EXERCISES FOR CHAPTER 6: Taylor and Maclaurin Series

1. Find the first 4 terms of the Taylor series for the following functions:

1

(a) ln x centered at a=1, (b) centered at a=1, (c) sin x centered at a = .
x 4
Solution
1 1 2 6
(a) f (x) = ln x . So f (1) (x) = , f (2) (x) =
2 , f (3) (x) = 3 , f (4 ) (x) =
4 and so
x x x x
(x
1) 2
(x
1) 3
(x
1) 4
ln x = ln1 + (x
1)  1 +  (
1) +  (2) +  (
6) + …
2! 3! 4!
(x
1)2 (x
1)3 (x
1)4
= (x
1)
+
+…
2 3 4

1 1 2 6
(b) f (x) = . So f (1) (x) =
2 , f (2) (x) = 3 , f (3) (x) =
4 and so
x x x x
1 (x
1) 2
(x
1) 3
= 1 + (x
1)  (
1) +  (2) +  (
6) +

x 2! 3!
= 1
(x
1) + (x
1)2
(x
1)3


(c) f (x) = sin x . So f (1) (x) = cos x , f (2) (x) =
sin x , f (3) (x) =
cos x and so
 
2  2 (x
)2 2 (x
)3
sin x = + (x
)  ( ) + 4  (
)+ 4  (
2 ) +

2 4 2 2! 2 3! 2
  2  3 
2  (x
) (x
)
4 4 
=  1 + (x
)

+

2 4 2 6
 

2. Find the first 3 terms of the Taylor series for the function sin
x centered at a=0.5.



Use your answer to find an approximate value to sin( + )
2 10

Solution
f (x) = sin
x . So f (1) (x) =
cos
x , f (2) (x) =
 2 sin  x , f (3) (x) =
 3 cos  x ,
f (3) (x) =
4 sin
x and so

1 2 1 4
 (x
) (x
)
sin  x = sin + 2  (
 ) +
2 2  ( 4 ) + …
2 2! 4!
1 1
(x
)2 (x
)4
= 1
2 2 +4 2 +…
2! 4!
K. A. Tsokos: Series and D.E. 70

1 1
1 1 ( )2 ( )4
sin  ( + ) = 1
 2 10 +  4 10 + …
2 10 2! 4!
= 1
0.0493 + 0.0004
= 0.9511

(To 4 decimal places the GDC gives the same answer.)

3. Find the Taylor series for the function x 4 + x
2 centered at a=1.

Solution
f (x) = x 4 + x
2 . f (1) (x) = 4x 3 + 1 , f (2) (x) = 12x 2 , f (3) (x) = 24x , f (4 ) (x) = 24 and all
other derivatives are zero. Thus

(x
1)2 (x
1)3 (x
1)4

x 4 + x
2 = 0 + (x
1)  5 +  12 +  24 +  24
2! 3! 4!
= 5(x
1) + 6(x
1)2 + 4(x
1)3 + (x
1)4

4. Find the first 4 terms in the Taylor series for (x
1)e x near x=1.
Solution
Either find the Taylor series for e x and then multiply by (x
1) :
f (x) = e x
f (1) = e
f (1) (x) = e x
f (1) (1) = e
f (2) (x) = e x
f (2) (1) = e
f (3) (x) = e x
f (3) (1) = e
so that
 (x
1)2 (x
1)3 
(x
1)e x  (x
1)  e + (x
1)e + e+ e
 2! 3! 
(x
1)3 (x
1)4
 (x
1)e + (x
1)2 e + e+ e
2 6
or with a bit more work,
f (x) = (x
1)e x  f (1) = 0
f (1) (x) = (x
1)e x + e x  f (1) (1) = e
f (2) (x) = (x
1)e x + 2e x  f (2) (1) = 2e
f (3) (x) = (x
1)e x + 3e x  f (3) (1) = 3e
f (4 ) (x) = (x
1)e x + 4e x  f (4 ) (1) = 4e
so that
(x
1)2 (x
1)3 (x
1)4
(x
1)e x  0 + (x
1)e + 2e + 3e + 4e
2! 3! 4!
(x
1)3 (x
1)4
 (x
1)e + (x
1)2 e + e+ e
2 6
71 K. A. Tsokos: Series and D.E.

x
5. Find the first 3 terms in the Maclaurin series for (a) sin 2 x , (b) , (c) xe
x ,
1
x 2

x
(d) .
1 + x2
Solution
(a)
f (x) = sin 2 x
f (0) = 0
f (1) (x) = 2 sin x cos x = sin 2x
f (1) (0) = 0
f (2) (x) = 2 cos 2x
f (2) (0) = 2
f (3) (x) =
4 sin 2x  f (3) (0) = 0
f (4 ) (x) =
8 cos 2x  f (4 ) (0) =
8
f (5) (x) = 16 sin 2x
f (5) (0) = 0
f (6) (x) = 32 cos 2x
f (6) (0) = 32
and so
x2 x4 x6
sin x  0 + 0 +
2
2+0
8+0+  32
2! 4! 6!
x 4 2x 6
 x2
+
3 45
In later exercises you will see more efficient ways to do this expansion.

