5

Stress-Strain
Material Laws

5–1
Lecture 5: STRESS-STRAIN MATERIAL LAWS 5–2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
§5.1. Introduction 5–3
§5.1.1. Material Behavior Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . 5–3
§5.1.2. The Tension Test Revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–3
§5.1.3. Elastic Modulus and Poisson’s Ratio . . . . . . . . . . 5–5
§5.1.4. Shear Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–5
§5.1.5. Thermal Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–5
§5.2. Generalized Hooke’s Law in 3D 5–7
§5.2.1. Strain-Stress Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–7
§5.2.2. Stress-Strain Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–8
§5.2.3. Thermal Effect in 3D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–9
§5.3. Generalized Hooke’s Law in 2D 5–9
§5.3.1. Plane Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–9
§5.3.2. Plane Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–10
§5.4. Example: An Inflating Balloon 5–11
§5.4.1. Problem Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–11
§5.4.2. When Will the Balloon Burst? . . . . . . . . . . . 5–12

5–2
5–3 §5.1 INTRODUCTION

§5.1. Introduction

So far we have introduced mechanical stresses in Lecture 1 and strains in Lecture 4. How do they
connect? Through the behavior of the structural material. This behavior is expressed in constitutive
equations, also called material laws.

§5.1.1. Material Behavior Assumptions

There is a very wide range of materials used for structures, with drastically different behavior. In
addition materials can go through different response regimes: elastic, plastic, viscoelastic, cracking
and localization, fracture. In the present lecture we restrict attention to a very specific class and
response regime by making the following behavioral assumptions.
1. Macroscopic. The material is mathematically modeled as a continuum body. Constitutive
features at the meso, micro and nano levels: grains, molecules and atoms, are ignored.
2. Elasticity. That means the stress-strain response is reversible and consequently the material
has a preferred natural state. This state is assumed to be taken in the absence of loads at a
reference temperature. By convention we will say that the material is then unstressed and
undeformed. On applying loads, and possibly temperature changes, the material develops
nonzero stresses and strains, and moves to occupy a deformed configuration.
3. Linearity. The relationship between strains and stresses is linear. Doubling stresses doubles
strains, and viceversa.
4. Isotropy. The properties of the material are independent of direction. This is a good assumption
for materials such as metals, concrete, plastics, etc. It is not adequate for heterogenous mixtures
such as composites or reinforced concrete, which are anisotropic by nature. The substantial
complication introduced by anisotropic behavior justify its exclusion from an introductory
treatment. This topic is developed further in the Aerospace Materials senior course.
5. Small Strains. Deformations are considered so small that changes of geometry are neglected as
the loads are applied. Violation of this assumption would require the introduction of nonlinear
relations between displacements and strains, again substantially complicating the equations.

§5.1.2. The Tension Test Revisited

The first acquaintance of an engineering student with lab-controlled material behavior is usually
through tension tests carried out during the first Mechanics, Statics and Structures sophomore
course. Test results are usually displayed as axial nominal strain versus axial nominal strain, as
illustrated in Figure 5.1 for the test of a mild steel specimen up to failure. Several response regions
are indicated there: linearly elastic, yield, strain hardening, localization and failure. These are
discussed in the aforementioned course, and studied further in the senior course on Aerospace
Materials. It is sufficient to note here that we shall be concerned with the linearly elastic region
that occurs before yield. In that region the 1D Hooke’s law is assumed to hold.
Of course material behavior may depart significantly from that shown in Figure 5.1. Three distinct
flavors: brittle, moderately ductile and nonlinear-from-start, are shown schematically in Figure 5.2.
Brittle materials such as glass, rock, ceramics, concrete-under-tension, etc., exhibit primarily linear
behavior up to near failure by fracture. Metallic alloys used in aerospace, such as Aluminum and

5–3
Lecture 5: STRESS-STRAIN MATERIAL LAWS 5–4

Nominal stress
σ = P/A 0 Max
nominal
Strain stress
hardening Localization
Yield

Elastic Mild Steel

limit Tension Test Nominal
failure
Linear stress
elastic L0
behavior
P P
(Hooke's law
is valid)

Undeformed state Nominal strain ε = ∆L /L 0

Figure 5.1. Typical tension test behavior of mild steel, which displays a well defined yield
point and yield region.

Nonlinear
Brittle Moderately from start
(glass, ductile (rubber,
ceramic, (Al alloy) polymers)
concrete)

Figure 5.2. Three material response “flavors” as displayed in a tension test.

