
future. The consumers do not use such high voltages and so the high voltages must be
transformed to low voltages by means of substation. Thus a substation may be called as
link between the generating stations and consumers. The distribution voltages generally
used in practice are 6.6kV, 11kV and 33kV.
Substations or switching stations are integral part of transmission system, and
function as a connection or switching point for transmission lines, substation feeders,
generating circuits and step up and step down transformers .substation of voltages 66kV
to 400kV are termed as EHV substations. Above 500kV, they come under the
terminology of UHV system.
2.2 Equipments for Substation
The substation mainly consists of the following equipments:
(a) Main bus bars
Bus bars (or bus) term is used for a main bar or conductor carrying an electric
current to which many connections may be made. Bus bars are merely convenient means
of connecting switches and other equipments into various arrangements. The usual
arrangement of connections in most of the substation permits working on almost any
piece of equipment without interruption to incoming or outgoing feeders.
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(b) Single bus arrangement
This arrangement is a simple scheme in less important substations. A breaker or bus

failure can cause total outage. By providing a bus-sectionalizing scheme, this can be
overcome to some extent. Even though the protective relay in is simple, single bus
scheme is inflexible.
(c) Main and transfer bus
A transfer bus is added to the single bus scheme. An extra bus-tie breaker is provided
to tie the main and transfer buses together. When circuit breaker is in maintenance, the
bus-tie breaker can be used for energizing the circuit. Bus-tie breaker relaying must be so
arranged to protect the transmission line or transformer, if the protective relays also are
not transferred.
(d) Double bus, Single breaker
This is superior to the single bus and main and transfers bus schemes. There are two
main buses and each circuit can be connected to either of the buses by bus isolators. A
bus-tie breaker connects the two main buses when closed allows the transfer of a circuit
from one to the other without a break in supply.
The circuit may operate all from one bus, or half of the circuit connected in each bus.
For a bus fault, only half the number of circuit will be lost. In some cases the tie breaker
is permanently closed and both the buses stand connected. A bus protection scheme will
be necessary for opening the tie breaker in the event of a bus fault. Possibility of operator
error is more as to bus isolators are involved for every circuit
(e) Insulators
They are used for supporting live conductors and bus bars. For low voltage up to
66kV, this can be used in stacks and mounted horizontally or vertically as the
circumstances permit but for voltages beyond that, they are rarely used in a horizontal
configuration. The porcelain insulators are employed in substations are of the post and
bushing type. They serve as the supports and insulators of the bus bars.
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A post insulator consists of porcelain body, cast iron cap and flanged
cast iron base. The hole in the cap is threaded so that the bus bars are either directly
bolted to the cap of fixed by means of a bus bar clamp. Past insulators are available with
round, oval and square flanged bases for fixing respectively, with aid of one, two or four
bolts. Each base in addition also has an earthing bolt. A bushing or through insulator
consist of porcelain-shell body, upper and lower locating washers used for fixing the
position of bus bars or rod in shell, and mounting flange with holes drilled for fixing bolts
and supplied with an earthing bolt. For current rating above 2000A, the bushings are
designed to allow the main bus bars to be passed directly through them.
(f) Isolators
An isolators or disconnecting switch is used to open some given part

of a power circuit after switching of the load by means of a circuit breaker. Thus isolators
serve only for preventing the some given section of the bus in a switch gear installation or
to one or another piece of apparatus in the installation from voltage applied. In some
cases isolators may be used as a circuit breaking device but their use for this purpose is
strictly limited by definite conditions, such as the power rating of the given circuit.
Isolators can be opened only after opening the circuit breaker .An isolator should be
closed before closing the circuit breaker .Opening and closing of a current carrying circuit
is performed by a circuit breaker.
Isolators (disconnecting switch) operate under no load condition. It does not have
any specified current breaking capacity or current making capacity, so it is not even used
for breaking load currents.
There are two types of isolators.
1. Single pole isolators
2. Three pole isolators
(g) Circuit breaker
Circuit breakers are switching devices, which open during fault condition and
interrupt the short circuit currents automatically within about 2.5 cycles. They are
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mounted on support structures .The circuit breakers are classified on the basis of the
medium used for arc extinction. The types of circuit breaker include the following:
1. SF6 circuit breakers

2. Air blast circuit breakers
3. Vacuum circuit breakers
4. Minimum oil circuit breakers
5. Air circuit breakers
6. Miniature circuit breakers
7. Bulk oil circuit breakers
The following circuit breakers are preferred for EHV ac substation
1. Single pressure buffer type SF6 CB .There is used for 132kV, 400kV, and 765kV.
2. Air blast circuit breakers.
3. Minimum oil CB. These were preferred for 33KV, 66kV, and 132kV.
The circuit breakers are automatically switches, which can interrupt fault
currents. The part of the circuit breaker connected in one phases is called the pole. A
circuit breaker suitable for a three phase system is called triple pole CB.
Circuit breakers are installed to perform the following duties.
a. To carry full load current continuously.

b. To open and close the circuit on no load.
c. To make and break the normal operating current.
d. To make and break the short circuit of magnitude up to which it is designed for.
2.3 Power Transformers
Power transformers are used for stepping up the voltage for transmission at
generating stations and for stepping down voltages for further distribution at main step
down transformer substation. Usually naturally cooled, oil immersed, known as on type,
two winding, 3-phase transformer, are used up to the rating of 10MVA. The transformers
of rating higher than 10MVA are usually air blast cooled. For very high rating, the forced
oil, water-cooling and air blast cooling may be used. For regulating the voltage the
transformers used are provided with on load tap changer.
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The transformers are generally installed upon length of rails fixed on concrete slabs
having foundation 1 to 1.5 meters deep.
The modern practice is to use three phase transformers as power transformers,

although 3 single phase banks of transformers can also be used. The advantages of 3
transformers are that in case of fault in one of them, it could be completely replaced by
new one. The main advantage of a 3-phase transformer is that only one 3-phase load taps
changing mechanism (on LV side) could be used. Further the installation of a single 3-
phase transformer is much simpler than three single phase transformers.
(a) Tertiary winding
Tertiary winding is an additional winding in power transformers normally delta

