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Allhajjar et al., (1990) studied the effects of leachate from septic system
on the quality of under lying shallow ground water in the vicinity of the septic
systems were examined for two years in South Central Wisconsin. The increase in
the electrical conductivity value and chloride concentration in the ground water
sources with decreased distance from the drain suggested that these two parameters
can be taken as indicators for detecting plumes of contamination from septic system.
Alla EI- Dinetal (1993) reported the quality of well water from six regions
of the kingdom of Saudi Arabia with respect to physic-chemical and bacteriological
21
parameters.Sixteen percent of the wells crossed the WHO limit for ammonia. Faecal
coliform was present in 21.4% of the tested well waters. Animal and human wastes
were the significant source of well water pollution.
Liu et al., (1994)studied the Ching-Pu and Sat- Lun landfill sites located in the
Taiwanese cities of Taiwan and Kaohsiung on the effects of reclaimed municipal
landfills on the local environment. The results showed that leachates from the
decomposing waste deposits seeped downward to contaminate the ground water.
Ground water Sources used for human consumption were tested for
chemical and bacteriological parameters in EI-Tall and EL-Kabier region of
Islamia ,Egypt .Water from wells of about 14 m depth were contaminated by
sulphate, chloride and carbonate ions and their salinity crossed the drinking
water standard Diab (1995) .Those samples were also potentially pathogenic
regarding their coli counts .
A research was undertaken by Asbrand (1996) in two districts of
South Berlin ,Germany to have an idea of the extent of ground water pollution
due to contamination with sewage water. Pollution of this aquifer especially by
nitrate, phosphate and other salts was attributed to the presence of sewage plant
in nearby area .The influence of sewage was clearly detectable by the high
concentration of inorganic salts in the wells located a few kilometers away
from the sewage tratment plant.
Pollution profiles and mechanism of ground water contamination in
Shijiazhuang city of China were investigated and discussed byGuo et al
,.(1996). The results of analysis and geochemical modelling showed that the
main reason for ground water pollution in the city was the leakage of sewage
channels. Excessive concentration of inorganic salts was attributed to the
dissolution and dolomite and gypsum.
Malard et al., (1997) studied a limestone aquifer of DueBindorf,
Switzerland relating to physico chemical and biological dynamics for a period
of two years. They found that the spatio - temporal pattern of ground water
22
contamination was due to the spillage of sewage effluents through the fracture
zone.
Bore wells of Caliber municipality ,Nigeria were sampled and
analyzed using standard field and laboratory techniques to determine the water
quality status of ground water (Udom et al., 1998) . Nkansah et al (2001) studied
the ground water quality in the Kwahu west district of Ghana. This investigation
determined the use of physico-chemical parameters together with trace metal
contamination as indices of quality. Wright and Nobel (2002) compared the
contamination, of surface and ground water sources and soils in the vicinity, due to
leaching, percolation and infiltration.
23
Wakida and Lerner (2005) explored for non-agricultural sources of
nitrate in groundwater at Nottingham, England. They found that leaky sewers and
solid wastes, including landfills,contribute to the nitrate content in the urban
aquifer.From a study conducted by Achyuthan Nair et al., (2005) on the
assessment of the well water quality of Benghazi ,Libya , recorded very high
nitrate contents in some of the well waters ,which are of concern.
Sajidu (2007) collected drinking water samples from boreholes and pipes
at 23 sampling sites, mostly villages within the district, for fluoride and other water
physicochemical parameters during dry and rainy seasons of 2004 and 2005
respectively. Fluoride endemic areas were identified as those villages around Mtubwi
F.P School and Liwonde L.E.A School. This finding was supported by the prevalence
of a high proportion of dental florosis in standard 3 and 4 pupils in these two schools.
24
Positive correlation was observed between concentrations of fluoride with pH, total
dissolved solids and carbonates, while phosphates correlated negatively with the
fluorides. No correlation was observed between concentrations of fluoride with
nitrates, electro conductivity, total hardness, carbonates and chlorides.
Akoto et al., (2007) studied the trace metals and some physiochemical
properties in drinking water samples from the Brong Ahafo region of the Republic of
Ghana, where drinking water is not treated before it is consumed. The concentrations
of most of the investigated parameters in the drinking water samples from Brong
Ahafo region were within the permissible limits of the World Health Organization
drinking water quality guidelines. There were no correlations between metal
concentrations in the drinking water samples.
25
One of the major source of groundwater contamination is the surface
impoundments used by municipalities and industries, which dispose of wastewater
without treatment to the receiving bodies or used by farmers for agriculture purpose.
This research work was carried by Jakhrani (2009) to investigate the contamination
level of groundwater by determination of physical and chemical properties and was
observed that the groundwater quality is deteriorated because of higher concentration
of electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids and hardness as compared to WHO
standards.
26
Evens Emmanuelet al., (2009) carried out the study of Groundwater
contamination by microbiological and chemical substances released from hospital
wastewater. Contamination of natural aquatic ecosystems by hospital wastewater is a
major environmental and human health issue. Disinfectants, pharmaceuticals,
radionuclides and solvents are widely used in hospitals for medical purposes and
research. COD,Chloroform, Dichlomethane, Dibromochloromethane,
Dichlorobromomethane and Bromoform contents were measured. Furthermore, the
presence of heavy metals (Chrome, Nickel and Lead) and faecal coliforms were
studied. Certain aspects of the scenario studied require improvement, especially those
relating to the characterisation of drugs in groundwater and the detection of other
microbiological indicators such as protozoa, enterococcus and viruses.
27
Ramirez et al (2010) investigated the source of microbiological and
chemical contamination of groundwater in Cuautla-Yautepec aquifer in Mexico and
observed a gradient for dissolved solids according to altitude; the concentrations of
dissolved solids increased in wells with lower altitudes.
Gregory et al., (2011) studied the water quality used for washing
carcasses and abattoir premises at two sites in southeast Bangladesh. In addition, the
effect of discharging untreated washings from slaughter premises on water purity in
the receiving waterways was assessed from pH, dissolved oxygen and electrical
conductivity measurements. Premises effluents did not have a significant effect on the
physico-chemical properties of the water in the receiving canals, as determined from
28
the difference between the 4 m upstream and 4 m downstream samples, relative to the
entry point of the effluent.
29
water, as well as fish cultures and its wastewater, in three villages west of Lake
Nasser, Egypt. Fifteen representative water samples (Nasser Lake, different drinking
water, fish cultures, and wastewater sources) were collected from three villages (Garf
Hussein, Bashaier, and Kalabsha) in the west of Lake Nasser. Physico-chemical, total
viable counts, and bacterial qualification of water were achieved. The obtained results
indicated that the produced water, supposed to be for domestic use in the three
villages, contained all the tested organisms. The investigated water samples of the
lake and drinking water in the selected three villages are supposed to be chemically
safe according to World Health Organization and to Egyptian standards for drinking
water. Water pollution index (WPI) was used in this study and the result concluded
that for irrigation canals from the lake to the agriculture site, fish cultures (both
concrete and earth pond systems), and drainage canal of fish ponds need to be treated
before it is discharged to the ke. It is better to reuse it after treatment for agricultural
purposes or recycled it to the fish cultures.
Indian findings:
Water samples have been collected from problematic ground water and
surface water sources in different villages belonging to nine blocks/taluks of
Gulbarga district, Karnataka State. The water samples were analyzed for
physicochemical properties. Different types of statistical models like correlations and
regressions were applied to study the interrelationships between these variables.
Significant differences between blocks/taluks and different sources of water obtained
using analysis of variance two ways classification technique. This study was
conducted by Reddy (1991).
Analysis of six tube well water samples, which is the source of drinking
water in Roorkee city of Hardwar district was carried out along with physicochemical
and biotic analysis. Presence of bacterial community in relation to biotic factors is
sought by Garg Dinesh (1991).
30
Dhanaselvan et al (1991) reported that the groundwater quality of Kanpur city Uttar
Pradesh was contaminated by both industrial and domestic sewage.