(b)
x
f (x) =  f (0) = 0
1
x2

2x
1
x2
x
f (1) (x) = 2 1
x2 = 1
 f (0) = 1
1
x 2
(1
x 2 )3/2
3
f (2) (x) =
(1
x 2 )
5 /2 (
2x)  f (0) = 0
2
3 35
f (4 ) (x) =
(1
x 2 )
5 /2 (
2) + (1
x 2 )
5 /2 (
2x)(
2x)  f (0) = 3
2 22

(c)
f (x) = xe
x  f (0) = 0
f (1) (x) = e
x
xe
x  f (1) (0) = 1
f (2) (x) =
e
x
e
x + xe
x  f (2) (0) =
2
f (3) (x) = 2e
x + e
x
xe
x  f (3) (0) = 3
so that

x2 x3
xe
x  x
2 +3
2! 3!
3
x
 x
x2 +
2
K. A. Tsokos: Series and D.E. 72

x 1
(d) f (x) = . Notice that since = 1
x 2 + x 4
x 6 +
, it follows that
1+ x 2
1 + x2
x
= x
x3 + x5
x7 +
.
1+ x 2

Of course by evaluating derivatives we also have:

f (0) (0) = 0
(1 + x 2 )
x(2x) 1
x2
f (1) (x) = =  f (1) (0) = 1
(1 + x 2 )2 (1 + x 2 )2

2x(1 + x 2 )2
(1
x 2 )2(1 + x 2 )2x 2x(x 2
3)
f (x) =
(2)
=  f (2) (0) = 0
(1 + x )2 4
(1 + x )
2 3

6(1
6x + x )
2 4
f (3) (x) =
 f (3) (0) =
6
(1 + x 2 )4
24x(5
10x 2 + x 4 )
f (x) =
(4 )
 f (4 ) (0) = 0
(1 + x ) 2 5

120(
1 + 15x 2
15x 4 + x 6 )

f (5) (x) =
 f (5) (0) = 120
(1 + x 2 )6
so that the first three terms are:
x x2 x3 x4 x5
= 0 + x  1 +  0 +  (
6) +  0 +  120
1 + x2 2 6 24 120
= x
x3 + x5
as before.

1+ x
6. Find the Maclaurin series for ln(1+ x) and hence that for ln  .
 1
x 
Solution
The Maclaurin series for ln(1+ x) is standard:
x2 x3 x2 x3
ln(1 + x) = x
+

and so ln(1
x) =
x



.
2 3 2 3
1+ x x 3
x 5 
x 2n
1
Hence ln  = ln(1 + x)
ln(1
x) = 2(x + + +
) = 2 .
 1
x  3 5 n =1 2n
1

7. The function ln(1+ x) is to be approximated by the first three terms of its Maclaurin
x2 x3
series, i.e. ln(1 + x) = x
+ . Estimate the maximum value of x for which the
2 3
approximation agrees with the exact value to 3 decimal places.

Solution
6 x4 x4
The absolute value of the remainder term in Lagrange form is =
(1 + c)4 4! 4(1 + c)4
where c is between 0 and x. The maximum value of the remainder term is obtained
x4 x4
when c = 0 and so equals . We must then have < 5  10
4 and so x < 0.211 .
4 4
73 K. A. Tsokos: Series and D.E.

8. By using a suitable Maclaurin series given in the text find the sum to infinity of the
3 5  7 e2 e4 e6
following infinite series: (a) 
+
+ … , (b) 1
+
+ …
3! 5! 7! 2! 4! 6!
Solution
(a) sin
= 0 (b) cos e
1 1
9. Using  1
x + x 2
x 3 + … find the Maclaurin series for the function .
1+ x 2+x
Solution


1 1 1 
Since = we have that
2 + x 2 1+ x 
 
2

 
1 1 1 
=
2 + x 2 1+ x 
 
2
1 x x2 x3
= (1
+
+ …)
2 2 4 8
2 3
1 x x x
=
+
+…
2 4 8 16


6

 sin
2
10. (a) Evaluate the integral x dx by first finding the Maclaurin approximation to
0
the integrand with 3 terms. (b) Evaluate the integral exactly and compare. (c) The
x8
fourth term in the Maclaurin expansion of sin x is
2
. Confirm that your
315
estimate of the integral is consistent with the alternating series estimation theorem.

Solution
x 4 2x 6
(a) The Maclaurin series for was shown in Exercise 5 to be sin 2 x  x 2
+ .
3 45
Hence
 /6
 /6  /6 x 4 2x 6 x 3 x 5 2x 7
0 sin x dx  0 (x
3 + 45 )dx = ( 3
15 + 315 )  0.0452941 .
2 2

0
(b) The exact integral is
 /6
 /6  /6 1
cos 2x x sin 2x  sin( / 3)
0 = 0 =
=

2
sin x dx dx ( )
2 2 4 0 12 4
 sin( / 3) 2
3 3
=
=  0.045293
12 4 24
K. A. Tsokos: Series and D.E. 74

(c) The error is expected to have the same sign and less (in absolute value) as the first
 /6
 /6 x8 x9
term neglected i.e.  0


315
dx =

9  315

1.04336  10
6 . The actual error is
0

6
0.045293
0.0452941 =
1.033  10 consistently with the alternating series estimation
theorem.