connected. Tertiary winding is required for the following reasons:
1. To reduce the triple harmonic contents of the output voltage, there by stabilizing
potential of the neutral point, and reducing communication interference.
2. To permit the transformation of unbalanced three phase load.
3. To reduce system zero sequence impedance for effective grounding, where solid
ground is not provided.
4. To supply additional auxiliary loads, this for some reason must be kept isolated from
that of the secondary.
5. To function as a voltage coil in a testing transformers.
6. To load large split-winding transformers.
7. To interconnect three supply systems operating at different voltages.
(b) Current Transformers
These instrument transformers are connected in ac power circuits to feed the current
coils of indicating and metering instruments (ammeters, wattmeter, and watt hour meters)
and protective relays. Thus the CT broadens the limits of measurements and maintains a
watch over the currents flowing in the circuits and over the power loads. In high voltage
installation CT’s in addition to above, also isolate the indicating and metering instruments
from high voltage.
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The current transformers are rated voltage of the installation, the rated currents of
primary and secondary windings and the accuracy class. The accuracy class indicates the
limit of the error in percentage of the rated turn ratio of given CT. CT is available in
accuracy classes .5, 1, 3, 10.
(c) Potential Transformer
The PT is employed for 380 volts to feed the potential coils of indicating and
metering instruments (voltmeter, wattmeter, and watt hour meters) and relays. These
transformers make the ordinary low voltage instruments suitable for measurement of high
voltage and isolate them from high voltage.
The primary winding of the PT is connected to the main bus bars of the switch gear
installation and to the secondary windings various indicating and metering instruments
and relays are connected. When the rated high voltage is applied to the primary of a PT,
the voltage of 110volt appear across the secondary winding. The PT is rated for primary
and secondary rated voltage, accuracy class, number of phases and system of cooling.
(d) Autotransformers
Autotransformers are well known for their reduced size and economic use of material.
In an autotransformer the primary and secondary windings have a common part. The
secondary is connected electrically to the primary at the common point. Most of the three
phase autotransformers are star connected and it is a usual practice to add an additional
delta winding called tertiary winding. The purpose of the delta tertiary is to provide an
internal path to the third harmonic current required for execution and thus eliminating
them from the AC network. The delta tertiary also helps to stabilize the neutral with
reference to the line voltage. The economy and reduced size of autotransformer as
compared with two winding transformer has resulted in development of an
autotransformer for a very wide range of applications at EHV-AC transmission level, MV
distribution levels as well as in industrial applications .A very wide choice is available for
the tapping on the autotransformer. The suitable choice of tapping must be made for
obtaining the alternatives.
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As per the rules star-star connected autotransformer is provided with delta tertiary for
the following purposes:
1. Stabilizing the phase to phase voltages during unbalanced load on secondary side.
2. Suppression of the third harmonic currents due to no load current in neutral to ground
circuit when neutral is earthed.
3. Reduction in zero sequence reactance.
4. Increase of KVAR.
(e) Earthing switch
Switch is connected between the line conductor and earth. Normally it is open. When
line is disconnected, the earthing switch is closed so as to discharge the voltage trapped
on the line capacitance to the earth. Though the line is connected, there is some voltage
on the line to which the capacitance line and earth is charged. This voltage is significant
in high voltage system. Before proceeding with the maintenance work the voltage is
discharged to earth, by closing the earthing switch.
(f) Earthing
Connecting of electrical equipment or apparatus to the earth with the help of a

connecting wire of negligible resistance is known as “earthing” or “grounding”. In an
electric installation if a metallic part of an electric appliance comes in direct contact with
a bare or live wire, the metal being a good conductor is charged and static charge on it
will accumulate. Now if any person comes in contact with charged metal parts, he will get
a severe shock. But if the metallic parts of the equipment are earthed, the charge will be
given to the earth immediately as the metallic part comes in direct contact with a bare or
live wire or breakdown occurs.
The earthing can be divided into two parts.
1. System earthing: It is possible to provide to provide low fault impedance to the

ground fault current for proper operation of the protective relays and therefore for
meeting the system requirement by effectively earthed system
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2. Safety earthing: It is required to provide protection to the operating staff working in

the yard and substation from any injury during fault conditions by keeping the voltage
gradient within the safe limits.
In electrical installation the following components must be earthed.
1. The frames, tanks and enclosures of electrical machines, transformers and apparatus,
lighting fitting and other items of equipments.
2. Operating mechanism of switch gear
3. Frame work of switch boards, control boards, individual panel boards, and cubicles.
4. Structural steel work of indoor and outdoor substations.
There are two types of earthing.
1. Pipe earthing: This is the best and cheapest method. In this method, a galvanized steel
and perforated pipe of approved length and diameter is placed up right in permanently
wet soil
2. Plate earthing: In this method either a copper of dimensions 60cmx 60cm x 3 mm or
of galvanized iron of dimensions 60cmx 60cmx6mm is buried into the ground with its
face vertical at a depth of not less than 3m from the ground level.
(g) Lightning arresters (Surge arresters)
There equipment connected between the conductor and ground, to discharge the
excessive voltage to the earth. Surge arresters divert the transient over voltages to the
earth and protect the substation equipment from lightning and switching over voltage
surges. There are two types of designs
a) Conventional gapped arresters

b) Metal Oxide (ZnO) arresters
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(h) Relays
The protective relays are connected in the secondary circuits of the CT & PT. The
relays sense the abnormal conditions and close the trip circuit of associated CB. The CB
opens its contact. An arc is drawn between the contacts as they separate. The arc is
extinguished by suitable medium and technique. The relays distinguish the normal and
abnormal condition.
Whenever an abnormal condition develops, the relay closes its

contacts. Thereby the trip circuit of the CB is closed. Current from the battery supply
flows in the trip coil of CB and the CB opens. The fault parties disconnected from the
supply.
(a) Substation Auxiliaries Supply
In small-unattended substations only a small amount of power is required for electric

lighting during regular periods of inspection, maintenance and repair is required. In
regional substations the electric power is required for the auxiliaries-the lighting circuits,
air blast fans of power transformers, battery charging sets, oil servicing facilities,
compressors units in the case of ABCB, ventilating fans of the substation buildings, water
supply, and heating system equipments. In substations incorporating synchronous
condensers the supply is also required for the operation of auxiliary equipment of the
synchronous condensers. In large substations it is wide practice to connect two
transformers to the 11kV main bus bars for supply of the auxiliaries at a voltage of
400/230volts
(b) Capacitor banks
Reactive power monitoring is desirable to maintain efficient system operation,

keeping voltage and load stability. Reactive power flow from the substation to the
transmission line varies during low loads, heavy loads and changing loads. So series
capacitors are installed in sending, receiving end station and also the intermediates
stations.
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2.4 Transformers
Transformers are used in substations for conversion of voltage from high to low
and vice versa. A transformer is a static device that transfers electrical energy from one
circuit to another through inductively coupled conductors—the
conductors the transformer's coils. A
varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the
transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This
varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage
voltage" in the
secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction.
If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current

will flow in the secondary winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the
primary circuit through the transformer to the load. In an ideal
ideal transformer, the induced
voltage in the secondary winding (V
( s) is in proportion to the primary voltage (V
( p), and is
given by the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary (N
( s) to the number of turns in
the primary (Np) as follows:
By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating

current (AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making Ns greater than Np, or "stepp
"stepped down"
by making Ns less than Np.
In the vast majority of transformers, the windings are coils wound around a ferromagnetic
core, air-core transformers being a notable exception.
Transformers range in size from a thumbnail-sized
thumbnail sized coupling transformer hidden inside a
stage microphone to huge units weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect portions
of power grids.. All operate with the same basic principles, although the range of designs
is wide. While new technologies have eliminated the need for transformers in some
electronic circuits, transformers are still found in nearly all electronic devices designed
for household ("mains") voltage.
voltage Transformers are essential for high-voltage
voltage electric
power transmission, which
hich makes long-distance
long distance transmission economically practical.
The transformer cannot supply load more than its rated capacity. So, by introducing
another transformer reduces the load on the transformers. The transformers share the load
as and when the load on the transformer exceeds a preset value.
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2.4.1 Parallel operation of Transformers
The essential conditions for successful parallel operation of transformers are given below:
I. Transformation or turn-ratios and voltage ratings are same.
II. Polarities of the transformers are same.
III. Percent impedances of the transformers are same.
IV. Ratios of resistance to reactance are same.
V. Phase displacement between primary and secondary windings of the transformers is
same.
VI. Phase sequences of the transformers are same.
a. Single Phase Transformers
For single phase transformers only the first four conditions apply as there
is no phase sequence and phase displacement due to voltage transformation.
If the turn-ratios or voltage ratings are not same a circulating current will flow even at no
load. If the percent impedance or the ratios of resistance to reactance are not same there
will be no circulating current, but the division of load between the transformers when
supplied will no longer be proportional to their KVA ratings. Hence the capacities of the
transformers cannot be utilized to a full extent.
When the polarity of one transformer is additive and that of the other is
subtractive, the transformers may be operated in parallel by reversing the connection of
primary or secondary side of either transformer. In such a case check that dielectric
strength is satisfactory when the reversed winding has a graded insulation.
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b. Three phase Transformers
The same conditions hold true for three phase transformers except in the
case the questions of phase displacement and phase sequence must be considered.
Phase sequence refers to the order in which the terminal voltages reach their maximum
values. In paralleling those terminals whose voltages reach their maximum
simultaneously are paired.
Certain transformer connections as the Wye-delta or Wye-
Zigzag produce a phase displacement of 30° between the line voltage of primary side and
those of the secondary side. Transformers of such connections cannot be run in parallel with
the transformers not having this phase displacement such as Wye-Wye, delta, - delta zigzag-
delta or zigzag-zigzag.
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CHAPTER 3
PROGRAMMING WITH PIC
6.1 PROGRAMMING IN PIC
#include<pic.h>
#include<stdio.h>
#include"delay.c"
#define LED1 RD0;
#define RELAY0 RD1;
___CONFIG(0x3f72);
unsigned char CT;
void GetADC1(void);
void main( )
{
TRISA=0xff;
ADCON1=0x00;
DelayMs(10);
While (1)
{
GetADC1 ( );
If (CT >=0.7)
{
LED1=1;
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RELAY0=1;
}
}
DelayMs (250);
DelayMs (250);
Void GetADC1 ( )
{
ADCON0=0x41;
DelayMs (1);
ADGO=1;
While (ADGO==1);
CT=ADRESH;
}
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CHAPTER 4
LOAD SHARING
4.1 Introduction
When designing low-voltage

voltage power systems to supply large load currents, paralleled
lower-current
current modules are often preferred over a single, large power converter for several
reasons. These include the efficiencies of designing and manufacturing standard mo
modular
converters which can be combined in whatever number necessary to meet a given load
requirement; and the enhanced reliability gained through redundancy.
While most modem-day day power supplies can be paralleled for higher currents, the load
current will not share equally between modules without some extra effort in the design
process. With unequal load sharing, the stress placed on the individual modules will be
unequal; resulting in some units operating with higher temperatures--
temperatures--a recognized
contributor to reduced reliability .Therefore, the challenge in paralleling modular supplies
is to insure predictable, uniform current sharing
sharing-regardless of load levels
vels and the number
of modules. Another major goal should be to provide enhanced system reliability through
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complete redundancy such that the failure of one or more modules could be tolerated as
long as the total remaining capacity is equal to or greater than the demands of the load.
Over the years, a variety of schemes have been devised to accomplish

accomplish load sharing
and, as one would expect, these schemes offer a wide range of performance
characteristics.
4.2 Block Diagram
Fig 4.1 Block Diagram
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A brief description of some of these approaches will, perhaps, be useful in comparing

their performance capabilities against the degree of difficulty in their implementation.
The connection diagram for this most basic approach is shown in Figure where it can be
seen that each unit is completely independent except for the common load. Each
individual module must have inherent current limiting because in practice, the output
voltage of all the modules will never be exactly equal. Thus, when several modules are
paralleled, the one with the highest output voltage will attempt to supply all the load
current, up to the point where its current limit is reached. As this unit goes into current
limiting, its output voltage will fall to the level of the next highest module, which then
begins to conduct and supply additional load current.
When the second module reaches its current limit, number three starts
conducting, and so on. Of course, there is no current sharing at all except for the units
which are in current limiting, and it could be expected that the dynamic load regulation,
particularly as each current limit threshold is passed, would be less than desirable.
4.3 Current Transformers
Fig. 4.2 Current transformer
The current transformer is used with its primary winding connected in series
with line carrying the current to be measured and therefore the primary current is
dependent upon the load connected to the system and is not determined by the load
connected on the secondary winding of the current transformer . The primary winding
consists of very few turns and therefore there is no appreciable voltage drop across it. The
secondary winding of current transformer has large number of turns, the exact number
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being determined by the turn’s ratio. The ammeter current coil or the over current relay
are connected directly across the secondary winding terminals. Thus a current transformer
operates it secondary windings nearly under short-circuit conditions. One of the
secondary windings is earthed so as to protect equipment and personnel in the vicinity in
the event of an insulation breakdown in the current transformer.
4.4 Current Transformer operation
• A Current Transformer (CT) is a type of instrument transformer designed to provide a

current in its secondary winding proportional to the alternating current flowing in its
primary.
• They are commonly used in metering and protective relaying in the electrical power
industry where they facilitate the safe measurement of large currents, often in the
presence of high voltages.
• The current transformer safely isolates measurement and control circuitry from the
high voltages typically present on the circuit being measured.
• The instrument current transformer (CT) steps down the current of a circuit to a lower
value and is used in the same types of equipment as a potential transformer.
• This is done by constructing the secondary coil consisting of many turns of wire,
around the primary coil, which contains only a few turns of wire.
• In this manner, measurements of high values of current can be obtained. A current
transformer should always be short-circuited when not connected to an external load.
• Because the magnetic circuit of a current transformer is designed for low magnetizing
current when under load, this large increase in magnetizing current will build up a
large flux in the magnetic circuit and cause the transformer to act as a step-up
transformer, inducing an excessively high voltage in the secondary when under no load.
4.5 Crystal Oscillator
A crystal is a solid in which the constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are packed in
a regularly ordered, repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions. Almost
any object made of an elastic material could be used like a crystal, with appropriate
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transducers,, since all objects have natural resonant frequencies of vibration