Ramaswami (1991) collected water samples from dug and tube wells near
the Noyil River in Tiruppur Municipal area for the assessment of chemical quality
with reference to Indian Standards for drinking water. It was observed that values of
several parameters exceeded the permissible limits pointing out to the necessity of
proper treatment, disposal and management of wastes discharged into the river and on
open land.
Physico chemical and bacterial parameters of some bore wells and dug
wells of Challapalli Mandal, Andhra Pradesh were monitored by Rao et al,. (1992)..
The quality of well water samples was assessed by comparing with existing
standards for important parameters and correlation coefficient among various
water quality parameters were determined .
Ground water samples during post monsoon and pre monsoon were
analyzed in upper Gunjana Eru river basin of Cuddapah district, Andhra
Pradesh to assess the quality of water. The inequality was due to agricultural
and domestic activities through infiltration and percolation during monsoon as
reported by Raju et al., (1992).
Subba Rao and Subba Rao (1993) studied the chemical quality of
groundwater in the industrial zones of Visakhapatnam. They report that fifteen
percent of the industrial well waters recorded more than 3000 uS/cm level of
conductivity and that major ions crossed the safe limits at many places. Toxic
elements including lead, chromium, arsenic, zinc, cobalt have been traced in large
31
amounts in the groundwaters of the industrial zones, with a zinc plant being identified
as the worst offender.
Ozha et al (1993) observed that major nitrate contributing sources for the
groundwater in Barmer and Churu of Rajasthan appear to be of geologic origin,
especially rock fossils and nitrate deposits. Further, nitrate concentration increased
with total hardness, calcium and magnesium and decreased as the depth of the water
table increased.
(1994)
32
Venkata Reddy et al., (1994) studied the potability of groundwater (dug
wells and bore wells) in respect of eleven heavy metals from twenty one locations
from Dhanbad City considered to be the capital of highly industrialized Jharia
Coalfield. This study reflects that presence of some heavy metals in some sampling
points raising the doubts about potability of these waters. Heavy metals were present
at varied concentration levels and in some of the samples these were found either
insignificant or present at BDL concentration levels.
Ramesh et al., (1995) studied the quality of ground water of Madras city,
India. The study revealed that the quality of potable water has deteriorated to a large
extent. Seawater intrusion into the aquifer has been observed in nearly 50 percent of
the study area. The toxic elements (As & Se) have already exceeded the maximum
permissible limits of drinking water in almost the entire city. A positive correlation of
As and Se with other toxic metals indicates that all these elements are anthropogenic
in origin.
33
The physico–chemical characteristics of ground water in different
villages of Haridwar distriact, Uttar Pradesh were studied on the basis of
different standards byJain et al.(,1996) .Higher value of certain constituents at
few places indicated that the water was not suitable for domestic
consumption.
34
to their proximity to the Buckingham canal, which functions as a drain for the urban
wastes.
35
Das et al (2002) studied groundwater at 60 sampling points, over a period
of six years, in Cuttack and found concentrations of ammonium, nitrates and sulphates
were higher during the winters and lower during the rainy seasons and a negative
correlation between flourides and sodium, nitrates, sulphates and phosphates.
36
Singh and Chandel (2004) analyzed groundwater samples from various
hand pumps of eight adjacent localities of various industrial areas in Jaipur city. It
was observed that the pH, EC, Ca2+, Na+, K+, Mg2+, SO42-, CO32-, HCO3-, Cl-, DO and
BOD value are within permissible limits of ISI and WHO , whereas NO3-, TDS, TH,
COD and WQI values show poor water quality in most of the studied groundwater
samples taken.
Monitoring of Sanganer nallah and surrounding tube wells was carried out
by Singh (2005) during rainy season. The results reveals that the discharge of
untreated industrial effluents and sewage in to nallah have contributed
considerable pollution in the ground water in its vicinal areas, and is harmful
for use in agriculture and drinking purposes. The levels of nitrate and fluoride
concentration are high in tube well water samples, and need serious attention.
37
Correlations among various ground water quality parameters were
made with the data of 63 ground water samples collected from the Jeedimetla
Industrial Estate in Hyderabad city by Nageswara Rao (2005). The correlations
were highly significant (>85%) between the parameters pH and alkalinity as
well as for pH and cadmium content, which agree with a 3rd degree polynomial.
Similarly EC and DS as well as EC and hardness agree with a power fit
model EC and copper content with a sinusoidal model, and hardness and
calcium content with the saturated growth rate model.
Ram et al., (2006) observed that high value of TDS ,Iron ,Total
Hardness, Calcium Hardness, Calcium and Magnesium in the underground strata
where the aquifer is available or due to leaching of various pollutants through
sides and bottom of unlined drain.
38
Prakash and Somashekar (2006) tested 1026 groundwater samples from
272 villages in Anekal, near Bangalore and found that water quality is better in the
deeper borewells and is also influenced by the rock formations.
39
Ibrahim Bathusha (2007) collected Ground water samples from 18
wards of Coimbatore City north zone, among which 2 samples were collected
from 2 different locations from each ward, total 36 samples. Water quality
assessment was carried out for various physico-chemical parameters. Correlation
coefficients were determined to identify the highly correlated and interrelated
water quality parameters.
40
quality indices, they cannot be considered safe for human consumption because
of high coliform counts.
41
Ground water samples were collected by Gupta (2009) from different
locations in the radius of 25 km. of Kaithal city, Haryana (India), were analyzed for
their physicochemical characteristics. On comparing the result s against drinking
water quality standards laid by ICMR and WHO, it is found that some of the
water samples are non-potable for human being due to high concentration of
one or the other parameter .
Water quality of four open wells representing four localities around the
Kerala Minerals and Metals Ltd industrial area, Chavara, Quilon district was
studied by Shaji (2009) for a period of six months to assess the suitability of the
well waters for domestic purposes. The study revealed that the third and fourth
wells are free from heavy metal pollution, all the wells are having bacterial
contamination and the values of BOD, COD, TDS and phosphate exceeded the
42
maximum permissible limits and the dissolved oxygen was much lower than the
desirable limit in all the well waters. Hence all the four well waters are found
unsuitable for domestic purposes as it is confirmed by water quality index.
Gupta et al., (2009) tested ground waters which were taken from the
various places in and around Kaithal City town (Haryana , India) and the analysis
reports that the water quality like pH, EC, Cl-, TDS, Ca2+, Mg2+ and Hardness lies
within the maximum permissible limit prescribed by WHO and ICMR. Except few
parameters like DO, few samples were reported with lower DO than the permissible
level, but this value does not have any impact for the water to use for drinking
purpose. According to this report, the ground water in and around HCTM College,
water works areas are suitable for drinking, agriculture and industries and really it is
not harmful to human beings.
For the study of different samples of ground water Kiran Mehata (2010)
collected samples from the locations of Vadgam taluka of Gujarat state of India and
analyzed for their physic-chemical parameters for concentrations of ions. Its quality
was compared with drinking water standards of ICMR and EU (1998). Correlation co-
efficient (r) were also calculated for these water quality characteristics and found Fe is
positively correlated with many other parameters.
43
and Alkalinity, Total Hardness were increased after the rainfall. A systematic
calculation of the correlation coefficient has also been carried out between different
analyzed parameters.
44
A systematic study has been carried out by Srinivasa Rao (2010 ) to
explore the Physico –chemical characteristics of ground water in Greater
Visakhapatnam Municipal Corporation (GVMC) area .Water samples from 32
bore wells ,16 open wells and two reservoirs at various locations in GVMC
area were collected and analyzed for PH ,EC ,D.O ,TH ,CaH ,MgH Total
alkalinity and Nitrate .The water samples near the sea are more chloride
concentrations than the samples far away from the sea .From this he
concludedthat the intrusion of salt water into ground water was due to the over
pumping of the ground water along the sea coast.
45
Lalitha Kumari (2011) conducted experiments for physico-chemical
parameters of Bore and open wells in and around salt pans of Oolapalem and Ooguru
of Prakasam district. The findings clearly indicate that the saline effluents polluted the
water and it is not suitable for human beings and also for agricultural activities.
