Geostationary orbit From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Two geostationary satellites in same orbit

A 5 � 6 degree view of a part of the geostationary belt, showing several

geostationary satellites. Those with inclination 0� form a diagonal belt across the
image; a few objects with small inclinations to the equator are visible above this
line. The satellites are pinpoint, while stars have created small trails due to the
Earth's rotation.
A geostationary orbit, geostationary Earth orbit or geosynchronous equatorial
orbit[1] (GEO) is a circular orbit 35,786 kilometres (22,236 mi) above the Earth's
equator and following the direction of the Earth's rotation. An object in such an
orbit has an orbital period equal to the Earth's rotational period (one sidereal
day) and thus appears motionless, at a fixed position in the sky, to ground
observers. Communications satellites and weather satellites are often placed in
geostationary orbits, so that the satellite antennas (located on Earth) that
communicate with them do not have to rotate to track them, but can be pointed
permanently at the position in the sky where the satellites are located. Using this
characteristic, ocean color satellites with visible and near-infrared light sensors
(e.g. the Geostationary Ocean Color Imager (GOCI)) can also be operated in
geostationary orbit in order to monitor sensitive changes of ocean environments.

A geostationary orbit is a particular type of geosynchronous orbit, the distinction

being that while an object in geosynchronous orbit returns to the same point in the
sky at the same time each day, an object in geostationary orbit never leaves that
position. Geosynchronous orbits move up and down relative to a point on the earth's
surface, because while geostationary orbits have an inclination of 0 degrees
relative to the equator, geosynchronous orbits have varying inclinations.

Contents [hide]
1 History
2 Practical uses
2.1 Communications
2.2 Orbit allocation
3 Orbital stability
3.1 Limitations to usable life of geostationary satellites
4 Derivation of geostationary altitude
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
The notion of a geostationary space station equipped with radio communication was
published in 1928 by Herman Potocnik.[2] The first appearance of a geostationary
orbit in popular literature was in the first Venus Equilateral story by George O.
Smith,[3] but Smith did not go into details. British science fiction author Arthur
C. Clarke disseminated the idea widely, with more details on how it would work, in
a 1945 paper entitled "Extra-Terrestrial Relays � Can Rocket Stations Give
Worldwide Radio Coverage?", published in Wireless World magazine. Clarke
acknowledged the connection in his introduction to The Complete Venus Equilateral.
[4] The orbit, which Clarke first described as useful for broadcast and relay
communications satellites,[5] is sometimes called the Clarke Orbit.[6] Similarly,
the Clarke Belt is the part of space about 35,786 km (22,236 mi) above sea level,
in the plane of the equator, where near-geostationary orbits may be implemented.
The Clarke Orbit is about 265,000 km (165,000 mi) in circumference.

Practical uses[edit]
See also: Geosynchronous satellite
Most commercial communications satellites, broadcast satellites and SBAS satellites
operate in geostationary orbits. A geostationary transfer orbit is used to move a
satellite from low Earth orbit (LEO) into a geostationary orbit. The first
satellite placed into a geostationary orbit was the Syncom-3, launched by a Delta D
rocket in 1964.

A worldwide network of operational geostationary meteorological satellites is used

to provide visible and infrared images of Earth's surface and atmosphere. These
satellite systems include:

the United States GOES

Meteosat, launched by the European Space Agency and operated by the European
Weather Satellite Organization, EUMETSAT
the Japanese Himawari
Chinese Fengyun
India's INSAT series
A statite, a hypothetical satellite that uses a solar sail to modify its orbit,
could theoretically hold itself in a geostationary "orbit" with different altitude
and/or inclination from the "traditional" equatorial geostationary orbit.[7]

Communications[edit]
Satellites in geostationary orbits are far enough away from Earth that
communication latency becomes significant � about a quarter of a second for a trip
from one ground-based transmitter to the satellite and back to another ground-based
transmitter; close to half a second for a round-trip communication from one Earth
station to another and then back to the first.

For example, for ground stations at latitudes of f = �45� on the same meridian as
the satellite, the time taken for a signal to pass from Earth to the satellite and
back again can be computed using the cosine rule, given the geostationary orbital
radius r (derived below), the Earth's radius R and the speed of light c, as

{\displaystyle \Delta t={\frac {2}{c}}{\sqrt {R^{2}+r^{2}-2Rr\cos \varphi }}\approx

253~{\text{ms}}.} {\displaystyle \Delta t={\frac {2}{c}}{\sqrt {R^{2}+r^{2}-2Rr\cos
\varphi }}\approx 253~{\text{ms}}.}
(Note that r is the orbital radius, the distance from the centre of the Earth, not
the height above the equator.)