vibration. When a
crystal of quartz is properly cut and mounted, it can be made to distort in an electric field
by applying a voltage to an electrode near or on the crystal. This property is known as
piezoelectricity.
Fig.4.3 Schematic symbol and equivalent circuit of a crystal oscillator
When the field is removed, the quartz will generate an electric field as it
returns to its previous shape, and this can generate a voltage. The result
result is that a quartz
crystal behaves like a circuit composed of an inductor, capacitor and resistor,, with a
precise resonant frequency (See Fig.4.3).
Quartz has the further advantage that its elastic constants and its
size change in such a way that the frequency dependence on temperature can be very low.
l
The specific characteristics will depend on the mode of vibration and the angle at which
the quartz is cut (relative to its crystallographic axes). Therefore, the resonant frequency
of the plate, which depends on its size, will not change much, either. This means that a
quartz clock, filter or oscillator will remain accurate. For critical applications the quartz
oscillator is mounted in a temperature-controlled
temperature controlled container, called a crystal oven, and can
also be mounted on shock absorbers to prevent perturbation
perturbation by external mechanical
vibrations. A quartz crystal can be modeled as an electrical network with a low
impedance (series) and a high impedance (parallel) resonance
resonance point spaced closely
together.
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4.6 Driver Circuit
Driver circuit performs amplification process. A transistor is

used for that. It is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals. It
is made of a solid piece of semiconductor material, with at least three terminals for
connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the
transistor's terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals.
Because the controlled (output) power can be much more than the controlling (input)
power, the transistor provides amplification of signal. Today, some transistors are
packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated circuits.
4.7 The Electromagnetic Relay
Diagram that a relay uses an electromagnet. This is a device consisting of a

coil of wire wrapped around an iron core. When electricity is applied to the coil of wire it
becomes magnetic, hence the term electromagnet. The A B and C terminals are an SPDT
switch controlled by the electromagnet.
Fig. 4.4 Electromagnetic relay
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When electricity is applied to V1 and V2, the electromagnet acts upon the SPDT switch
so that the B and C terminals are connected. When the electricity is disconnected, then the
A and C terminals are connected. It is important to note that the electromagnet is
magnetically linked to the switch but the two are NOT linked electrically.
Basic Design and operation
Fig. 4.5 Simple electromechanical relay
A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire surrounding a soft

iron core, an iron yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable
iron armature, and one or more sets of contacts (there are two in the relay pictured). The
armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving
contacts. It is held in place by a spring so that when the relay is de-energized there is an
air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the
relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open. Other relays may have more or fewer
sets of contacts depending on their function. The relay in the picture also has a wire
connecting the armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit between the
moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on the printed circuit board (PCB)
via the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB.
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When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a

magnetic field that attracts the armature and the consequent movement of the movable
contact either makes or breaks (depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed
contact. If the set of contacts was closed when the relay was de-energized, then the
movement opens the contacts and breaks the connection, and vice versa if the contacts
were open. When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a
force, approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually
this force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor
starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low-voltage application
this reduces noise; in a high voltage or current application it reduces arcing.
When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often placed across the
coil to dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which
would otherwise generate a voltage spike dangerous to semiconductor circuit
components. Some automotive relays include a diode inside the relay case. Alternatively,
a contact protection network consisting of a capacitor and resistor in series (snubber
circuit) may absorb the surge. If the coil is designed to be energized with alternating
current (AC), a small copper "shading ring" can be crimped to the end of the solenoid,
creating a small out-of-phase current which increases the minimum pull on the armature
during the AC cycle.
4.8 Power supply
The ac voltage, typically 220V rms, is connected to a transformer, which steps

that ac voltage down to the level of the desired dc output. A diode rectifier then provides
a full-wave rectified voltage that is initially filtered by a simple capacitor filter to produce
a dc voltage. This resulting dc voltage usually has some ripple or ac voltage variation.
A regulator circuit removes the ripples and also remains the same dc value even if
the input dc voltage varies, or the load connected to the output dc voltage changes. This
voltage regulation is usually obtained using one of the popular voltage regulator IC units.
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4.9 Working principle of power supply
TRANSFORMER RECTIFIER FILTER IC REGULATOR LOAD
Fig. 4.6 Block Diagram of Power supply
(a) Transformer
The potential transformer will step down the power supply voltage (0-230V) to (0-6V)
level. Then the secondary of the potential transformer will be connected to the precision
rectifier which is constructed with the help of op–amp. The advantages of using precision
rectifier are it will give peak voltage output as DC; rest of the circuits will give only RMS
output.
(b) Bridge rectifier
When four diodes are connected as shown in figure, the circuit is called as bridge
rectifier. The input to the circuit is applied to the diagonally opposite corners of the
network, and the output is taken from the remaining two corners.
Let us assume that the transformer is working properly and there is a positive potential, at
point A and a negative potential at point B. the positive potential at point A will forward
bias D3 and reverse bias D4.
The negative potential at point B will forward bias D1 and reverse D2. At this time D3
and D1 are forward biased and will allow current flow to pass through them; D4 and D2
are reverse biased and will block current flow. The path for current flow is from point B
through D1, up through RL, through D3, through the secondary of the transformer back to
point B. this path is indicated by the solid arrows. Waveforms (1) and (2) can be observed
across D1 and D3.
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One-half cycle later the polarity across the secondary of the transformer reverse,
forward biasing D2 and D4 and reverse biasing D1 and D3. Current flow will now be
from point A through D4, up through RL, through D2, through the secondary of T1, and
back to point A. This path is indicated by the broken arrows. Waveforms (3) and (4) can
be observed across D2 and D4. The current flow through RL is always in the same
direction. In flowing through RL this current develops a voltage corresponding to that
shown waveform (5). Since current flows through the load (RL) during both half cycles
of the applied voltage, this bridge rectifier is a full-wave rectifier.
One advantage of a bridge rectifier over a conventional full-wave rectifier is that