46
Microbial Contamination of water sources findings
International findings
The ground water samples near the septic tank disposal system in
northeastern and eastern New York were investigated by Chen (1987) for nutrients
and fecal coli forms. Seventeen out of 23 samples were found to be highly
contaminated within 30.5 m of the discharge point of the septic systems. Eleven of
those samples were collected from less than 122 cm below the ground level. The
depth of the ground water table and the distance from the discharge point of sewage
were the main factors influencing the pattern and severity of ground water
contamination.
A bacteriological survey was performed on 155 untreated rural ground
water samples including drilled wells, dug wells and springs in northwest Virginia
USA by Sworobuk et al., (1987). A total of 48% and 62% of the samples contained
faecal coliforms and faecal streptococci respectively. Water sources from shallower
older wells and lacking adequate casing characteristically were found to be heavily
contaminated with bacteria indicative of lack of sanitation.
In the study conducted by Simchen et al., (1990) some 302 cases of
diarrhea occurred in the studied population. The incidence of diarrhea in people aged
0-18 years during the baseline year and through the period of the epidemic was due to
allegedly contaminated spring that had been implicated previously as a source of
contaminated water and was closed for some weeks previously during 1988. The
human source of the contamination was probably the free-flowing sewage from the
nearby town of Tarshicha.
Payment et al., (1991) (North America) carried out a randomized
intervention trial. 299 eligible households were supplied with domestic water filters
(reverse-osmosis) that eliminate microbial and chemical contaminants from their
water and 307 households were left with their usual tap water without a filter. The
estimated annual incidence of gastrointestinal illness was 0.76 among tap water
drinkers compared with 0.50 among filtered water drinkers (p<0.01). It is estimated
that 35% of the reported gastrointestinal illnesses among the tap water drinkers were
47
water related and preventable. Their results raise questions about the adequacy of
current standards of drinking water quality to prevent water-borne endemic
gastrointestinal illness.
Bacteriological analyses were performed in the Sahelian area, France by
Gullemin et al., (1991). About 7.7% of bore-holes, 13.5% concrete wells and 66% of
the traditional wells found to be polluted with total coliform, faecal coliform and
faecal streptococci. After stepwise logistic regression analysis the link with each
factor persisted independently. The unsanitary conditions of the proximal
environment (P<0.001), hazards in re-priming (P<0.001) leaks in the pump (P<0.05)
and the absence of efficient system to keep cattle away from the water supply area
(P<0.05) seemed to contribute to the non portability of water.
Madison and Ghiorse (1993) presented generalized model for the
relationship between geological stratography and microbiological parameters. In
going across the horizons, the bacterial abundance decreases in direct proportion with
nutrient levels.
Le Chevallier et al., (1996) found that the occurrence of coliform bacteria
was significantly higher when water temperatures were > 150C. at a summer water
temperature ( 200C). The efficacy of chlorine concentrations tested was found to be
two or three times lower as compared to that found at a winter temperature (50C).
Grabow, (1996) investigated the water quality assessment and control,
and stated that water borne diseases are most important concern about the quality of
water and also that the pathogens involved included a wide variety of viruses,
bacteria, and protozoan parasites. The prevalence of various water- borne pathogens
changes with selective pressure changes.
Natural Protection of Spring and Well Drinking Water against Surface
Microbial Contamination Parameters for Parasites was studied byStephen Edberg et
al., (1997). Parasitic diseases associated with drinking water transmission prompted a
re-evaluation of source water monitoring criteria for public health protection. The
field of microbial indicators was reviewed and each candidate sentinel evaluated in
terms of its sensitivity, specificity, and technical feasibility. In addition, a clear
distinction was made between source water monitoring and monitoring in the
distribution system. Of all potential candidate microbial sentinels, Escherichia coli
are deemed the most efficacious for public health protection. Based on a conservative
estimate of its half-life in groundwater for 8 d, it is recommended that at least two
48
samples be obtained during this half-life. In addition to E. coli, two water quality
indicator sentinels, which are not necessarily direct public health threats, should also
be monitored at the same frequency. These are the total coliform group and the
Enterococci. If E. coli is present in any source water sample, the borehole and any
directly connected borehole should be embargoed. If either total coliforms or
enterococci are detected, only that individual borehole should be taken off line and
not used until the situation is remediated and the cause of the fecal contamination
eliminated. Clostridium perfringens spores serve as a useful long-lived indicator.
However, their perseverance in a sample should not be considered a direct public
health threat because spores may far outlive pathogens. As a parasite indicator, C.
perfringens should have the same importance as a positive coliform or Enterococcus
analysis. Coliphages do not yet fulfill enough of the criteria to be routinely employed.
Biological monitoring should be coupled with physicochemical monitoring to
establish a long-term history of the source. Because all natural waters vary in the
amounts of heterotrophic plate count bacteria, test methods should be employed that
are refractory to them. A combination of rigorous source protection and extraordinary
source monitoring serve as sufficient multiple barriers for parasite protection.
A detailed assessment of the microbial quality of some selected well water
samples of Crewe, UK was carried out by Fewtrell et al., (1998) for total coliforms,
faecal coliforms and faecal streptococci. The microbial quality of water samples was
generally poor with about 50% of the supplies failing to meet the required standards.
Bad sanitation and leaching from waste disposal might be the major cause of
contamination.
The impact of sediment fecal coliform reservoirs on seasonal water quality
in Oak Creek demonstrated by Christine Crabill et al., (1999) .in this study show
that sediment agitation by recreational activity and storm surges associated with the
summer storm season are responsible for the impact to water quality and not
recreational users directly, as suggested by previous studies. Sources of fecal
pollution in the Oak Creek watershed may include grazing cattle, natural animal
populations, septic tanks failed municipal sewage and recreational users.
Chandio (1999) suggested that applications of nitrogen-phosphorous-
potassium (NPK) fertilizers have been increasing in Pakistan over the last few
decades, with applications of nitrogen fertilizers reaching and excess of 2 million tons
by the late 1990s. As a result, high concentration of NO3-.N has been reported to be
49
common in ground water source in Karachi-Pakistan. Concentration of NO3-were
mostly less than 6mg/L in hand-dug wells and tube from canal-irrigated areas of
Pakistan, although concentrations up to 210mg/L nitrate were found to have been
directly contaminated by sewage.
Sridhar (2000) examined the physico-chemical quality of ground water of
Nigerian Urban centers and found high concentrations of various ions because of
contamination of drinking water pipelines with sewage disposal.
Studies by Norton and Lechevallier (2000) showed characteristic
changes in bacterial population through potable water treatment and distribution. It
appears to be necessary to ensure that water treatment and distribution do not cause
any shift in the composition of the bacterial population that would favour
opportunistic pathogens.
Gottlich et al., (2001) investigated fungal flora in ground water derived
from public drinking water distribution system, in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany.
E.coli or other coliform bacteria was observed in the water. Common opportunistic
and allergenic Aspergillus species were encountered only rarely. The fungal flora
was dominated by a limited number of species of Acremonium, Exophiala,
Penicillium and particularly Phialophora some of them occurred throughout the
entire drinking water system.
Kortatsi (2001) Suggested that Ground waterprovision is sometimes
unsustainable because of poor water productivity of wells, drying of wells after
prolonged drought and sometimes due to poor water quality. These problems are
usually caused by the lack of understanding of the hydrological regime.
Ikem (2002) Evaluated ground water samples collected near to waste
disposal sites in Ibadan and Lagos, Nigeria. The water quality is unfit for drinking
because of the presence of high concentrations of inorganic ions.
Carter et al., (2002) studied the relationships between levels of
heterotrophic bacteria and water quality parameters in a drinking water distribution
system. Orange and yellow pigmented bacteria were the dominant expressions in all
bulk fluid and biofilm samples. The fraction of pigmented bacteria in bulk fluid
samples was greatest at the standpipe. Pigmentation percentages were found to be
uncorrelated with standard physical and chemical parameters of water quality in
distribution systems.