This delay presents problems for latency-sensitive applications such as voice

communication.[8]

Geostationary satellites are directly overhead at the equator and become lower in
the sky the further north or south one travels. As the observer's latitude
increases, communication becomes more difficult due to factors such as atmospheric
refraction, Earth's thermal emission, line-of-sight obstructions, and signal
reflections from the ground or nearby structures. At latitudes above about 81�,
geostationary satellites are below the horizon and cannot be seen at all.[9]
Because of this, some Russian communication satellites have used elliptical Molniya
and Tundra orbits, which have excellent visibility at high latitudes.

Orbit allocation[edit]
Satellites in geostationary orbit must all occupy a single ring above the equator.
The requirement to space these satellites apart to avoid harmful radio-frequency
interference during operations means that there are a limited number of orbital
"slots" available, thus only a limited number of satellites can be operated in
geostationary orbit. This has led to conflict between different countries wishing
access to the same orbital slots (countries near the same longitude but differing
latitudes) and radio frequencies. These disputes are addressed through the
International Telecommunication Union's allocation mechanism.[10][11] In the 1976
Bogot� Declaration, eight countries located on the Earth's equator claimed
sovereignty over the geostationary orbits above their territory, but the claims
gained no international recognition.[12]

Orbital stability[edit]
A geostationary orbit can be achieved only at an altitude very close to 35,786 km
(22,236 mi) and directly above the equator. This equates to an orbital velocity of
3.07 km/s (1.91 mi/s) and an orbital period of 1,436 minutes, which equates to
almost exactly one sidereal day (23.934461223 hours). This ensures that the
satellite will match the Earth's rotational period and has a stationary footprint
on the ground. All geostationary satellites have to be located on this ring.

A combination of lunar gravity, solar gravity, and the flattening of the Earth at
its poles causes a precession motion of the orbital plane of any geostationary
object, with an orbital period of about 53 years and an initial inclination
gradient of about 0.85� per year, achieving a maximal inclination of 15� after 26.5
years.[13] To correct for this orbital perturbation, regular orbital stationkeeping
manoeuvres are necessary, amounting to a delta-v of approximately 50 m/s per year.

A second effect to be taken into account is the longitude drift, caused by the
asymmetry of the Earth � the equator is slightly elliptical. There are two stable
(at 75.3�E and 252�E) and two unstable (at 165.3�E and 14.7�W) equilibrium points.
Any geostationary object placed between the equilibrium points would (without any
action) be slowly accelerated towards the stable equilibrium position, causing a
periodic longitude variation.[13] The correction of this effect requires station-
keeping maneuvers with a maximal delta-v of about 2 m/s per year, depending on the
desired longitude.

Solar wind and radiation pressure also exert small forces on satellites; over time,
these cause them to slowly drift away from their prescribed orbits.

In the absence of servicing missions from the Earth or a renewable propulsion

method, the consumption of thruster propellant for station keeping places a
limitation on the lifetime of the satellite. Hall-effect thrusters, which are
currently in use, have the potential to prolong the service life of a satellite by
providing high-efficiency electric propulsion.

Limitations to usable life of geostationary satellites[edit]

When they run out of thruster fuel, the satellites are at the end of their service
life, as they are no longer able to stay in their allocated orbital position. The
transponders and other onboard systems generally outlive the thruster fuel and, by
stopping N�S station keeping, some satellites can continue to be used in inclined
orbits (where the orbital track appears to follow a figure-eight loop centred on
the equator),[14][15] or else be elevated to a "graveyard" disposal orbit.

Derivation of geostationary altitude[edit]

Comparison of geostationary Earth orbit with GPS, GLONASS, Galileo and Compass
(medium Earth orbit) satellite navigation system orbits with the International
Space Station, Hubble Space Telescope and Iridium constellation orbits, and the
nominal size of the Earth.[a] The Moon's orbit is around 9 times larger (in radius
and length) than geostationary orbit.[b]
In any circular orbit, the centripetal force required to maintain the orbit (Fc) is
provided by the gravitational force on the satellite (Fg). To calculate the
geostationary orbit altitude, one begins with this equivalence:

{\displaystyle \mathbf {F} _{\text{c}}=\mathbf {F} _{\text{g}}.} {\displaystyle

\mathbf {F} _{\text{c}}=\mathbf {F} _{\text{g}}.}
By Newton's second law of motion,[16] we can replace the forces F with the mass m
of the object multiplied by the acceleration felt by the object due to that force:

{\displaystyle m\mathbf {a} _{\text{c}}=m\mathbf {g} .} {\displaystyle m\mathbf {a}

_{\text{c}}=m\mathbf {g} .}
We note that the mass of the satellite m appears on both sides � geostationary
orbit is independent of the mass of the satellite.[c] So calculating the altitude
simplifies into calculating the point where the magnitudes of the centripetal
acceleration required for orbital motion and the gravitational acceleration
provided by Earth's gravity are equal.