with a given transformer the bridge rectifier produces a voltage output that is nearly twice
that of the conventional full-wave circuit.
(c) Filter
Filters are electronic circuits which perform signal processing functions,
specifically to remove unwanted frequency components from the signal, to enhance
wanted ones, or both. The most common types of electronic filters are linear filters,
regardless of other aspects of their design.
(d) IC Regulator
An IC regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically
maintain a constant voltage level. A voltage regulator may be a simple “feed-forward”
design or may include negative feedback control loops. It may use an electromechanical
mechanism, or electronic components. Depending on the design, it may be used to
regulate one or more AC or DC voltages.
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CHAPTER 5
PIC MICROCONTROLLER
5.1 Introduction
A micro-controller-based physiological sensing unit has been
designed, prototyped, and field-tested for recording galvanic skin response data and
relaying them to a computer for physiological analysis. Focusing on system design issues
concerning battery-driven ambulatory applications, this paper presents a special data
compression algorithm based on relative encoding to optimize memory utilization and
reduce data transfer time. Data flow coordination and timing control are enabled by a PIC
micro-controller. The embedded block is connected with the computer through serial port
and the patient reaches an abnormal condition, automatically an alert message will given
to the doctor.
5.2 PIC Microcontroller
Major Blocks in the PIC MCU,
The major parts of the PIC MCU (Microcontroller Unit) that we will be concerned with
are the program memory, data memory which is also called file registers, and the
Working Register, and finally the EEPROM memory section.
Program Memory ----- 14 bit word length
File Register Memory (Data Memory) ----- 8 bit word length
EEPROM Memory ----- 8 bit word length ---- separate address space
Working Register ----- Byte wide used in most instructions
5.3 PROGRAM MEMORY
The program memory in the PIC16F877A has a total of 8K words. The word
length for the midrange family of PIC microcontrollers is 14 bits long. Because each
word uses 14 bits this amount of memory is roughly equivalent to 14K bytes. The
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program memory can be made up of EPROM using the 16CXXX parts or it can have
FLASH memory as in the 16FXXX parts. After the program memory has been
programmed it will retain the program even if power is lost. Therefore program memory
is said to be non-volatile. The 8K words or program memory are made up of 4 sections or
pages of 2K words each. Within each page every 14 bit word has an address with the first
one starting at 000hex and ending with 7Ffhex which corresponds to 0 through 2047
decimal. The MCU can only use one of the program memory pages at a time. To read or
write to a different page requires the programmer to do page switching within his
program. How to do this will be covered in detail in a later section.
The PIC 16F877A microcontroller is at the top of the end of the range for the
midrange family. Other members have less memory than this. Members that have 4K
words of program memory will only have 2 pages. Some members have only enough
program memory for one page. For example the PIC 16F84A only has 1024 words of
program memory so consequently needs only one page to contain its program memory.
For the PIC16F84A page switching is not a consideration. For the programs used in this
course we will normally only use the first page of program memory and will not have to
worry with page switching. The methods for page switching will be covered in detail later
in the course.
Fig. 5.1 File Registers (Data Memory)
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The file registers are where data and variables are stored. File registers contain a single
byte in each address location. File registers will not retain their contents when power is
lost and therefore is said to be volatile memory.
File Registers are considered the data memory section of the MCU. File
registers can be broken down into two types of data storage. General purpose registers
(GPR) are used by the programmer for normal calculations and temporary data storage.
Special Function registers (SFR) are used to control various internal functions contained
within the microcontroller such as interrupts, serial communications, timers and counters,
A/D converters, program counter, port direction control and many others. Special
Function registers will have a name associated with them such as TMR0, STATUS,
PORTA, PORTB, etc. Each Special Function register allows control or access to data
associated with a particular hardware function within the microcontroller. General
purpose registers do not have a name since they can be used for any purpose the
programmer designates. After a power-up any special function registers that are going to
be used must be loaded with the necessary setup data before they can be used. The file
registers in data memory are divided up into Banks similar to the way program memory is
divided into pages. Each Bank can hold up to 128 bytes and uses addresses from 00h to
7Fh. Notice in the image of the register map that in each bank the special function
registers always start at address 00h and go up to a certain address at which point the
general purpose registers begin. If all four banks contained 128 bytes each there would be
512 bytes total in the file register space. However not all locations are used. The byte
locations tinted in grey are not available. Also in banks 1, 2 and 3 the last 16 bytes all
map to the same 16 bytes that are in bank 0. After these considerations we find that there
are actually 368 bytes of General Purpose Register Space. Other microcontrollers that are
at the lower end of the midrange product line may have only 2 banks that contain even
fewer bytes than the 128 bytes in each bank of the PIC 16F877A. For example the PIC
16F84A has 2 banks with each bank having addresses between 0 and 4Fh. This MCU has
a total of 68 bytes of general purpose file register space. We will be using all 4 banks of
the file register space available to the PIC 16F877A in our programs. The methods used
to switch banks will be covered in detail in a later programming section of the course.
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5.4 EEPROM Memory
The last type of memory we will deal with is EEPROM.

This memory is nonvolatile meaning that it will retain its data even if the power is lost.
EEPROM is normally used to store parameter data that needs to be saved over a long
period over many power-up and power-down cycles. Writing to EEPROM involves a
more complex series of steps than writing to the File Registers. Each write cycles is very
slow compared to writing to the File Registers. However reading is much simpler and
much faster. The procedures for using this type of memory will be covered in an
intermediate course. The PIC16F877A has 256 bytes of EEPROM memory. The
EEPROM memory is separate from program memory and data memory. It has it own
address space. To read or write to EEPROM memory the Special Function Registers are
used such as EEDATA and EEADR.
5.5 Working register
The Working register is a single byte register that is used in most of the PIC
MCU instructions. The Working register is nearly always involved in any actions
involving data in the File Registers. Whenever two values are used in arithmetic
operations or logic operations one of the values will be loaded into the Working register
at the start of the instruction. After the instruction finishes the result is often left in the
Working register. In other manufacturers microcontrollers the Working register is known
as the accumulator. However, we will stick with the term working register for our
purposes. If you look in the File Register Map you will not find the Working register. It is
not part of file register space. It exists on its own within the PIC MCU.
5.6 Special function registers
As can be seen in the File Register Map there

are many special function registers. We will cover the most important ones in this course
and leave others for more advanced course work.
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Fig.5.2 Register file
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5.7 Status register
The Status register is at address location 03 in bank 0. Notice that it is also listed
in banks 1, 2 and 3 at addresses 83h, 103h and 183h respectively. The Status register is
used so often in programming that it was designed in to all banks so that it would be easy
to access without switching banks. So there is really only one Status register but its
contents are available in all 4 File Register banks. Each of the 8 bits in the Status register
has a function. For example bit 0 is the Carry Flag. This bit is used to signal a carry when
the result of an addition is too large to fit into a single byte. It can also be used to indicate
a borrow when subtraction is performed. The carry flag can also be cleared or set directly
by an instruction. Bit 1 is DC or Digit Carry. When working with binary coded decimal
it is necessary to have a carry for each decimal digit. Since each decimal digit is
represented by 4 bits, the DC works as the carry for the low order digit and the regular
Carry bit works as the carry for the high order digit. Often we want to test to see if the
result of an arithmetic or logic operation resulted in zero or a non-zero number. The Z
flag or Zero flag will be modified after arithmetic and logic instructions. If the result was
0 the Z flag will be set to 1. However if the result was not a zero the Z flag will be cleared
to 0. The instruction set gives us the capability to check the results of C, DC and Z flags
in order to make decisions based on their contents. For right now we will not concern
ourselves with the functions of bits 3, 4 and 7. We will pick them up later when they will
make more sense. Bits 5 and 6 are the bits that control which File Register bank is active.
They are called RP0 and RP1 respectively. If both bit 5 and 6 are cleared then bank 0 is
active. When bit 6 is cleared and bit 5 is set then bank 1 is active. All that is needed to
change File Register banks is to set bit 5 and 6 as shown in the Status Register Map.
The choice as to how each pin will be used in a particular application is

controlled by programming various special function registers. The control of the various
functions available is covered later in the context of programming and initializing the
processor.
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5.8 Features of PIC 16F877A