50
Kaye Power et al., (2002) examined Water Board within Sydney’s
drinking water distribution system. Identification of bacteria isolated on m-Endo broth
indicated Klebsiella oxytoca as the principal coliform involved. High number of
Aeromonas hydrophilla were isolated.
Colford et al., (2002) studied characteristic changes in bacterial
population through potable water treatment and distribution. Therefore it appears to
be necessary to ensure that water treatment and distribution do not cause a shift in
composition of the bacterial population that favor opportunistic pathogens. There is
no clear cut evidence that heterotrophic bacteria as such pose a public health risk
particularly when they are ingested by healthy people via drinking water.
Kistemann et al., (2002) investigated microbial load of drinking water,
bacterial colony, Escherichia coli, Coliform, fecal streptococci and Clostridium
perfringens counts increased considerably during extreme runoff events. Parasitic
contamination occurred in catchment areas, the concentrations of Giardia and
Cryptosporidium rose significantly during events. The results show that substantial
shares of the total microbial loads in watercourses and in drinking water reservoirs
results from rainfall and extreme runoff events. Consequently, regular samples are
considered inadequate for representing the microbial contamination of watercourse
systems.
Demir (2003) studied ground water quality in Kesan area, Turkey. After
analyzing physico-chemical and microbiological drinking water quality parameters,
he found the ground water source were unfit for drinking and need some treatment.
Bradley et al., (2003) studied the spread of Vibrio cholrae around the
world and also the factors that determine its seasonal peaks in endemic areas. Since
1997, fortnightly surveillance in 4 widely separated geographic locations in
Bangladesh has been performed to identify patients with cholera and to collect
environmental data. These data were correlated with environmental factors, to
develop a model for prediction of cholera outbreaks. Human faecal material is
considered to be greater risk to human health as it is more likely to contain human
enteric pathogen
Scott, (2003),.Howard et al (2003) observed variations in water quality in
shallow protected springs in Kampala to assess the causes of microbial; contamination
and found large temporal and special variation. They found that local recharge of
faecal contaminated surface water is the principal source of contamination.
51
Ho et al., (2003) studied chemical and microbiological qualities of the
East River (Dongjiang) which accounts to about 80% of drinking water in Hong
Kong, which is located in the mainland side of China. Microbiological survey
revealed that pathogens such as Salmonella spp., Vibro sp., Giardia lamblia and
Crytosporidium parvum appeared occasionally in water samples. The water supplies
department of Hong Kong is recommended to intensify its water quality monitoring
program to cover pathogenic bacteria and parasites in watercourses and reservoirs.
Thomas Clasen et al., (2003) studied Thermo Tolerant Coliforms (TTC) from the
stored household water supplies of 100 households in 13 towns and villages in the
Kailahun District of Sierra Leone. At the non-improved sources, the arithmetic mean
TTC load was 407/100ml at the point of distribution, rising to mean count of
882/100ml at the household level. Water from the improved sources met WHO
guidelines, with no fecal contamination. 92.9% of stored household samples
contained some level of TTC, 76.5% contained more than the 10 TTC per 100ml
threshold set by the sphere project for emergency conditions. They need to extended
drinking water quality beyond the point of distribution to the point of consumption.
Nogueira et al (2003) evaluated the microbiological quality of treated and
untreated water samples and found that the highest number of water samples
contaminated by total coliforms (83%) and fecal coliforms(48%) were found in
untreated waters. Among the treated water samples examined, coliform bacteria were
found in 171 of the 1,033 sampling reservoirs. More than 17% of the treated potable
water contained coliforms TC and FC were seasonally influenced in treated water. It
was observed that warm weather had high percentage of contaminated samples. TC &
FC positive samples declined with decrease in temperature.
Pavlov et al(2004) reported that HPCs are commonly used to assess the general
microbiological quality of drinking water. In this study, 339 bacterial colonies were
isolated randomly from selected, treated and untreated drinking waters in South
Africa. The most commonly isolated genera were Aeromonas, Bacillus,
Corynebacterium, Klebsiella, Moraxella, Pseudomonas, Vibrio and Staphylococcus.
These findings are in agreement with some epidemiological studies, which indicated
an association between HPCs in drinking water and the incidence of gastroenteritis in
consumers
Miriam Paul et al (2004) investigated the possible deterioration in the
microbiological quality of ground water in drilled wells close to leaky sewer systems
52
in Rastah of southwest Germany. Increase in the total number of colony-forming units
provided evidence that leaky sewer systems elevate faecal indicator concentrations in
groundwater.
Wakida and Lerner (2005) studied the groundwater at Nottingham and
found that non-agricultural sources of nitrate are quite significant. Leaky sewers and
waste disposal sites are found to contribute to nitrate load in the aquifers.
Hunter et al., (2005) conducted a study in Wales and the Northwest
region of England from February 2001 to May 2002 and found that sources of
drinking water and treatments vary, but overall, the microbiological quality of the
water is excellent, as only 0.05% of water samples were positive for Escherichia coli.
Pusch et al (2005) detected enteric viruses and bacterial indicators in German
environmental waters. A German mining lake and the supplying surface waters, which are
located downstream of a sewage plant, were examined regarding their microbiological
and virological quality. Between October 2002 and September 2003, specific PCR
methods were used to determine the occurrence of enteric viruses in 123 water specimens
drawn at different sites downstream of the waste water treatment plant and in 9 samples
from the sewage plant influent. Cell culture methods showed that 3 out of 18 PCR
positive samples contained infectious entero viruses. Even though microbiological
parameters such as Escherichia coli, enterococci and coliphages indicated acceptable
microbiological water quality, the virological data of this study suggest the possibility
that surface waters may be a source for enteric viral infections.
Natasha Potgieter et al 2005 assessed the microbiological quality of 125 drinking water
samples in South Africa. The frequency of isolation of E. coli, Salmonella, Shigella and
C.jejuni was 70%, 5%, 5% and 2% respectively. The total coliforms ranged from 4.9X10 2
to 5.8X103 CFU/100ml, fecal coliforms from 2.6X102 to 3.7X103CFU/100ml and fecal
streptococci from 3.1X103 to 5.8X103 CFU/100ml in tap water stored in household
containers.
Surbeck et al., (2006) observed the flow independent nature of faecal
indicator bacteria and F+ coliphages is consistent with the idea that these
contaminations are ubiquitously present on the surface of the urban landscape and
rapidly partition into the surface water as the landscape is wetted by rainfall.
Almasri (2007) found evidence of deterioration of ground water quality
from nitrate contamination indicating that the nitrate levels routinely exceed the
53
maximum contaminant level of 10mg/L NO3- in many aquifer system in Palestine
that underline agriculture-dominated water sheds.
Ola et al., (2007) analyzed for some physical and chemical parameters as
well as changes in microbial population during storage. Suspended particles became
noticeable and the smell of water samples became unpleasant after 12 weeks of
storage. Escherichia coli, Enterobacter aerogenes, Staphylococcus aureus,
Pseudomonas aeroginosa, Klebsiella pneumonia, Proteus sp. Streptococcus
faecalis and Micrococcus sp were the bacteria species encountered in stored water
samples. E.coil was the most frequently encountered. The presence of these bacterial
species has significant health implications. Total viable counts in water samples
increased from 3.8 x 105 cfu/ml on day 0 to 42. 0x 105 cfu/ ml by the 16th week of
storage, while coliforms increased drastically from week two to week six of storage
after which the population began to drop. The samples contained coliforms cast a
doubt over the portability status of water supplied to the communities in the area
under study.
Samples of tap, well, stream, and wastewaters were collected form
Abeokuta and Ojota state and analyzed microbiologically using standard methods.
Okonko et al., (2007).reportedthat the total viable counts for all the water samples
were generally high exceeding the limit of 1.0x102 cfu/ml for water. The MPN count
ranged from 9.3 to 44 MPN/ 100ml. the fecal colifrom counts on EMB agar plate
ranged between 5 and 48 cells, also exceeding the standard limit for water. The
isolated organisms were identified to be Staphlococcus aureus, Salmonella species,
Escherchia coli, Pseudomonas aerugionosa, Enterobacter aerogenes, Bacillus
species, Proteus species, Kleslella species, Flavobacterium species and
Acinetobacter species.