The centripetal acceleration's magnitude is:

{\displaystyle |\mathbf {a} _{\text{c}}|=\omega ^{2}r,} {\displaystyle |\mathbf {a}

_{\text{c}}|=\omega ^{2}r,}
where ? is the angular speed, and r is the orbital radius as measured from the
Earth's center of mass.

The magnitude of the gravitational acceleration is:

{\displaystyle |\mathbf {g} |={\frac {GM}{r^{2}}},} {\displaystyle |\mathbf {g} |

={\frac {GM}{r^{2}}},}
where M is the mass of Earth, 5.9736 � 1024 kg, and G is the gravitational
constant, (6.67428 � 0.00067) � 10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2.

Equating the two accelerations gives:

{\displaystyle r^{3}={\frac {GM}{\omega ^{2}}}\to r={\sqrt[{3}]{\frac {GM}{\omega

^{2}}}}.} {\displaystyle r^{3}={\frac {GM}{\omega ^{2}}}\to r={\sqrt[{3}]{\frac
{GM}{\omega ^{2}}}}.}
The product GM is known with much greater precision than either factor alone; it is
known as the geocentric gravitational constant � = 398,600.4418 � 0.0008 km3 s-2.
Hence

{\displaystyle r={\sqrt[{3}]{\frac {\mu }{\omega ^{2}}}}} r = \sqrt[3]

{\frac\mu{\omega^2}}
The angular speed ? is found by dividing the angle travelled in one revolution
(360� = 2p rad) by the orbital period (the time it takes to make one full
revolution). In the case of a geostationary orbit, the orbital period is one
sidereal day, or 86164.09054 s).[17] This gives

{\displaystyle \omega \approx {\frac {2\pi ~{\text{rad}}}

{86\,164~{\text{s}}}}\approx 7.2921\times 10^{-5}~{\text{rad/s}}.}
{\displaystyle \omega \approx {\frac {2\pi ~{\text{rad}}}
{86\,164~{\text{s}}}}\approx 7.2921\times 10^{-5}~{\text{rad/s}}.}
The resulting orbital radius is 42,164 kilometres (26,199 mi). Subtracting the
Earth's equatorial radius, 6,378 kilometres (3,963 mi), gives the altitude of
35,786 kilometres (22,236 mi).

Orbital speed is calculated by multiplying the angular speed by the orbital radius:

{\displaystyle v=\omega r\approx 3.0746~{\text{km/s}}\approx

11\,068~{\text{km/h}}\approx 6877.8~{\text{mph}}.} {\displaystyle v=\omega r\approx
3.0746~{\text{km/s}}\approx 11\,068~{\text{km/h}}\approx 6877.8~{\text{mph}}.}
By the same formula, we can find the geostationary-type orbit of an object in
relation to Mars (this type of orbit above is referred to as an areostationary
orbit if it is above Mars). The geocentric gravitational constant GM (which is �)
for Mars has the value of 42,828 km3s-2, and the known rotational period (T) of
Mars is 88,642.66 seconds. Since ? = 2p/T, using the formula above, the value of ?
is found to be approx 7.088218�10-5 s-1. Thus r3 = 8.5243�1012 km3, whose cube root
is 20,427 km; subtracting the equatorial radius of Mars (3396.2 km), we have 17,031
km.