11. Find the Maclaurin series for x sin x .

Solution
x3 x5 x4 x6
Since sin x = x
+

, it follows that x sin x = x

2
+

.
3! 5! 3! 5!

12. (a) Find the Maclaurin series for (1 + x)m where m is not necessarily an integer and
hence show that the formula for the binomial series works for non-integral
1
exponents as well. (b) Use your answer to find the expansion of up to the
1
x2
term in x 6 .
Solution
f (x) = (1 + x)m
f (0) = 1
f (1) (x) = m(1 + x)m
1  f (1) (0) = m

f (2) (x) = m(m
1)(1 + x)m
2  f (2) (0) = m(m
1)

f (3) (x) = m(m
1)(m
2)(1 + x)m
3  f (3) (0) = m(m
1)(m
2)
f (k ) (x) = m(m
1)(m
2)
(m
k + 1)(1 + x)m
k  f (k ) (0) = m(m
1)(m
2)
(m
k + 1)
and so

m(m
1) 2 m(m
1)(m
2) 3

(1 + x)m = 1 + mx + x + x +

2! 3!
m(m
1)(m
2)
(m
k + 1) k
+ x +

k!
This is an infinite series. If m is a positive integer the series will stop when k = m and
will agree with the standard binomial expansion.
(b)
1
= (1
x 2 )
1/2
1
x 2

 1   3  1   3  5 

 
 
 
 

 1  2  2 2 2 2
= 1 + 
 (
x ) +2
(
x ) +
2 2
(
x 2 )3 +

 2 2! 3!
1 2 3x 4 5x 6
= 1+ x + + +

2 8 16
13. For Physics students. The kinetic energy of a relativistic particle is given by
1
K = (
1)mc 2 where  = . Here m is the constant mass of the particle, v its
v2
1
2
c
75 K. A. Tsokos: Series and D.E.

speed and c is the constant speed of light. Use the result of the previous problem to
1
show that for v
c , K
mv 2 .
2
Solution

1/2
1  v2 
 = = 1
2 
v2  c
1
2
c
2
1 v2 3  v2 
1+ + +
,
2 c 2 8  c 2 
2
1 v2 3  v2 
1+ + +

2 c 2 8  c 2 
2
1 v2 3 v4 1 3  v
and so K  (1 + + +

1)mc 2 = mv 2 + mv 2   +
. This is
2c 2
8c 4
2 8  c
1
approximately K
mv 2 if v
c since the neglected terms are “small”.
2
14. Find the Maclaurin series for sin 2 x using the series for cos2x . Hence find
sin 2 x
x 2
lim .
x0 x4
Solution
1
cos 2x (2x)2 (2x)4 (2x)6
Since sin 2 x = and cos 2x = 1
+
+
it follows that
2 2! 4! 6!
 (2x)2 (2x)4 (2x)6 
1
1
+
+

 2! 4! 6! 
sin 2 x =
2
4 6
2x 64x
2x 2
+ +

= 3 720
2
4
x 2x 6
= x2
+ +

3 45
x 4 2x 6
sin x
x
2 2 x 2

+ +

x2
lim = lim 3 45
x0 x4 x0 x4
1 2x 2
= lim(
+ +
)
x0 3 45
1
=

3

15. Find the first 3 terms in the Maclaurin series for cos(sin x) . Hence or otherwise find
1
cos(sin x)
lim .
x0 x2
Solution
K. A. Tsokos: Series and D.E. 76

x2 x4 x6 x3 x5
From cos x = 1
+
+
and sin x = x
+ +
we have that
2! 4! 6! 3! 5!

x3 x5 x3 x5
(x
+ +
)2 (x
+ +
)4
cos(sin x) = 1
3! 5! + 3! 5!


2! 4!
x 2 2x 4 x 4
= 1
+ + +

2! 3!2! 4!
x 2 5x 4
= 1
+ +

2 24
Thus
x 2 5x 4
1
cos(sin x) 1
(1
+ +
)
lim = lim 2 24
x0 x2 x0 x2
x 2 5x 4
(
+
)
= lim 2 24
x0 x2
 1 5x 2 
= lim 

x0  2 24 
1
=
2

16. Find the first 3 terms in the Maclaurin series for sin(sin x) . Hence or otherwise find
x
sin(sin x)
lim
x0 x3
Solution

x3 x5
We know that sin x = x
+ +
so
3! 5!
3 5
 x3 x5   x3 x5 
 x
+ +
  x
+ +

 x3 x5  3! 5!   3! 5! 
sin(sin x) =  x
+ +

+ +

 3! 5!  3! 5!
x 3 x 5 x 3 3x 5 x 5
= x
+
+ + +

3! 5! 3! 3!3! 5!
x3 x5
= x
+ +

3 10

Thus
77 K. A. Tsokos: Series and D.E.

x3 x5
x
sin(sin x) x
(x
+ +
)
lim = lim 3 10
x0 x3 x0 x3
x3 x5




= lim 3 103
x0 x
 1 x2 
= lim 

x0  3 10 
1
=
3
17. The equation e
2 x = 3x 2 has a root near x = 0 . By finding a suitable polynomial
approximation to e
2 x find an approximation to this root.