The microcontroller has the following features:
(a) High-Performance RISC CPU:
• Only 35 single- word instructions to learn .Hence it is user friendly. Easy to use
• All single – cycle instructions except for program branches, which are two-cycle
• Operating speed: DC – 20 MHz clock input DC – 200 ns instruction cycle
• Up to 8K x 14 words of Flash Program Memory, Up to 368 x 8 bytes of Data Memory

(RAM), Up to 256 x 8 bytes of EEPROM Data Memory.
(b) Peripheral Features:
• Timer0: 8-bit timer/counter with 8 – bit prescaler. It is used for synchronization
• Timer1: 16-bit timer/counter with prescaler, can be incremented during Sleep
• Timer2:8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit period register, prescaler and postscaler
• Two Capture, Compare and some PWM modules, having following features
-Capture is 16-bit, max. resolution is 12.5 ns
-Compare is 16-bit, max . resolution is 200 ns
-PWM maximum resolution that is 10-bit
(b) Analog features:
It has an analog Comparator module with:
(1) Two analog comparators
(2) Programmable on-chip voltage reference (VREF) module (3) Programmable input
multiplexing from device inputs and internal voltage reference thus 3 parts
I CMOS Technology:
It has following features:
(1) Low-power, high-speed Flash/EEPROM technology
(2) Fully static design
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5.9 Blocks diagram of PIC 16F877A:
Fig.5.3 Block diagram of PIC 16F877A
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5.10 PIN diagram of PIC 16F877A
Fig. 5.4 Pin diagram of PIC 16F877A
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5.11 Trigeering Circuit
Fig. 5.5 Triggering circuit.
5.11.1 PIN description:
(a) OSC1/CLKI:
Oscillator crystal or external clock input. Oscillator crystal input or external clock source
input. ST buffer when configured in RC mode; otherwise CMOS. External clock source
input. Always associated with pin function OSC1 (see OSC1/CLKI, OSC2/CLKO pins).
(c) OSC2/CLKO:
Oscillator crystal or clock output. Oscillator crystal output. Connects to the crystal or
resonator in Crystal Oscillator mode. In RC mode, OSC2 pin outputs CLKO, which has
1/4 the frequency of OSC1 and denotes the instruction cycle rate.
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(d) MCLR/VPP:
Master Clear (input) or programming voltage (output). Master Clear (Reset)

input. This pin is an active low Reset to the device. Programming voltage input.
• RA0/AN0.
• RA1/AN1.
• RA2/AN2/VREF-/CVREF.
• VREFCVREF.
• RA3/AN3/VREF+.
• VREF+.
• RA4/T0CKI/C1OUT.
• T0CKI.
• C1OUT.
• RA5/AN4/SS/C2OUT/SS/C2OUT.
(e) I/O PORTS:
Some pins for these I/O ports are multiplexed with an alternate function for the
peripheral features on the device. In general, when a peripheral is enabled, that pin may
not be used as a general purpose I/O pin.
(f) PORT A AND THE TRISA PORT
PORTA is a 6-bit wide, bidirectional port. The corresponding data direction

register is TRISA. Setting a TRISA bit (= 1) will make the corresponding PORTA pin an
input (i.e., put the corresponding output driver in a High – Impedance mode). Clearing a
TRISA bit (= 0) will make the corresponding PORTA pin an output (i.e., put the contents
of the output latch on the selected pin). Reading the PORTA register reads the status of
the pins, whereas writing to it will write to the port latch. All write operations are read-
modify-write operations. Therefore, a write to a port implies that the port pins are read;
the value is modified and then written to the port data latch.
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Pin RA4 is multiplexed with the Timer0 module clock input to become the RA4/T0CKI
pin. The RA4/T0CKI pin is a Schmitt Trigger input and an open-drain output. All other
PORTA pins have TTL input levels and full CMOS output drivers. Other PORTA pins
are multiplexed with analog inputs and the analog VREF input for both the A/D
converters and the comparators. The operation of each pin is selected by clearing/setting
the appropriate control bits in the ADCON1 and/or CMCON registers. The TRISA
register controls the direction of the port pins even when they are being used as analog
inputs. The user must ensure the bits in the TRISA register are maintained set when using
them as analog inputs.
(g) PORT B and the TRISB Register
PORTB is an 8-bit wide, bidirectional port. The corresponding data direction

register is TRISB. Setting a TRISB bit (= 1) will make the corresponding PORTB pin an
input (i.e., put the corresponding output driver in a High-Impedance mode). Clearing a
TRISB bit (= 0) will make the corresponding PORTB pin an output (i.e., put the contents
of the output latch on the selected pin). Three pins of PORTB are multiplexed with the In-
Circuit Debugger and Low-Voltage Programming function: RB3/PGM, RB6/PGC and
RB7/PGD.
Four of the PORTB pins, RB7:RB4, have an interruption- change feature. Only pins
configured as inputs can cause this interrupt to occur (i.e., any RB7:RB4 pin configured
as an output is excluded from the interruption- change comparison). The input pins (of
RB7:RB4) are compared with the old value latched on the last read of PORTB. The
“mismatch” outputs of RB7:RB4 are together to generate the RB port change interrupt
with flag bit RBIF (INTCON<0>).
This interrupt can wake the device from Sleep. The user, in the Interrupt
Service Routine, can clear the interrupt in the following manner:
a) Any read or write of PORTB. This will end the mismatch condition.
b) Clear flag bit RBIF.
A mismatch condition will continue to set flag bit RBIF. Reading PORTB
will end the mismatch condition and allow flag bit RBIF to be cleared. The interrupt-on-
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change feature is recommended for wake-up on key depression operation and operations
where PORTB is only used for the interrupt-on-change feature. Polling of PORTB is not
recommended while using the interrupt-on- change feature. This interrupt-on-mismatch
feature, together with software configurable pull-ups on these four pins, allow easy
interface to a keypad and make it possible for wake-up on key depression.
(H) PORTC and the TRISC Register:
PORTC is an 8-bit wide, bidirectional port. The corresponding data direction register is
TRISC. Setting a TRISC bit (= 1) will make the corresponding PORTC pin an input (i.e.,
put the corresponding output driver in a High- Impedance mode). Clearing a TRISC bit (=
0) will make the corresponding PORTC pin an output (i.e., put the contents of the output
latch on the selected pin). PORTC is multiplexed with several peripheral functions (Table
4-5). PORTC pins have Schmitt Trigger input buffers. When the I2C module is enabled,
the PORTC<4:3> pins can be configured with normal I2C levels, or with SMBus levels,
by using the CKE bit (SSPSTAT<6>). When enabling peripheral functions, care should
be taken in defining TRIS bits for each PORTC pin. Some peripherals override the TRIS
bit to make a pin an output, while other peripherals override the TRIS bit to make a pin an
input. Since the TRIS bit override is in effect while the peripheral is enabled, read-modify
write instructions (BSF, BCF, XORWF) with TRISC as the destination, should be
avoided. The user should refer to the corresponding peripheral section for the correct
TRIS bit settings.
(i)PORT D and TRISD Register
PORTD is an 8-bit port with Schmitt Trigger input buffers. Each pin is individually
configurable as an input or output. PORTD can be configured as an 8-bit wide
microprocessor port (Parallel Slave Port) by setting control bit, PSP MODE (TRISE<4>).
In this mode, the input buffers are TTL.
(j)PORTE and TRISE Register
PORTE has three pins (RE0/RD/AN5, RE1/WR/AN6 and RE2/CS/AN7) which