Naaz Abaas et al 2007 determined the bacteriological analysis of hand
pump water in Pakistan for fecal contamination. He found that 67% of the samples
were positive for fecal streptococci. The minimum most probable number (MPN) was
3 and maximum was >2400 for fecal streptococci. Of the 54 samples of fecal
streptococci strains, 72.2% were identified as enterococci.
Tista Prasaiet et al 2007 conducted a study to evaluate the quality of
drinking water of Kathmandu valley. A total of 132 drinking water samples were
randomly collected from 49 tube wells, 57 wells, 17 taps and 9 stone spouts in
different places of Kathmandu valley. The samples were analyzed for
54
microbiological parameters. Total plate and coliform count revealed that 82.6% and
92.4% of drinking water samples found to cross WHO guideline values for drinking
water. During the study, 238 isolates of enteric bacteria were identified of which
26.4% were E. coli, 25.6% were Enterobacter, 23% were Citrobacter, 6.3% were
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, 5.4% were Klebsiella, 4.0% were Shigella, 3.0% were
Salmonella, 3.0% were Proteus vulgaris, 3.0% were Serratia and 1.0% were Vibrio
cholera.
Naaz Abaas, et al.,(2007) determined the bacteriological analysis of hand
pump water in Pakistan for fecal contamination. He found that 67% of the samples
were positive for fecal streptococci. The minimum most probable number (MPN)
was 3 and maximum was >2400 for fecal streptococci. Of the 54 samples of fecal
streptococci strains, 72.2% were identified as enterococci.
Kassenga 2007 investigated the microbiological quality of bottled and
plastic-bagged drinking water sold in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. 130 samples
representing 13 brands of bottled water were analyzed for total coliforms, fecal
coliforms and heterotrophic bacteria. These were compared with 61 samples of tap
water. Heterotrophic bacteria were detected in 92% of the bottled water samples
analyzed. Total and fecal coliform bacteria were present in 4.6% and 3.6%
respectively. Microbiological quality of tap water was found to be worse compared
with bottled water, showing the presence of total coliforms and fecal coliforms with
49.2% and 26.2% respectively.
Scoaris, et al, (2008) identified the presence of Aeromonas sp. in the bottled
mineral water, well water and tap water from the municipal supplies. The positive
samples for mineral water are 12.7%, well water 8.3% and tap water 6.5%. The
recovery of Aeromonas sp. was significantly higher in the bottled and well water
when compared with tap water from municipal supplies.
Nurcihan Hacioglu et. al., (2008) investigated monthly variation of
comparison of data with WPCR. It is seen that waters of Biga stream at the sites
1,2and 3 belonged to class 4, for parameter BOD and fecal coliform and belonged to
class 3 for parameter total coliform. In that area a great potetential risk of infection of
waters from the Biga Stream.
Taulo et al (2008) studied microbiological quality of water, associated
management practices and risks at source, transport and storage points in a rural
community of Lungwena,Malawi. Sampling points revealed a significant difference
55
(p=0.042) higher than that of Salmonella spp. The microbiological quality of water
was found to be poor as a result of both poorwater management and environmental
sanitation practices.
Al-Futaisi et al (2008) established that, urbanization, industrialization and
agriculture manifest in contamination of water sources in the Barka catchment of
Oman. They found saline water intrusion into the coastal aquifers and high nitrate
content and bacteriological population in the other areas due to anthropogenic
influence.
Adekunle (2008) examined the impact of industrial effluents on the
quality of well water in the Asa Dam industrial estate in Nigeria and observed high
turbidity, discolouration due to oily film and high bacterial count, due to dissolved
mineral salts, industrial effluents and organic matter, respectively.
Shittu et al., (2008) studied well water, stream water and river water used
for drinking and swimming purpose in Abeokutta, Nigeria. The results obtained were
compared with WHO and EPA standards for drinking and recreational water. The
samples complied with bacteriological standards as Total coliform counts generally
exceeded 1,600 MPN/ ml, and pathogen count such as Salmonella- Shigella counts
and Vibrio chelerae counts were very high. The presence of pathogens in water for
drinking and swimming purposes is of public health significance considering the
possibility of the presence of other bacteria, protozoa and enteric viruses that are
implicated in gastro-intestinal water borne diseases and the low infectious dose for
these water borne pathogens.
Abdul Hussain Shar et al., (2008) analyzed the drinking water of Khairpur city. All
the water samples were contaminated (100%) with total coliform and fecal coliforms.
The counts were higher than the maximum microbial contaminant level established by
WHO. It was observed that pH was within the limits of WHO standards (6.5-8.5) and
the residual chlorine was not detected in any sample of drink and water.
56
Lena Fadhil Hamza (2009), determined the efficiency of filter water for
pathogens. The results showed that some filters are not safe in elimination of bacteria
from water, as they have shown E.coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus
aureus, Streptococcus fecalis and Vibrio cholerae. It revealed that the efficacy of
filters, time of usage and cleaning of devices were unable to remove the microbial
contamination from the drinking waters totally.
Jakhrani (2009) stipulated that one of the major source of ground water
contamination is the surface impoundments used by municipalities and industries,
which dispose of waste water without treatment to the receiving bodies or used by
farmers for agriculture purpose. Ground water quality is deteriorated because of
higher concentrations of electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids and hardness as
compared to WHO standards.
Syed Hafizur (2009),considering the hypothesis “shallow tube-well water
might be contaminated by microorganisms from a nearby open pit latrine”, studied
litho-stratigraphy, physico-chemical properties along with microbial contamination
level of shallow tube-well water and socio-economic aspects related to sanitation of a
rural village (Gakulnagar, Bangladesh). Values of all parameters were found
within the tolerable limits, except coli form, in very few samples, where pit latrines
were adjacent to the tube-well. Values of total coli form bacteria showed an inverse
relationship with the distance between the tube-well and the pit latrine.
The antibiotic resistance patterns of coagulase negative staphylococci
(CNS) isolated from a drinking water treatment plant (WTP), a drinking water
distribution network, responsible for supplying water to the consumers (WDN), and a
wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), responsible for receiving and treating domestic
residual effluents. Genotyping and the 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis
demonstrated a higher diversity of species both in the WTP (6 species/19 isolates) and
WWTP (12 species/47 isolates) than in the WDN
(6species/172isolates). Staphylococcus pasteuri and Staphylococcus
epidermidis prevailed in the WTP and WDN and Staphylococcus saprophyticus in the
WWTP. Staphylococci with reduced susceptibility (resistance or intermediary
phenotype) to beta-lactams, tetracycline, clindamycin and erythromycin were
observed in all types of water and belonged to the three major species groups. The
highest resistance rate was found against erythromycin, presumably due to the
presence of the efflux pump encoded by the determinant msrA, detected in the
57
majority of the resistant isolates. This study by Catia Faria et al.,
(2009)demonstrates that antibiotic resistant CNS may colonize different types of
water, namely drinking water fulfilling all the quality standards.
59
evaluation study can be leveraged for use in the proposed microbial evaluation
study according to Schnabel., (2010).
Noel Sammon et al., (2010) studied drinking water quality, the potential
of water borne spores as a source of nosocomial fungal infection. The most commonly
recovered genera were Cladosporium, Penicillium, Aspergillus and Fuserium. This
study has demonstrated that numerous micro-fungal genera, including those that water
supply which are opportunistic human pathogens, populate a typical treated municipal
water supply in sub-tropical Australia.
The Pearl River Delta (PRD) is one of the most developed and densely
populated regions in China. Quantifying the amount of pathogens in the source of
drinking water is important for improving water quality. Results showed that external
environmental factors, such as precipitation, location, as well as the internal
environmental factors, i.e., physicochemical properties of the water, were closely
related with the distribution of coliforms. Seasonally, the coliform bacterial
concentrations in wet season were one to two orders of magnitude greater than those
in dry season. Spatially, coliform bacterial levels in reservoirs near urban and
industrial areas were significantly higher (p < 0.05) than those in remote areas.