Solution
We use the Maclaurin series for the exponential.
(
2x)2
e
2 x  1 + (
2x) + = 1
2x + 2x 2 . Hence
2!
1
2x + 2x 2 = 3x 2
x 2 + 2x
1 = 0

2 ± 8 0.414
x= =
2 
1.41

We want the positive root. The actual root is 0.390.

18. (a) Find the Maclaurin series for the function f (x) = ln(1 + x) and hence that for
ln(1 + x) ln(1 + x)
. (b) By keeping the first four terms in the Maclaurin series for
x x
ln(1 + x)
integrate the function from x = 0 to x = 1 . (c) Estimate the magnitude and
x
sign of the error made in evaluating the integral in this way. (d) Confirm that your
results are consistent with the alternating series estimation theorem by evaluating
the integral on the GDC.

Solution
(a) With f (x) = ln(1 + x) we have f (0) = ln(1) = 0 .
1
f (1) (x) =
f (1) (0) = 1
1+ x
f (2) (x) =
(1 + x)
2  f (2) (0) =
1
f (3) (x) = (
1)(
2)(1 + x)
3  f (3) (0) = (
1)(
2)


f (k ) (x) = (
1)k
1 (k
1)!(1 + x)
k  f (k ) (0) = (
1)k
1 (k
1)!

Hence
K. A. Tsokos: Series and D.E. 78

x2 x3 x4 ln(1 + x) x x2 x3
ln(1 + x) = x
+
+
and so = 1
+
+
.
2 3 4 x 2 3 4
(b)
1
ln(1 + x)
1
x2 x3 x4
0 x dx = x
+

2 2 32 4 2
+

0

1 1 1
= 1
2
+ 2
2 +

2 3 4
= 0.7986
1
(c) The error is less in magnitude than the first term neglected i.e. = 0.0400 and has
52
the same sign (i.e. positive) so the estimate is an underestimate.
(d)The value of the integral is 0.8225. The error is thus 0.8225-0.7986=+0.0239.

19. Find the first 3 terms in the Maclaurin series for 1
x + x 2 .

Solution
Work first with the function f (x) = 1
x and then substitute x
x 2 for x in the
answer.
f (0) = 1
1
1 1
f (x) =  f (0) =

2 1
x 2
1 1 1
f (x) =
(
)(1
x)
3/2 (
1)  f (0) =

2 2 4

So we have that:

1 1
1
x = 1
x
x2 +

2 8

and so
1 1
1
x + x 2 = 1
(x
x 2 )
(x
x 2 )2 +

2 8
2 2
x x x
= 1
+
+

2 2 8
x 3x 2
= 1
+ +

2 8

1
20. (a) Find the Maclaurin series for the function f (x) = . (b) Hence by
1 + x2

x 2n
1
integrating each term, show that arctan x =  (
1)n +1 . (c) Show that this series
1 2n
1
1 1 1 
converges for
1  x  1 and hence show that 1
+
+
= .
3 5 7 4
79 K. A. Tsokos: Series and D.E.

Solution
1
(a) The Maclaurin series for f (x) = is 1
x + x 2
x 3 +
so that the series for
1+ x
1
f (x) = is 1
x 2 + x 4
x 6 +
. Including the remainder term we have:
1 + x2
2n + 2
1 n +1 x
= 1
x 2
+ x 4

x 6
+
+ (
1) n 2n
x + (
1)
1 + x2 1 + c2
(b) Integrating
x 1
1
0 1 + t 2 dt = 0 (1
t + t
t +
+ (
1) t )dt
2 4 6 n 2n

x3 x5 x7 x 2n +1
arctan x = x
+
+
+ (
1)n +1 + Rn
3 5 7 2n + 1
x 2n + 2
t
where Rn =
dt .
0
1 + c 2


x 2n
1
Hence arctan x =  (
1)n +1 .
1 2n
1
(c) For the remainder term it is true that:
x 2n + 2 x 2n + 3 2n + 3
t x 1 x
Rn =  dt
 t 2n + 2
dt = since
1 , and so lim Rn = lim =0
0
1 + c2 0
2n + 3 1 + c2 n
n
2n + 3

provided
1  x  1.

Thus the series converges for
1  x  1 . Setting x = 1 gives

 
1 1 1 1
arctan1 = =  (
1)n +1 = 1
+
+
.
4 1 2n
1 3 5 7

1
21. Find the Maclaurin series for the function 2 by using partial fractions or
1
x
otherwise.
Solution
1
The answer is obtained at once using the known series for and letting x
x 2 .
1
x
With partial fractions,
1 1 A B 1 1
= = + . By the cover up method, A = , B = so that
1
x 2
(1
x)(1 + x) 1
x 1 + x 2 2

1 1 1 1 
=  +  . Since
1
x 2
2 1
x 1+ x
1
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 +

1
x
1
= 1
x + x2
x3 + x4 +

1+ x
it follows that
K. A. Tsokos: Series and D.E. 80

1
1
x 2
1
(
= 2 + 2x 2 + 2x 4 +

2
)
= 1 + x2 + x4 +

x +1
22. Find the first 4 terms in the Maclaurin series for the function by first
x
5x + 6
2

finding the partial fraction decomposition of the function.