Nominal stress
σ = P/A0
Tool steel

High strength steel

Mild steel
(highly ductile)

Nominal strain ε = ∆ L /L0

Figure 5.3. Different steel grades have approximately the same elastic modulus, but very
different post-elastic behavior.

5–4
5–5 §5.1 INTRODUCTION

Titanium alloys, display moderately ductile behavior, without a well defined yield point and yield
region: the stress-strain curve gradually turns down finally dropping to failure. Some materials,
such as rubbers and polymers, exhibit strong nonlinear behavior from the start. Although such
materials may be elastic there is no easily identifiable linearly elastic region.
Even for a well known material such as steel, the tension test behavior can vary significantly
depending on combination with other components. Figure 5.3 sketches the response of mild steel
with high-strength steel used in critical structural components, and with tool steel. Mild steel is
highly ductile and clearly exhibits an extensive yield region. Hi-strength steel is less ductile and
does not show a well defined yield point. Tool steel has little ductility, and its behavior displays
features associated with brittle materials. The trade off between ductility and strength is typical.
Note, however, that all three grades of steel have approximately the same elastic modulus, which is
the slope of the stress-strain line in the linear region of the tension test.
§5.1.3. Elastic Modulus and Poisson’s Ratio
Hooke’s law relates 1D stress to 1D strain through two material parameters:
E The modulus of elasticity, also called Young’s modulus.
ν Poisson’s ratio.
The modulus of elasticity connects axial stress σ to axial strain :

σ σ
σ = E , E= , = . (5.1)
 E
Poisson’s ratio ν is defined as ratio of lateral strain to axial strain:
 
 lateral strain 
ν=   = − lateral strain . (5.2)
axial strain  axial strain
The − sign is introduced for convenience so that ν comes out positive. For structural materials
ν lies in the range 0.0 ≤ ν < 0.5. For most metals ν ≈ 0.25–0.35. For concrete and ceramics,
ν ≈ 0.10. For cork ν ≈ 0. For rubber, ν ≈ 0.5 to 3 places. A material for which ν = 0.5 is called
incompressible.
§5.1.4. Shear Modulus
The shear modulus G connects a shear strain γ to the corresponding shear stress τ :
τ τ
τ = G γ, G = , γ = . (5.3)
γ G
“Corresponding” means that if γ = γx y , say, then τ = τx y , and similarly for the other shear
components. The shear modulus is usually obtained from a torsion test. It turns out that the
3 material properties E, ν and G for an elastic isotropic material are not independent, but are
connected by the relations
E E
G= , E = 2(1 + ν) G, ν = − 1. (5.4)
2(1 + ν) 2G
which means that if two of them are known by measurement, the third one can be obtained from
(5.4). In practice the three properties are often measured independently, and the satisfaction of (5.4)
gives an idea of “how isotropic” the material is.

5–5
Lecture 5: STRESS-STRAIN MATERIAL LAWS 5–6

§5.1.5. Thermal Strain

A temperature change of T with respect to a base or reference level produces a thermal strain

T = α T, (5.5)

where α is the coefficient of thermal dilatation, measured in 1/◦ F or 1/◦ C. This is typically
positive: α > 0 and very small: α << 1, of order 10−6 for most structural materials. To combine
mechanical and thermal effects in 1D, the strains are superposed:
σ
 =  M + T = + α T, (5.6)
E
The last expression is valid if the material is linearly elastic, obeying the 1D Hooke’s law.

;
; x
E, α, ν, σxx = 0, heat by ∆T
;;
;;
; ;;
A B
L
Figure 5.4. Heated bar precluded from axial expansion.

Example 5.1. The bar AB shown in Figure 5.4 is precluded from extending axially. It has elastic modulus
E and coefficient of dilatation α > 0. The stress σ is zero when the bar is at the reference temperature Tr e f .
Find which axial stress σ develops if the temperature changes to T = Tr e f + T . Since the bar length cannot
change, the combined axial strain must be zero:
σ
x x =  = + α T = 0, (5.7)
E
Solving for σ gives
σ = −E α T (5.8)
Since E and α are positive, a rise in temperature, i.e., T > 0, will produce a negative axial stress, and the bar
will be in compression. This is an example of the so-called thermally induced stress or simply thermal stress.
It is the reason behind the use of expansion joints in pavements, rails and bridges. The effect is important in
orbiting vehicles such as satellites, which undergo extreme (and cyclical) temperature changes from sun to
Earth shade.