are individually configurable as inputs or outputs. These pins have Schmitt Trigger input
buffers. The PORTE pins become the I/O control inputs for the microprocessor port when
bit PSPMODE (TRISE<4>) is set. In this mode, the user must make certain that the
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TRISE<2:0> bits are set and that the pins are configured as digital inputs. Also, ensure
that ADCON1 is configured for digital I/O. In this mode, the input buffers are TTL.
Register 4-1 shows the TRISE register which also controls the Parallel Slave Port
operation. PORTE pins are multiplexed with analog inputs.
When selected for analog input, these pins will read as ‘0’s. TRISE controls. The
direction of the RE pins, even when they are being used as analog inputs. The user must
make sure to keep the pins configured as inputs when using them as analog inputs.
(k) TIMER0 Interrupt:
The TMR0 interrupt is generated when the TMR0 register overflows from FFh to 00h.
This overflow sets bit TMR0IF (INTCON<2>). The interrupt can be masked by clearing
bit TMR0IE (INTCON<5>). Bit TMR0IF must be cleared in software by the Timer0
module Interrupt Service Routine before re-enabling this interrupt. The TMR0 interrupt
cannot awaken the processor from Sleep since the timer is shut-off during Sleep.
(l) TIMER1 Module:
The Timer1 module is a 16-bit timer/counter consisting of two 8-bit registers (TMR1H
and TMR1L) which are readable and writable. The TMR1 register pair
(TMR1H:TMR1L) increments from 0000h to FFFFh and rolls over to 0000h. The TMR1
interrupt, if enabled, is generated on overflow which is latched in interrupt flag bit,
TMR1IF (PIR1<0>). This interrupt can be enabled/disabled by setting or clearing TMR1
interrupt enable bit, TMR1IE (PIE1<0>). Timer1 can operate in one of two modes:
• As a Timer
• As a Counter
The operating mode is determined by the clock select bit, TMR1CS (T1CON<1>).
In Timer mode, Timer1 increments every instruction cycle. In Counter mode, it

increments on every rising edge of the external clock input. Timer1 can be
enabled/disabled by setting/clearing control bit, TMR1ON (T1CON<0>).Timer1 also has
an internal “Reset input”. This Reset can be generated by either of the two CCP modules.
Shows the Timer1 Control register. When the Timer1 oscillator is enabled (T1OSCEN is
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set), the RC1/T1OSI/CCP2 and RC0/T1OSO/T1CKI pins become inputs. That is, the
TRISC<1:0> value is ignored and these pins read as ‘0’.
(m)TIMER2 Module:
Timer2 is an 8-bit timer with a prescaler and a postscaler. It can be used as the PWM
time base for the PWM mode of the CCP module(s). The TMR2 register is readable and
writable and is cleared on any device Reset. The input clock (FOSC/4) has a prescale
option of 1:1, 1:4 or 1:16, selected by control bits T2CKPS1:T2CKPS0 (T2CON<1:0>).
The Timer2 module has an 8-bit period register, PR2. A Timer2 increment from 00h until
it matches PR2 and then resets to 00h on the next increment cycle. PR2 is a readable and
writable register. The PR2 register is initialized to FFh upon Reset. The match output of
TMR2 goes through a 4-bit postscaler (which gives a 1:1 to 1:16 scaling inclusive) to
generate a TMR2 interrupt (latched in flag bit, TMR2IF (PIR1<1>)). Timer2 can be shut-
off by clearing control bit, TMR2ON (T2CON<2>), to minimize power consumption.
(n)Analog to Digital converter:
The analog-to-digital (A/D) converter module can have up to eight analog inputs
for a device. The analog input charges a sample and hold capacitor. The output of the
sample and hold capacitor is the input into the converter. The converter then generates a
digital result of this analog level via successive approximation. This A/D conversion, of
the analog input signal, results in a corresponding 10-bit digital number. The analog
reference voltages (positive and negative supply) are software selectable to either the
device’s supply voltages (AVDD, Avss) or the voltage level on the AN3/VREF+ and
AN2/VREF.
The A/D module has four registers. These registers are:
• A/D Result High Register (ADRESH)
• A/D Result Low Register (ADRESL)
• A/D Control Register0 (ADCON0)
• A/D Control Register1 (ADCON1)
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10-bit A\D Converter:-
Fig. 5.6 10-bit A/D converter
Control register:
bit 7:6 ADCS1:ADCS0: A/D Conversion Clock Select bits
00 = FOSC/2
01 = FOSC/8
10 = FOSC/32
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11 = FRC (clock derived from the internal A/D RC oscillator)
bit 5:3 CHS2:CHS0: Analog Channel Select bits:
000 = channel 0, (AN0)
bit 2 GO/DONE: A/D Conversion Status bit
When ADON = 1
1 = A/D conversion in progress (setting this bit starts the A/D conversion which is
automatically cleared by hardware when the A/D conversion is complete)
0 = A/D conversion not in progress
bit 1 Unimplemented: Read as ‘0’
bit 0 ADON: A/D On
1 = A/D converter module is powered up
0 = A/D converter module is shut off and consumes no operating current
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(o)ADCON1 Register:
bit 7:6 Unimplemented: Read as ‘0’
bit 5 ADFM: A/D Result format select
1 = Right justified. 6 Most Significant bits of ADRESH are read as’0’.
0 = Left justified. 6 Least Significant bits of ADRESL are read as ’0’.
Bit 4 Unimplemented: Read as ‘0’
bit 3:0 PCFG3:PCFG0: A/D Port Configuration Control bits
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CHAPTER 6
HARDWARE LAYOUT
1
D1
VPP VDD R14 C5 2 - +4