Solution
x +1 x +1

x
5x + 6 (x
2)(x
3)
2

A B
 +
x
2 x
3
By the cover up method, A =
3, B = 4 , so that
x +1
3 4
 +
x
5x + 6 x
2 x
3
2

We know that
1 1
 1
x + x 2
x 3 +
and so  1 + x + x 2 + x 3 +
so that
1+ x 1
x

3 3 4 4
= =

x
2 2
x x
3 3
x
   
3 1  4 1 
=  =

2 1
x  3 1
x 
  and  
2 3
3 x x2 x3 4 x x2 x 3
= (1 + + + +
) =
(1 + + + +
)
2 2 4 8 3 3 9 27
2
3 3x 3x 3x 3 4 4x 4x 2 4x 3
= + + + +
=






2 4 8 16 3 9 27 81

so that
x +1 3 3x 3x 2 3x 3 4 4x 4x 2 4x 3
= + + + +







x 2
5x + 6 2 4 8 16 3 9 27 81
1 11x 49x 2 179x 3
= + + + +

6 36 216 1296

23. (a)Find the first three non-zero terms of the Maclaurin series for f (x) = e
x sin x .
2

f (x)
x 7
(b) Hence or otherwise show that lim 3
=
.
x0 x 6
Solution
We use
81 K. A. Tsokos: Series and D.E.

x2 x3 x4 x6
+ +
 e
x = 1
x 2 +
2
ex = 1 + x +
+

2! 3! 2! 3!
x3 x5
sin x = x
+ +

3! 5!
so that
x4 x6 x3 x5
e
x sin x = (1
x 2 +
2

+
)(x
+ +
)
2! 3! 3! 5!
x3 x5 x3 x5 x4 x3 x5
= x
+ +

x 2 (x
+ +
) + (x
+ +
)
3! 5! 3! 5! 2! 3! 5!
x3 x5 x5 x5
= x
+ +

x + 3
+ +

3! 5! 3! 2!
7x 3 27x 5
= x
+ +

6 40
Hence
7x 3 27x 5
f (x)
x x

+ +

x
lim = lim 6 40
x0 x3 x0 x3
7x 3 27x 5

+ +

= lim 6 40
x0 x3
7 27x 2
= lim(
+ +
)
x0 6 40
7
=

6
24. Find the Maclaurin series for the functions e x and sin x , and hence expand esin x up
1
to the term in x 4 . Hence integrate
esin x dx .
0

Solution
x2 x3
ex = 1 + x + + +

2! 3!
x3 x5
sin x = x
+ +

3! 5!
so that
K. A. Tsokos: Series and D.E. 82

sin 2 x sin 3 x sin 4 x

e sin x
= 1 + sin x + + + +

2! 3! 4!
2 3 4
 x3   x3   x3 
 x
+
  x
+
  x
+

 x3  3!   3!   3! 
= 1 +  x
+
 + + + +

 3!  2! 3! 4!
2x 4
x 3 x2

+
x3 +
x4 +

= 1+ x
+
+ 3! + + +

3! 2! 3! 4!
x 3 x 2 2x 4 x 3 x 4
= 1+ x
+
+ + +

3! 2! 2!3! 3! 4!
x2 x4
= 1+ x +
+

2 8
Hence
1 1 1
x2 x4 x2 x3 x5 394
e dx =  (1 + x +
+ ) dx = x + +
=
1.6417 .
sin x
The GDC
0 0
2 8 2 6 40 0 240
1

e dx = 1.63187 .
sin x
gives
0

25. The Maclaurin series for e z converges for all z including the case when z is a
complex number. Using this fact, write the Maclaurin series for e i
and hence
prove Euler’s formula e i
= cos
+ isin
. Hence deduce the extraordinary relation
i

e +1 = 0 .

Solution
i (i )2 (i )n
e = 1 + (i ) + +
+ +

2! n!
2 4 3 5
= 1
+ +
+ i(
+ +
)
2! 4! 3! 5!
= cos + i sin 
Substituting  =
gives ei = cos  + i sin  =
1  ei + 1 = 0 .
1
26. (a) Find the Maclaurin series for the function f (x) = . (b) By substituting
1+ x
1
x  e
x , find an expansion of in powers of e
x . (c) Use the series you got in
1 + e
x
 
e
x 
(
1)n +1 e
x
(b) to show that 
x dx =  . (d) Evaluate the integral 
x
dx
0
e + 1 n =1 n 0
1 + e

(
1) n +1
directly and hence deduce the value of  n .
n=1

Solution

1
(a) = 1
x + x 2
x 3 +
=  (
1)n x n
1+ x 0
83 K. A. Tsokos: Series and D.E.