60
RajiniKurup et al., (2010) determined the microbial and physico-chemical
parameters of water samples from Georgetown, Guyana. In the microbial analysis
the most prevalent species in biofilm and water samples within the study was
Lactobacillus sp. and the least prevalent species was Salmonella sp. The physico-
chemical analysis report presents values of parameters below the standards of WHO.
Turbidity was high in all the tested samples. On the whole the water samples show
poor quality both in terms of physico-chemical and biological parameters.
Edema et al., (2011) investigated the bacteriological quality of 108 commercial
sachet packed drinking water samples for pathogenic bacteria. Results showed that
87% of the sachet packed water samples examined contained Salmonella and E. coli,
indicative of fecal contamination and inadequate water treatment. E.coli counts used
as indicator of hygiene criteria were present in the range of 98 and 106 CFU/100ml of
water. Salmonella were between 2.12X10^1. These findings indicate that sachet-
packed water samples examined do not meet the microbiological standards for
drinking water quality. Monitoring should be done on a regular basis.
Emile Jemgoua, et al., (2011) examined the physico-chemical and
bacteriological characteristics of 17 water samples. Most of the water samples were
below or out of safety limits provided by WHO. Fecal coliforms were present in the
water samples (wells). Specific concern and development of chlorination was
proposed.
A study was conducted by Javed Ali et al., (2011).to evaluate the quality
of drinking water in Khyber Agency valley, which has always been crucial with
reference to public health importance. Quality assessment of drinking water were
carried out by determining, total plate count, total coliform bacteria, total fecal
coliform, E. coli and Staphylococcus aureus. The total plate count (TPC) was found in
the range of 3600-190 CFU/ml which indicated that none of the samples were found
in drinking water according to the WHO standards (100 CFU/ml). All the samples
were found contaminated with total coliform bacteria and unfit for human
consumption according to WHO standards. Total fecal coli form bacteria present in
80% samples. E. coliwere present in 66% samples while 33% analyzed samples were
contaminated with Staphylococcus aureus.
61
practices of the consumers in Bahir Dar City, Ethiopia from October–December,
2009. Water samples were collected from 35 private taps and 35 household water
containers for bacteriological analysis. The turbidity, PH, temperature and turbidity
were measured immediately after collection. . Finally, the hygiene-sanitation practices
of the consumers were surveyed using interview. Twenty seven (77.1%) of the
household water samples had high total coliforms counts. Twenty (57.1%) household
water samples and 9 (25.7%) of the tap water samples had no residual free chlorine.
Sixteen (45.7%) household water samples had very high risk score to thermotolerant
coliforms. Eight (22.9%) tap water samples had low risk score for total coliforms
whereas 21(60%) tap water had very low risk score for thermotolerant coliforms.
Twelve (34.3%) of the consumers collect water without contact with their hand and
9(25.7%) wash their hands with soap after visiting toilet. Water supplies at tap and
household water containers were contaminated with bacteria. Poor sanitation, low
level of hygiene, uncontrolled treatment parameters are the causes for contamination.
Control of physico-chemical parameters and promoting good hygiene and sanitation
are recommended.
Humphrey et al., (2011) studied the E.coli levels, in the coastal areas of
North Carolina, on four occasions between March 2007 and February 2008, and found
that groundwater E. coli densities near on-site wastewater systems were highest
during shallow water periods. They recommend increasing the vertical separation
distance from drain field trenches to seasonal high water table for improving shallow
groundwater quality.
Djuikom et al., (2011) carried out a bacteriological study over five months
to assess the water quality of seven wells located in Bepanda in Douala town of
62
Cameroon in Western Africa .They found that as long as any source of pollution
exists , water is of bad quality irrespective of the depth . They conclude that many
factors influence the groundwater quality: the type of pollution source(s) , the distance
separating the well and the pollution sources(s) , the maintenance of the well , the
nature of the ground , and many anthropogenic influences .
Akinbile et al., (2011) studied the impact of waste dumps on the quality of
groundwater in Akure , Nigeria and found high levels of contamination by heavy
metals and bacteria . The pollution was found related to the distance from the dump
sites.
63
range of 4.1x103 to 8.6x103cfu/ml with a mean 6.24x103cfu/ml. Fecal coliform was
in 57.1% of water samples. The physico-chemical parameters fell within acceptable
limits except for nitrate [65-20mg/l] which is above WHO guidelines. These findings
show that the water samples did not meet WHO standards for drinking. Thus, the
bore well water should be treated before drinking.
Mrityunjoy Acharjee et al., (2011) evaluated the quality of drinking water
from houses in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Among 18 samples of water taken, two samples
were treated with chlorine. They found that all the other water sources were found to
be contaminated with total coliforms, fecal coliforms, E.coli, Klebsiella sp. ,
Salmonella sp. , Shigella sp. , Vibrio sp. and Aeromonas sp. Several biochemical
tests were performed for confirmation of suspected organisms. They found that
treated water samples were found to be microbiologically accepted than untreated
samples.
Azizullah et al., (2011) reported that water pollution is one of the major threats to
public health in Pakistan. Drinking water sources, both surface and ground waters are
contaminated with coliforms, toxic metals and pesticides throughout the country.
Various drinking water quality parameters set by WHO are frequently violated.
Human activities like improper disposal of municipal, industrial effluents and
agrochemicals in agriculture are the main factors contributing to the deterioration of
water quality.
Memon et al., (2011) assessed the drinking water quality of canal, shallow
pumps, dug wells and water supply schemes in Pakistan, by measuring the physical,
chemical and microbiological parameters as the Southern Sindh Province of Pakistan
deteriorating due to dumping of industrial and urban waste. They reported that all
four water bodies exceeded WHO minimum permissible limits for turbidity (24%,
28%, 96%, 69%), coliform (96%, 77%, 92%, 81%) and electrical
conductivity(100%, 99%, 44%, 63%) respectively. However, the turbidity was lower
in underground water i.e,24% and 28% in dug wells and shallow pumps as compared
to open water i.e, 96% and 69% in canal and water supply schemes respectively. In
dug wells and shallow pumps, limits for TDS, alkalinity, hardness and sodium
exceeded respectively by 63% and 33%, 59% and 70%, 40% and 27% and 78% and
26%. Some common diseases found in the study area were gastroenteritis, diarrhea
and vomiting, kidney and skin problems.
64
Pant (2011) assessed the quality of groundwater in the Kathmandu valley,
Nepal by physical, chemical and microbiological parameters. It was found that the
total coliform bacteria enumerated in groundwater significantly exceeded the drinking
water quality standard and observed maximum coliform [267 cfu/100ml] in shallow
wells. The electrical conductivity and turbidity were found to be 875ms/cm and 55
NTU respectively, which are above the WHO recommendations for drinking water
guidelines. However, Ph value was measured within the acceptable limit. Chloride
and total hardness concentrations were found to be within the recommendations of
WHO drinking water quality guidelines.
65
Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus vulgaris, Clostridium,
Shigella dysenteriae, Salmonella sp. and E.coli which are highly pathogenic.
Timilshina et al., (2012) assessed the microbial count of heterotrophs and total
coliforms of bottled water in Kathmandu valley. They found that 90% samples
showed the heterotophic bacterial count above the acceptable range (<50 CFU.ml)
and 63.3% samples showed the total count crossing the WHO guidelines (0
CFU/ml). The presence of heterotrophs and coliforms in the bottled water is a serious
concern for public health.
Roohul Amin et al in 2012, studied the physico-chemical and bacteriological
analysis of drinking water of Peshawar. They found that the pH values were within
the permissible limits while the TSS of 5 samples was above the permissible limits.
In bacteriological analysis, except one sample collected from the tube well, most of
the samples were positive for total coliforms. 6 samples of drinking water from
distribution system were positive for fecal coliforms and 4 samples positive for
E.coli.
Manji et al., (2012), investigated the incidence of Staphylococcus aureus,
coliforms and E.coli strains in both treated and untreated rural water supplies in
Nigeria. The isolation of S. aureus, Bacillus sp. and Pseudomonas aeruginosa
present enough evidence that water from these sources are unfit for human
consumption. Water sources failed to meet the standards for drinking water.