0.1 uF 1k 470 uF
SW3 R15
R6 C8 POT
1
R5
6
220 ohm 5 8
RESET 1k TO RA1 PIN D3 2
11
32
12
31
3
1 4
VSS 5V zener
VSS
JP1
VD D
VD D
Load 1 Load 2 T1
1 40 RB7 2 TRANSFORMER CT
3
MCLR 2 MCLR/Vpp RB7/PGD 39 RB6 1
RA1 3 RA0/AN0 RB6/PGC 38 RB5
RA2 4 RA1/AN1 RB5 37 RB4 230 VAC K3
RA3 5 RA2/AN2/Vref- RB4 36 RB3 4
RA4 6 RA3/AN3/Vref+ RB3/PGM 35 RB2 3
RA5 7 RA4/T0CKI PIC16F877 RB2 34 RB1 5
RE0 8 RA5/AN4/SS U3 RB1 33 RB0 8
RE1 9 RE0/AN5/RD RB0/INT 6
RE2 10 RE1/AN6/WR 7
RE2/AN7/CS V DD 1
1k 2
R13
13
14 OSC1/CLKIN 30 RD7 Q3 RELAY DPDT
OSC2/CLKOUT RD7/PSP7 29 RD6 BC547
RC0 15 RD6/PSP6 28 RD5
Y1
RC1 16 RC0/T1OSO/T1CKI RD5/PSP5 27 RD4
17 RC1/T1OSI/CCP2 RD4/PSP4 22 RD3 K3
10Mhz RC3 18 RC2/CCP1 RD3/PSP3 21 RD2 4
RC4 23 RC3/SCK/SCL RD2/PSP2 20 RD1 3
C9 C10 RC5 24 RC4/SDI/SDA RD1/PSP1 19 RD0 5
27 pF 27 pF RC6 25 RC5/SDO RD0/PSP0 8
RC7 26 RC6/TX/CK 6
RC7/RX/DT 7
1
1k VDD 2
R13
Q3 RELAY DPDT
TX RX BC547
220ohms
220ohms
1
D1 LM7805
U2 VDD
JP1
2- +4 1 3
2 VIN VOUT VDD
GN D
1
R4
220 VAC C5 C6 C7 220 ohm
2
470 uF 100 uF 0.1 uF

3
D2
LED
Title
Pic Development Board - PIC Main and PS
Size Document Number Rev
B 2 2
Date: Tuesday, November 16, 2010 Sheet 2 of 2
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CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE
The project describes about how to use power supply intelligently under peak
loads. The project automatically connects and disconnects the transformer thus protecting
transformer from overload. Sensing unit, ie.Current transformer plays an important role
by sensing the current through the load and sending feedback signal to the
microcontroller.PIC Microcontroller is so programmed that as soon as the load exceeds a
particular current limit it will soon generate a control signal that would be amplified by
the driver unit and finally control signal is fed to the Electromagnetic relay. For working
the relay AC supply is obtained through the inverter. The switching process occurs in the
Electromagnetic Relay which automatically connects the transformer in parallel in
accordance to the load sensed by the CT.
The future scope of our project is particularly in

Substation. In substations particularly during the peak hours there is a need for the
operation of additional transformer to supply the additional load requirement. Our project
automatically connects the transformer under critical loads. Thus there is no need to
operate both transformers under normal loads, particularly during off peak hours. Thus
power is shared intelligently with the transformers in parallel.
REFERENCES
[1] J. R. Rodriguez, J. W. Dixon, J. R. Espinoza, J. Pontt, and P. Lezana, “PWM

regenerative rectifiers: state of the art,” IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics,
vol. 52, no. 1, pp. 5– 22, Feb. 2005.
EEE Dept.
[2] J. Rodriguez, L. Moran, J. Pontt, J. Espinoza, R. Diaz, and E. Silva, “Operating

experience of shovel drives for mining applications,” IEEE Transactions on Industry
Applications, vol. 40, no. 2, pp. 664–671, Mar./Apr. 2004.
[3] http://www.pdf4me.net/pdf-data/load-sharing-of-transformers-using-embedded-systems.php
[4]http://www.docstoc.com/docs/10934947/IEEE-Electrical-IEEE-Project-Titles_-2009---2010-
NCCT-Final-Year-Projects
[5] www.2010ieeeprojects.com/power_electronics_projects.html
[6]www05.abb.com/1MRK500401SEN_en_Transformer_protection_monitoring_and_control.pdf
[7]http://www.chetanasprojects.com/Thread-EMBEDDED-MICROCONTROLLER-PROJECTS-
-4754
[8] ww1.microchip.com/downloads/en/devicedoc/39582b.pdf
[9]http://www.docstoc.com/docs/41554618/PIC-Microcontroller-Development-Board-%28PIC-
16F877A-40-Pin%29
[10] www.barcolair.com/PDF/BarberColman/Load%20Sharing/f22107-4.pdf
EEE Dept.

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Intelligent power sharing of transformer with auto protection 1

1.1 General Background

1.2 Literature Review

At present load sharing of transformer is done by paralleling

The challenge in paralleling modular supplies is to insure

1.3 Aim and Scope of Project

This Project describes about, how to use power supply

1.4 Organization of project report

The substation may be defined as “an assembly of apparatus which transforms

2.2 Equipments for Substation

The substation mainly consists of the following equipments:

(a) Main bus bars

(b) Single bus arrangement

This arrangement is a simple scheme in less important substations. A breaker or bus

(c) Main and transfer bus

(d) Double bus, Single breaker

An isolators or disconnecting switch is used to open some given part

There are two types of isolators.

1. Single pole isolators

2. Three pole isolators

(g) Circuit breaker

1. SF6 circuit breakers

The following circuit breakers are preferred for EHV ac substation

Circuit breakers are installed to perform the following duties.

a. To carry full load current continuously.

2.3 Power Transformers

The modern practice is to use three phase transformers as power transformers,

(a) Tertiary winding

Tertiary winding is an additional winding in power transformers normally delta

(b) Current Transformers

(c) Potential Transformer

(e) Earthing switch

Connecting of electrical equipment or apparatus to the earth with the help of a

The earthing can be divided into two parts.

1. System earthing: It is possible to provide to provide low fault impedance to the

2. Safety earthing: It is required to provide protection to the operating staff working in

In electrical installation the following components must be earthed.

There are two types of earthing.

(g) Lightning arresters (Surge arresters)

a) Conventional gapped arresters

Whenever an abnormal condition develops, the relay closes its

(a) Substation Auxiliaries Supply

In small-unattended substations only a small amount of power is required for electric

(b) Capacitor banks

Reactive power monitoring is desirable to maintain efficient system operation,

If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current

By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating

2.4.1 Parallel operation of Transformers

a. Single Phase Transformers

b. Three phase Transformers

PROGRAMMING WITH PIC

6.1 PROGRAMMING IN PIC

#define RELAY0 RD1;

unsigned char CT;

When designing low-voltage

Over the years, a variety of schemes have been devised to accomplish

4.2 Block Diagram

Fig 4.1 Block Diagram

A brief description of some of these approaches will, perhaps, be useful in comparing

4.3 Current Transformers

Fig. 4.2 Current transformer

4.4 Current Transformer operation

• A Current Transformer (CT) is a type of instrument transformer designed to provide a