(b)

1
1 + e
x
= 1
e
x
+ e
2 x

e
3x
+
=  (
1)n e
nx
0

e
x 

1 + e
x
= e
x

e
2 x
+ e
3x


=  (
1)n +1e
nx
1
  
e
x  
n +1 e

nx 
(
1)n +1 1 1
(c)  dx =  (
1)  e dx =
 (
1)
n +1
nx
= = 1
+


0
1 + e
x 1 0 1 n 0 1 n 2 3

e
x
(
1)n +1

(d) 0 1 + e
x dx ==
ln(1 + e
x 
) 0
= ln 2 . Hence  n = ln 2 .
n =1

27. (a) Starting from cos
 1 and integration over the range [0, x] establish that
x2
sin x
x . By integrating this inequality again show that cos x  1
. By
2
x3
integrating once more establish that sin x  x
. (b) Use these results and the
6
sin x
squeeze theorem to prove that lim = 1.
x
0 x

Solution
x x

(a) cos
 1   cos
d
  1 d

0 0
i.e.
sin
0 
0  sin x  x
x x

(b) From sin

we have that

x x

 sin d    d
0 0
x
2

cos 0 
x

2 0

x2

cos x + 1 
2
x2
i.e. that 1
 cos x .
2
(c) Similarly,
2
x x

0 (1
2 ) d  0 cos d
x
3

 sin  0
x

6 0
x3
x
 sin x
6
x3
i.e. that sin x  x
.
6
K. A. Tsokos: Series and D.E. 84

(d) So we have that

x3
x  sin x  x

6
sin x x2
1 1

x 6
sin x x2
lim 1  lim  lim(1
)
x0 x0 x x0 6
sin x
1  lim 1
x0 x
sin x
lim =1
x0 x

x2 x4 x2
28. Use the method of the previous problem to prove that 1
+  cos x  1
.
2 24 2
Solution
x2 x3
From the last problem, cos x  1
. Integrating once, gives x
 sin x and once
2 6
more,
3
x x

0 (

6
) d  0 sin d
x
2 4


cos 0
x

2 24 0
x2 x4


cos x + 1
2 24
x2 x4

1 +

cos x
2 24
x2 x4
1
+  cos x
2 24
x2 x4 x2
so that 1
+  cos x  1
.
2 24 2

29. (a) Find the Maclaurin series for ln(1+ x) . (b) Use the alternating series estimation
x2
theorem to prove that x
 ln(1+ x)  x . (c) Hence or otherwise prove that
2
1 1 1
ln(n + 1)
ln n < . (d) Using your result in (c) show that 1 + +
+ > ln(n + 1) .
n 2 n


1
(e) Hence deduce that the harmonic series  diverges.
1
k
Solution
85 K. A. Tsokos: Series and D.E.


xn x2 x3
(a) ln(1+ x) =  (
1)n+1 = x
+
…
n=1 n 2 3
(b) For any value of x we have an alternating series and so the sum of the series lies
x2
between 2 consecutive partial sums and so x
 ln(1 + x)  x .
2
1 1 1 n +1 1 1
(c) ln(1 + x)
x . Set x = , then ln(1 + ) <  ln( ) <  ln(n + 1)
ln n <
n n n n n n
1
(Note x =
0 .)
n
(d)
1 
> ln 2
ln1 
1

1 
> ln 3
ln 2 1 1 1
2   1 + + +
+ > ln(n + 1)
 2 3 n



1
> ln(n + 1)
ln n 
n add side by side


1
(e) We then have that lim ln(n + 1) =
and so
n

n diverges.
n =1
1
30. (a) Find the Maclaurin series for the function f (x) = and hence that for
1+ x
1
f (x) = . (b) By integrating both sides of the Maclaurin series for
1 + x2
1
f (x) = , show that the Maclaurin series for the function f (x) = arctan x is
1 + x2

x3 x5 x7 x 2n +1
x
+
+ … =  (
1) n +1 . (c) Using the Maclaurin series for
3 5 7 0
2n + 1
f (x) = arctan x up to and including the term with x13 , show that
1/ 3


0
arctan x dx
0.158459 . (c) Show that the exact value of the integral is

1  1  4
1/ 3


0
arctan x dx =
ln   . (d) Hence deduce that an approximate value of

3 6 2  3
is
 3.14159 . (e) To how many decimal places is this approximation expected to
be accurate?
Solution
1 1
(a) The series for f (x) = is standard, = 1
x + x 2
x 3 +
and so also
1+ x 1+ x
1
= 1
x2 + x4
x6 +
.
1+ x 2

(b)
K. A. Tsokos: Series and D.E. 86

x
dt
arctan x =  1+ t
0
2

1/ 3

=  (1
t + t 4

dt )
2

0
x
 t3 t5 
=  t
+


 3 5 0
x3 x5 x 2n +1
= x
+

+ (
1)n +1 +

3 5 2n + 1
(c)
1/ 3 1/ 3
 x 3 x 5 x 7 x 9 x11 x13 

0
arctan x dx  
0
 x
3 + 5
7 + 9
11 + 13  dx
1/ 3
 x 2 x 4 x 6 x 8 x10 x12 x14 
=
+
+
+
 2 12 30 56 90 132 182  0
 0.158459
1/ 3 1/ 3
x15 x16
The error is the next term neglected i.e.
0
15
dx =

240
=
6.3  10
7 .
0
(d)
1/ 3 1/ 3
x
 arctan x dx = x arctan x 0

1/ 3
dx
0 0
1 + x2
1
arctan
= 3
1 ln (1 + x 2 ) 1/ 3

3 2 0


1 1 1
= 6
ln (1 + ) + ln (1)
3 2 3 2
1  1  4
=
ln  
3 6 2  3
1  1  4  1  4
(e)
ln  = 0.158459   = 6 3  0.158459 + ln   3.14159
3 6 2  3
 2  3

(f) The error in (c) was estimated to be at most 6.3  10
7 in absolute value so we can
expect agreement with
to 5 decimal places (due to rounding).