Martin et al 2012 analyzed the microbial quality of sachet and tap water
in Enugu state, Nigeria. For sachet water, E.coli and S. fecalis were isolates included
coliform and clostridium sp. An average of 66% clostridium sp was recovered from
all the tap water of 3 different locations. This study reports that the microbial quality
may vary rapidly and pathogen concentration may increase disease risks leading to
outbreaks of waterborne diseases.
66
bacterium/100 ml of water. None of the water samples showed contamination by fecal
coliforms.
Indian findings:
Verma et al., (1990) conducted a field study aimed at measuring the
personal cost of illness from five major water-related diseases and the work was
undertaken in a rural area of Uttar Pradesh (India) in 1981-82. The diseases included
in the study were enteric fever, actue diarrheal diseases, infective hepatitis,
conjunctivitis and scabies.
Karthikeyan et al, analyzed the physico-chemical parameters of 60 drinking
water samples from Erode district, Tamil Nadu. They observed the levels of pH,
electrical conductivity, TDS, alkalinity, hardness, bicarbonates, Ca, Mg, Nitrate, S, P,
Na and K. The concentration of nitrate, hardness, Ca & Mg in some samples seemed
to be more than the permissible limits. It is inferred from the study that these water
sources can be used for potable purpose only after prior treatment
Bhattacharjee et al (1992) evaluated the total and thermo tolerant coliform
counts in rural drinking water derived from ground water, piped supplies and surface
water for a number of areas in India. To evaluate these counts as indicators of recent
fecal contamination the total coliform and thermo tolerant coliform isolated have been
identified. Thermo tolerant E.coli formed 11.7% of the total coliform and 75.1% of
the thermo tolerant coliform. Citrobacter sp(20.4%) and Klebsiella sp(16.4%) was the
only other organism frequently encountered.
Jais et al., (1993) studied and assessed the bacteriological quality of
ground and surface water of Vijjaipur for E.coliforms and faecal coliforms. About
25% of the tube well samples were found to be contaminated by coliforms
particularly in the months of June and July.
Somasundaram et al(1993) studied the water quality for the aquifers in
the urban areas of Madras city and reported gross pollution of surface and
groundwater, with high levels of nitrates, heavy metals and micro organisms. They
suggest that this situatation is a result of factors such as inadequate sanitation,
industrial discharges and spillages and dumps.
Sharma et al., (1994) studied the ground water sources adjacent to the
sewage channel in Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh for their microbial quality. About 69%
67
of the total samples, especially bore well water, were found to be contaminated. They
suggest that this might be due to the seepage from the sewerage channel and soak pits
near the bore wells, as well as the excessive extraction of the ground water through
bore wells which might have created vacuum thereby increasing the chances of
suction of contaminated waters.
E.coli and total bacteria count was investigated by Rai et al (1998).in the
tube wells sources of Khagaria in Bihar. Very high MPN number at different stations
was attributed to the low landscape and stagnant ions present permanently in water
bodies throughout the study area.
From the microbial counts like TVC FC and FS, Das (2000) evaluated that
the rivers and canal at Cuttack are grossly polluted carrying high potency of microbes
and the concentration level reached an extreme level during the summer season
making the water unsuitable even for bathing
Garg (2003) studied the water quality of well and borewell of 10 selected
locations of Chitrakoot region.
Thakur et al (2003) opined that faecal contamination and sewage
contamination were the cause of high bacterial loads in the water samples of Jorhat
city. Water from the surface sources was found to be more polluted than the ground
sources.
68
Highest load of Colifrom of faecal origin was observed in the down stream
site of river Thamirabarani at Ambassamuudram,byUmamaheswari, (2004) which
may be due to frequent contamination by the excreta of humans, animals and birds.
The incidence of low count of coliform and streptococci of faecal origin in the
upstream site may be due to the continuous flow of river, depletion of nutritious
organic matter and continuous flow of river, depletion of nutritious organic matter and
continuous uses of detergents, antiseptics, soaps etc.
Sundari and Dheivamani (2004) conducted experiments on
microbiological quality of drinking water in and around Chidambaram Taluk of
Cuddalore district and found pathogenic contents.
From an experimental study by Ramani Vimala et al (2006) it was
revealed that poor quality of water may be attributed to the seepage of sewage
carrying a lot of pathogens into the ground water. By setting a treatment plant either at
domestic level or on a large scale by municipality may control the presence of
bacteria in the drinking water.
The investigation conducted by Senthilkumar et al (2006) on ground
water quality in Thanjavur city revealed that the MPN index showed positive
correlation with the nutrients. The drainage of domestic sewage in the well
surroundings, stagnation of waste water around tube wells, broken & cracked
platforms are accounted for high faecal contamination of groundwater.
The drinking, borewell and sewage water in the Sanmugasikamani
Nadar(S.N) street, Naivatti Nadar (N.N) street and Thiruthangal area of Sivakasi has
been studied Radha Krishnan et al.,(2007). The bacterial parameters like standard
plate count (SPC), total coliform count (TCC), faecal coliform count (FCC), faecal
streptococcal count (FSC). Most of the physicochemical characters of drinking and
borewell water were within the ISI permissible level. However in water samples from
all the sites, bacterial count exceeded the recommended permissible level of WHO.
Introduction of sewage into the drinking and borewell water was the main reason for
the bacterial contamination. The boiling of water is therefore advisable before
consumption. The physicochemical and bacterial characters of the sewage water were
unworthy. The sewage water recycling was necessary to minimize the water bourne
diseases.
Dash et al (2007) studied the bacteriological quality of the groundwater
and surface water in the rural areas around Angul-Talcher industrial zone in Orissa.
69
252 samples from seven locations around the industrial zone were analyzed/ /+
bimonthly from July2001 to May 2003. Water from all the dug wells and 30 of the
tube well were found unfit for human consumption, whereas 70% of tube wells were
found to provide safe drinking during winter and summer.
Radha Krishna et al (2007) cocnducted experiments on the physico-
chemical and bacteriological parameters of drinking, borewell and sewage water in
three different places of Sivakashi. Most of the physico-chemical characters of
drinking and borewell water were within permissible limits of BIS, whereas bacterial
count exceeded the recommended permissible level of WHO. They concluded that the
introduction of sewage into the drinking and borewell water was the main reason for
the bacterial contamination.
Roy and Thakuria (2007) conducted experiments on the drinking water
quality in schools of Bongaioan district of Assam. Water samples from 15 different
schools were studied for their bacteriogical and physico-chemical parameters
including heavy metals. The anions viz., sulphate, chloride and fluoride and heavy
metal viz., arsenic, lead and chromium were within the permissible limits, while
mercury was present in 20% and copper and iron in 33.3% of the water samples
studied. Sixty-seven percent of water samples were acidic, while in 40% of the
samples turbidity was above the permissible limits. Water samples, particularly from
ring wells, have been found bacterialogically contaminated.
Anchal Sood et al., (2008) studied assessment of bacterial indicators in river
Ganga. The study confirmed the presence of bacterial indicators of fecal origin at
various altitudes in every stretch of Gangetic river system. The results of
bacteriological analysis of water revealed that the situation is alarming. The lower
regions of Gengetic river system of Uttarakhand facing sever anthropological
activities, mostly due to religious belief were heavily polluted. A huge bacterial gene
pool was obtained after study which was indicative of immense bacterial diversity in
the region.
Lalitha (2008) carried out experiments on microbiological quality of
drinking water in Warangal city and reported that ground water from deeper aquifers
had lesser microbial contamination.
Jain et al.,(2008) collected hydro-chemical and bacteriological data of
ground water and spring water at Nanital in Utterakhand. They report the absence of
70
bacteriological contamination in ground water, while six of the 28 spring water
samples had 10 coliform per 100ml.