See also[edit]
Spaceflight portal
Geostationary transfer orbit
Graveyard orbit
List of orbits
List of satellites in geosynchronous orbit
Orbital stationkeeping
Space elevator
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Orbital periods and speeds are calculated using the relations 4p�R� =
T�GM and V�R = GM, where R = radius of orbit in metres, T = orbital period in
seconds, V = orbital speed in m/s, G = gravitational constant � 6.673�10-11
Nm�/kg�, M = mass of Earth � 5.98�1024 kg.
Jump up ^ Approximately 8.6 times when the moon is nearest (363?104 km � 42?164 km)
to 9.6 times when the moon is farthest (405?696 km � 42?164 km).
Jump up ^ In the small-body approximation, the geostationary orbit is independent
of the satellite's mass. For satellites having a mass less than M �err/� � 1015 kg,
that is, over a billion times that of the ISS, the error due to the approximation
is smaller than the error on the universal geocentric gravitational constant (and
thus negligible).
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Ariane 5 User's Manual Issue 5 Revision 1" (PDF). arianespace. July
2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 October 2013. Retrieved 28 July 2013.
Jump up ^ Noordung, Hermann; et al. (1995) [1929]. The Problem With Space Travel.
Translation from original German. DIANE Publishing. p. 72. ISBN 978-0-7881-1849-4.
Jump up ^ "(Korvus's message is sent) to a small, squat building at the outskirts
of Northern Landing. It was hurled at the sky. � It � arrived at the relay station
tired and worn, � when it reached a space station only five hundred miles above the
city of North Landing." Smith, George O. (1976). The Complete Venus Equilateral.
New York: Ballantine Books. pp. 3�4. ISBN 978-0-345-28953-7.
Jump up ^ "It is therefore quite possible that these stories influenced me
subconsciously when � I worked out the principles of synchronous communications
satellistes �", op. cit, p. x
Jump up ^ "Extra-Terrestrial Relays � Can Rocket Stations Give Worldwide Radio
Coverage?" (PDF). Arthur C. Clarke. October 1945. Archived from the original (PDF)
on 18 March 2009. Retrieved 4 March 2009.
Jump up ^ "Basics of Space Flight Section 1 Part 5, Geostationary Orbits". NASA.
Retrieved 21 June 2009.
Jump up ^ US patent 5183225, Forward, Robert, "STATITE: SPACECRAFT THAT UTILIZES
SIGHT PRESSURE AND METHOD OF USE", published 1993-02-02
Jump up ^ The Teledesic Network: Using Low-Earth-Orbit Satellites to Provide
Broadband, Wireless, Real-Time Internet Access Worldwide.
Jump up ^ p. 123.
Jump up ^ [1] Archived March 27, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ ITU Space Services Division.
Jump up ^ Oduntan, Gbenga. "The Never Ending Dispute: Legal Theories on the Spatial
Demarcation Boundary Plane between Airspace and Outer Space" (PDF). Hertfordshire
Law Journal, 1(2), p. 75.
^ Jump up to: a b OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS OF GEO DEBRIS SYNCHRONIZATION
DYNAMICS. Anderson
Jump up ^ Shi Hu-Li, Han Yan-Ben, Ma Li-Hua, Pei Jun, Yin Zhi-Qiang and Ji Hai-Fu
(2010). Beyond Life-Cycle Utilization of Geostationary Communication Satellites in
End-of-Life, Satellite Communications, Nazzareno Diodato (Ed.), ISBN 978-953-307-
135-0, InTech, "Beyond Life-Cycle Utilization of Geostationary Communication
Satellites in End-of-Life".
Jump up ^ "Inclined orbit operation".
Jump up ^ "Newton's Second Law". The Physics Classroom.
Jump up ^ Edited by P. Kenneth Seidelmann, "Explanatory Supplement to the
Astronomical Almanac", University Science Books,1992, p. 700.
This article incorporates public domain material from the General Services
Administration document "Federal Standard 1037C" (in support of MIL-STD-188).

External links[edit]
Orbital Mechanics (Rocket and Space Technology)
List of satellites in geostationary orbit
Clarke Belt Snapshot Calculator
3D Real Time Satellite Tracking
Geostationary satellite orbit overview
Daily animation of the Earth, made by geostationary satellite 'Electro L' photos
Satellite shoots 48 images of the planet every day.
[hide] v t e
Gravitational orbits
Types
General
Box Capture Circular Elliptical / Highly elliptical Escape Graveyard Horseshoe
Hyperbolic trajectory Inclined / Non-inclined Osculating Parabolic trajectory
Parking Synchronous semi sub Transfer orbit
Geocentric
Geosynchronous Geostationary Sun-synchronous Low Earth Medium Earth High Earth
Molniya Near-equatorial Orbit of the Moon Polar Tundra
About other points
Areosynchronous Areostationary Halo Lissajous Lunar Heliocentric Heliosynchronous
Parameters
Shape Size
e Eccentricity a Semi-major axis b Semi-minor axis Q, q Apsides
Orientation
i Inclination O Longitude of the ascending node ? Argument of periapsis ?
Longitude of the periapsis
Position
M Mean anomaly ? True anomaly E Eccentric anomaly L Mean longitude l True
longitude
Variation
T Orbital period n Mean motion v Orbital speed t0 Epoch
Maneuvers
Collision avoidance (spacecraft) Delta-v Delta-v budget Bi-elliptic transfer
Geostationary transfer Gravity assist Gravity turn Hohmann transfer Low energy
transfer Oberth effect Inclination change Phasing Rocket equation Rendezvous
Transposition, docking, and extraction
Orbital mechanics
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Equatorial coordinate system Ground track Hill sphere Interplanetary Transport
Network Kepler's laws of planetary motion Lagrangian point n-body problem Orbit
equation Orbital state vectors Perturbation Retrograde motion Specific orbital
energy Specific relative angular momentum Two-line elements
List of orbits
[show] v t e
Arthur C. Clarke
Categories: AstrodynamicsEarth orbitsArtificial satellites in geosynchronous orbit
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