31. This problem is hard. Consider the function f (x) = sin(n arcsin x) for x < 1 . (a)
Find the first and second derivatives of the function f (x) . (b) Hence show that
(1
x 2 ) f (x)
xf (x) + n 2 f (x) = 0 . (c) Use mathematical induction to prove that
for k = 0,1, 2,
(1
x 2 ) f (k + 2) (x)
(2k + 1)xf (k +1) (x) + (n 2
k 2 ) f (k ) (x) = 0 where
f (k ) (x) denotes the kth derivative of f (x) . (d) Hence derive the Maclaurin series
87 K. A. Tsokos: Series and D.E.

for f (x) . (e) Deduce that if n is odd, the function f (x) is a polynomial of degree n.
sin(n arcsin x)
(f) Using your answer in (d) or otherwise, find lim .
x
0 x
Solution
n nx cos(n arcsin x) n 2 sin(n arcsin x)
(a) f (x) = cos(n arcsin x) and f (x) =
.
1
x2 (1
x 2 )3/2 1
x2
(b)
(1
x 2 ) f (x)
xf (x) + n 2 f (x) =
 nx cos(n arcsin x) n 2 sin(n arcsin x)  xn cos(n arcsin x)
= (1
x 2 ) 

+ n 2 sin(n arcsin x)
 (1
x )
2 3/2
1
x 2
 1
x 2

nx cos(n arcsin x) xn cos(n arcsin x)

=
n 2 sin(n arcsin x)
+ n 2 sin(n arcsin x)
(1
x )
2 1/2
1
x 2

=0
(c) The proposition was proven true for k = 0 . Assume that it is also true for some
k
0 i.e. that (1
x 2 ) f (k + 2) (x)
(2k + 1)xf (k +1) (x) + (n 2
k 2 ) f (k ) (x) = 0 .

Then differentiating once we find

(1
x 2 ) f (k + 3) (x)
2xf (k + 2) (x)
(2k + 1) f (k +1) (x) + (2k + 1)xf (k + 2) (x) + (n 2
k 2 ) f (k +1) (x) = 0
(1
x 2 ) f (k + 3) (x) + (2k + 3)xf (k + 2) (x) + (n 2
k 2
2k
1) f (k +1) (x) = 0
(1
x 2 ) f (k + 3) (x) + (2k + 3)xf (k + 2) (x) + (n 2
(k + 1)2 ) f (k +1) (x) = 0

which is precisely what needs to be proved. The statement is true for k=0, and when
assumed true for k it was proved true for k+1. So it is true for all k

.

n
(d) f (0) = sin(n arcsin 0) = 0 , f (0) = cos(n arcsin 0) = n and f

(0) = 0 . Using
1
02
(1
x 2 ) f (k + 2) (x)
(2k + 1)xf (k +1) (x) + (n 2
k 2 ) f (k ) (x) = 0 evaluated at x=0 we get
f (k + 2) (0) = (k 2
n 2 ) f (k ) (0) and since f

(0) = 0 all even derivatives vanish. The odd
derivatives are:
f (3) (0) = (12
n 2 ) f (1) (0) = (12
n 2 )n
f (5) (0) = (32
n 2 ) f (3) (0) = (32
n 2 )(12
n 2 )n and so on.

Thus,
(12
n 2 )n 3 (32
n 2 )(12
n 2 )n 5
sin(n arcsin x) = nx + x + x +

3! 5!
(e) If n is odd, the series will stop and the function is thus a polynomial of degree n.
(12
n 2 )n 3
sin(n arcsin x) nx + x +

(f) lim = lim 3! = n.
x0 x x0 x
K. A. Tsokos: Series and D.E. 88

32. (a) Write down the Maclaurin series for the function f (x) = sin x and hence that for
sin x
f (x) = . (b) Use this series to find an approximate value of the integral
x
1
sin x

0 x dx by keeping the first three terms in the Maclaurin series. (c) Estimate the
error made in evaluating this integral in this way. (d) Confirm your answer by
numerically evaluating the integral on your GDC.
Solution

x3 x5 x 2n +1
(a) sin x = x
+

+ (
1)n +1 +
and so
3! 5! (2n + 1)!
sin x x2 x4 x 2n
= 1
+

+ (
1)n +1 +
. Hence
x 3! 5! (2n + 1)!
(b)
1
sin x
1
 x2 x4 x 2n 
0 x dx = 0  1
3! + 5!