71
Jiban Singh et al (2009) studied ground water in the newly
developed and old parts of Bangalore city, where municipal, domestic and
industrial effluents are channelized in to an open sewerage system. Most of the
wells situated within 2km radius of this open sewerage networks were found to
be loaded with total and faecal coliforms. The average counts of total and faecal
coliforms were 82 and 14 CFU/100ml from the open wells and 63 and 34
CFU/100ml from the bore wells, respectively. They conclude that proximity of
contaminating surfaces and interaction with surface water are some of the
factors controlling the presence and transport of coliform bacteria in ground
water.
AlOtaibi 2009 analyzed 95 water samples of bottled, desalinated, surface and
well waters randomly. The bacteriological examination of water samples showed that
the total coliform count (MPN/100ml) was not detected in any samples taken from
bottled water, while it was detected in desalinated, surface and well waters with
12.9%, 80.0% and 100% respectively. Fecal coliforms were detected in desalinated,
surface and well waters with 3.23%, 60% 87.88% respectively. About 6.45% of
desalinated water, 53.33% of surface water and 57.58% of well water was found
positive for fecal streptococci.
Zeenat et al 2009 carried out a study to determine the bacteriological quality
of different bottled waters. 75 samples of bottled mineral water belonging to three
domestic brands and 25 samples of one imported brand were analyzed for HPC
bacteria and fecal coliforms. Among the domestic brands 7% of the samples were
positive for fecal coliforms. All imported bottled mineral water samples were within
WHO standards. While the overall quality of the product was generally good, there is
a need to enforce stringent quality standards for the domestic bottlers to ensure the
safety of consumers.
72
Vijaychandran and Byragi Reddy (2010) studied the microbial
quality of borewell and stream water in Visakhapatnam city, Andhra Pradesh,
India and reported that the contamination level was higher in monsoon and
post-monsoon seasons. Sixteen bacteriological genera were identified. Heavy
metal resistant bacteria were identified and studied.
73
the samples were also found to be within the permissible limits as prescribed by
World Health Organization for drinking water. Thus these observations show that
contamination of drinking water in urban areas may be mainly due to municipal,
industrial and agricultural activities along with improper disposal of solid waste. This
is an alarm to safety of public health and aquatic environment in tropics.
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Water Quality Index
The Water Quality Index (WQI) for the ground waters of K.R
Puram industrial area in Bangalore was studied by Sankar2000 . The WQI for
these 30 samples ranged from 20.20 to 309.75 with an average value of
104.67 . The high value of WQI at these stations has been found to be mainly
from the higher values of Iron ,Nitrate ,TDS ,Total hardness and fluorides in
the ground water .
Ground water quality in two well-developed cities of Haryana, viz.
Hisar and Panipat was assessed by Kaushik (2002).for drinking purpose based
on water quality parameters, with respect to different land-use areas viz.
residential, industrial, commercial and agricultural. Water quality index based
on 9 parameters showed that at Panipat, underground water in all the land-use
zones was fit for consumption (WQI < 50), whereas at Hisar, water in
agricultural areas was good in quality, but that in other areas varied in
magnitude of pollution (WQI > 50 to 100).
Murali (2002) concluded that the ground water quality of different wards
of Coimbatore east zone was suitable after examining various physico-chemical
parameters. The water quality index (WQI), calculated for five parameters of these
samples, ranged between 75 and 100. The results show that the water is suitable
for domestic purposes.
Physico-chemical characteristics of bore wells of industrial areas of
Visakhapatnam were monitored by Ramakrishna Rao (2004). Water Quality
Index calculated from ten physicochemical parameters taken together varied
from 50.0 - 97.41. The water was not confirming to drinking standards and
hence it is suggested to take all the necessary precautions before the waters are
sent into public distribution system.
Yogendra (2007) calculated Water Quality Index (WQI) of an urban
water body ,Gopishettykere ,in Shimoga town Karnataka in order to ascertain
the quality of water for public consumption. In this study , Water Quality Index
was determined on the basis of various Physico – Chemical parameters and was
categorized based on water quality rating scale .
Prachi Thambe (2008) studied the bacteriological quality of rural water
supplies and improved water management through increased community
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participation. 313 water samples from different sources, such as well, tank,
community stand post, hand pumps, percolation lakes, and streams and from
households were collected from 6 villages in Maharashtra, India over a one year
period. Overall, 49.8% of the 313 samples were polluted whereas 45.9% of the
samples from piped water supply were polluted. The quality of groundwater was
generally good compared to open wells. No major diarrheal epidemics were
recorded. As a result of a continuous feedback of bacteriological findings to the
community, perceptions of the people changed with time. An increased awareness
was observed through active participation of the people.
The water quality index (WQI) for the ground water of Tumkur taluk was
determined by Ramakrishnaiah (2009). For calculating the WQI, 12 parameters have
been considered. The WQI for these samples ranges from 89.21 to 660.56. The high
value of WQI has been found to be mainly from the higher values of iron, nitrate, total
dissolved solids, hardness, fluorides, bicarbonate and manganese in the groundwater.
The analysis reveals that the groundwater of the area needs some degree of treatment
before consumption.
Rajankar (2009) calculated Water quality index (WQI) for different
ground water sources i.e. dug wells bore wells and tube wells at Khaperkheda region,
Maharashtra (India). Twenty two different sites were selected in post monsoon, winter
and summer season. The calculated WQI showed fair water quality rating in post
monsoon season which then changed to medium in summer and winter seasons for
dug wells, but the bore wells and hand pumps showed medium water quality rating in
all seasons where the quality was slightly differs in summer and winter season than
post monsoon season.
Rizwan (2009) assesed the water quality index (WQI) for the river water of
Angul district of Orissa. The samples (n=12) were collected from various location of
river Brahmani and their tributaries. The highest value of WQI of the samples was 89
in monsoon season while the lowest value was 50 in summer season. The lower value
of WQI has been found mainly due to the higher values of BOD, Coli form and
slightly lower value of DO in the river water during summer.
Charmaine Jerome and Anita Pius (2010) concluded that Groundwater
is an essential and vital component of our life support system. Groundwater samples
from selected bore wells were analyzed for important physico-chemical attributes and
from the data obtained, the water quality index (WQI) was calculated. The WQI
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values ranged from 49.2 to 409.94. The Pearson correlation was performed to find the
relationship between WQI and quality of life. It was observed that the correlation
coefficient ‘r’ was -0.499(p<0.001).
The water quality index (WQI) was calculated by Gunvant (2010) for the
assessment of ground water quality near to the dye user industry. Various
physicochemical parameters have been calculated in all the samples. In some of the
parameters the concentration observed were found to be above the permissible limits
of WHO, BIS and ICMR. Drinking water was found to be severely contaminated at
all the sites of study.
In his work Sundar kumar (2010) has estimated the ground water quality
of Rajam Mandal, which is located on the east coast of Srikakulam district of
Andhrapradesh, India. More than 170 samples of the ground water were collected
manually from the bore wells which were approximately equally distributed all over
31 villages of Rajam Mandal. The data base obtained from water quality testing was
used as attribute data base for preparation of thematic maps showing distribution of
various water quality parameters and Water Quality Index.
A study was conducted to assess the spatio-temporal variation in water of
Sabarmati River and Kharikat canal at Ahmadabad by Rita Kumar (2010). An
assessment of various physico-chemical characteristics of water was carried for a
period of 12 months. Statistical analysis among various physicochemical parameters
and WQI has been carried out. Spatial and temporal variation was observed in river
with increasing value of various parameters from upstream to downstream and
relatively high pollution load at two sites of Kharicut canal.
Physico – Chemical analysis of well and bore well water samples was
carried out from eight sampling sites of Guntur rural area for the month of
February 2010. The analysis of different parameters were carried out as per
standard methods by Chandaluri Subba Rao . The results obtained on WQI
from different sampling stations were found to be varied from 38.3 to 42.6.
A study conducted by Yadav (2010) deals with the statistical analysis and
study of water quality index to assess hardness of groundwater in derailing tensile of
Tonk district of Rajasthan state. The study has been carried out to examine its
suitability for drinking, irrigation and industrial purpose. The presence of problematic
salts contains in groundwater due to local pollutants and affected the groundwater
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