+ (
1) (2n + 1)! +

dx
n

1
x3 x5 x 2n +1
= x
+

+ (
1) n
+

3  3! 5  5! (2n + 1)(2n + 1)! 0

1 1
1
+
3  3! 5  5!
 0.946111

(c) The series is alternating so by the alternating series estimation theorem the error is
less than the absolute value of the fourth term in the series i.e.
1

=
0.0000283447 .
7  7!
(d) The value of the integral is 0.946083 . We have that S
S3 =
0.0000280447 . The
error has the same sign as the first term neglected (the fourth) and is smaller (in absolute
value) in accordance with the alternating series estimation theorem.

1 1
33. Consider the improper integrals I =  sin( ) dx and J =  sin 2 ( ) dx . (a) By
1
x 1
x
1 1
1 sin u sin 2 u
making the substitution u = , show that I =
2 du and J =
2 du . (b) By
x 0
u 0
u
using appropriate MacLaurin series, determine whether the integrals I and J exist.

Solution
0 1
1 1 sin u sin u
(a) u = and so du =
2 dx . Thus I =
 2 du =  2 du and similarly for J.
x x 1
u 0
u
(Note the change in the limits of integration.)
(b) We have that
89 K. A. Tsokos: Series and D.E.

1
sin u
1
 1 u u3 u 2n
1 
I =  2 du =  
+

+ (
1)n +
 du . All terms are finite except
0
u 0
u 3! 5! (2n + 1)! 
1
1
 u du = ln u =
lim+ ln  that diverges. Hence the integral does not exist.
1
for the first, 0
 0
0

sin u 1
cos 2u
2
For J use = so that
u2 2u 2
1  
1
u2 u4 n u
2n
J =  2  1
(1
+

+ (
1) +
) du
0
2u  2! 4! (2n)! 
1  u2 u4 
1 2n
n u
= 0 2u 2  2! 4!

+

(
1)
(2n)!
+
) du

1  1 u2 2n
2

1
n u
= 
+

(
1) +
) du
2 0  2! 4! (2n)! 
The integral is therefore finite.
34. For Physics students. In Probability, the exponential probability distribution
dP
function is defined by =  e
t where
is a positive constant. A particular
dt
application of this distribution is to the decay of radioactive nuclei. In that case, the
probability that a particular nucleus will decay at some time T in the interval from

t = 0 to t =
is given by P(0  T   ) =   e
t dt . (a) Show that the p.d.f.
0

dP
=  e
t  e

t
is well defined i.e. show that dt = 1 . (b) Evaluate
dt 0

P(0  T   ) =   e
t dt . (c) The probability that a particular nucleus will decay
0
within a time interval called the half-life is
. Deduce that the half-life is given by
ln 2
. (d) Using your answer to (b) in the case where

1 , explain why the


constant
is called the probability of decay per unit time. (Hint: Do a MacLaurin
expansion of the answer in (b).)

Solution
  
e
t
 e dt = lim   e

t
t
(a) dt =  lim =
lim (e

1) = 1 .
 
 
0 0 0
 
e
t
(b) P(0  T   ) =   e dt = 
t
= 1
e
 .
0

 0
1 1 ln 2
(c) = 1
e
T  e
T =  T =
2 2 
K. A. Tsokos: Series and D.E. 90

  2 2
(d) P(0  T   ) = 1
e  1
(1
 + + …)   . Thus, approximately,
2!
P(0  T   )

= , is the probability of decay per unit time if

1 .


35. Consider the infinite series ( 3
n 3 + 1
n ) . (a) Find the first three terms of the
1

Maclaurin expansion of the function f (x) = 3 1 + x . (b) Use your result in (a) to
1
show that for large n the general term of the infinite series behaves as . (c)
3n 2

Hence show that the infinite series ( 3
n 3 + 1
n ) converges.
1

Solution
(a) f (x) = (1 + x)1/ 3 . Hence f (0) = 1 and
1 1
f (0) = (1 + x)
2 / 3 = ,
3 x=0 3
1 2 2
f (0) = (
)(1 + x)
5 / 3 =

3 3 x=0 9
x 2x 2
Thus, f (x) = (1 + x)  1 +

1/ 3
+

3 9
1 1
(b) 3 n 3 + 1 = n 3 1 + 3 . When n is large, 3 is small and we may approximate
n n
3 1+
1
3
by the first few terms of the MacLaurin series for f (x) = (1 + x)1/ 3 with
n
1
x = 3 . In other words,
n
3 1+
1 1 2
3
 1+ 3
6 +
.
n 3n 9n
Hence the general term 3
n 3 + 1
n behaves as

1 1 2 1 2 1
n3 1+ 3

n  n(1 + 3
6 +
)
n = 2
5  2 when n is large.
n 3n 9n 3n 9n 3n


1
(c) Applying the limit comparison test with the series  2 we find
1 n

1 2
n3 + 1
n
3
5
lim = lim 3n
2
9n = lim ( 1
2 ) = 1 .
n 1 n 1 n 3 9n 3 3
2 2
n n


1
Hence the series converges since  2 does, being a p-series with p = 2 .
1 n