5–6
5–7 §5.2 GENERALIZED HOOKE’S LAW IN 3D

y σyy
(a) (c)
a b a b
c
c x
z
Initial shape Final shape σyy
(b) (d)
σxx σzz
a b a b
σxx
c c
Final shape σzz Final shape

Figure 5.5. Derivation of 3D Generalized Hooke’s Law for normal stresses and strain, by
imagining carrying out three tension tests along {x, y, z}, respectievly.

§5.2. Generalized Hooke’s Law in 3D

§5.2.1. Strain-Stress Relations

We now generalize the foregoing equations to the three-dimensional case, still assuming that the
material is elastic and isotropic. Condider a cube of material aligned with the axes {x, y, z}, as
shown in Figure 5.5, and imagine that three “tension tests”, labeled (1), (2) and (3) are conducted
along x, y and z, respectively. Pulling the material by applying σx x along x will produce normal
strains σx x ν σx x ν σx x
x(1)
x = , (1)
 yy =− , (1)
zz =− . (5.9)
E E E
Next, pull the material by σ yy along y to get the strains
(2)σ yy ν σ yy ν σ yy
 yy = , x(2)
x =− , (2)
zz =− . (5.10)
E E E
Finally pull the material by σzz along z to get
(3) σzz ν σzz ν σzz
zz = , x(3)
x =− , (3)
 yy =− . (5.11)
E E E
In the general case the cube is subjected to combined normal stresses σx x , σ yy and σzz . Since we
assumed that the material is linearly elastic, the combined strains can be obtained by superposition:
σx x ν σ yy ν σzz 1  
x x = x(1) (2) (3)
x + x x + x x = − − = σx x − ν σ yy − ν σzz .
E E E E
(1) (2) (3) ν σ σ ν σ 1  
 yy =  yy +  yy +  yy =−
xx
+
yy
−
zz
= −ν σx x + σ yy − ν σzz . (5.12)
E E E E
(1) (2) (3) ν σ x x ν σ yy σ zz 1  
zz = zz + zz + zz =− − + = −ν σx x − ν σ yy + σzz .
E E E E
The shear strains and stresses are connected by the shear modulus as
τx y τ yx τ yz τzy τzx τx z
γx y = γ yx = = , γ yz = γzy = = , γzx = γx z = = . (5.13)
G G G G G G

5–7
Lecture 5: STRESS-STRAIN MATERIAL LAWS 5–8

The foregoing equations may be expressed in matrix form as

 1 ν −ν 
−E E 0 0 0
  E  
x x  ν 1 ν  σx x
− −E 0 0 0 
  yy   E E   σ yy 
  − ν − ν 1  
 zz   E E E 0 0 0   σzz 
 =  . (5.14)
 γx y   0 0 0 1   τx y 

γ yz
 
 G 0 0 
 τ yz

 0 0 0 0 G 1 0 
γ zx τzx
0 0 0 0 0 1
G
§5.2.2. Stress-Strain Relations
To get stresses if the strains are given, an expedient method is to invert the matrix equation (5.14).
This gives
    
σx x Ê (1 − ν) Ê ν Ê ν 0 0 0 x x
 σ yy   Ê ν Ê (1 − ν) Ê ν 0 0 0    yy 
    
 σzz   Ê ν Ê ν Ê (1 − ν) 0 0 0   zz 
 =  . (5.15)
 τx y   0 0 0 G 0 0   γx y 
    
τ yz 0 0 0 0 G 0 γ yz
τzx 0 0 0 0 0 G γzx
in which
E
Ê = (5.16)
(1 − 2ν)(1 + ν)
The six relations in (5.15) written out in long form are
E  
σx x = (1 − ν) x x + ν  yy + ν zz ,
(1 − 2ν)(1 + ν)
E  
σ yy = ν x x + (1 − ν)  yy + ν zz ,
(1 − 2ν)(1 + ν) (5.17)
E  
σzz = ν x x + ν  yy + (1 − ν) zz ,
(1 − 2ν)(1 + ν)
τx y = G γx y , τ yz = G γ yz , τzx = G γzx .
The combination σav = 13 (σx x + σ yy + σzz ) is called the mean stress, or average stress. The
negative of σav is called the pressure: p = −σav . The combination v = x x +  yy + zz is called
the volumetric strain, or dilatation. The negative of v is known as the condensation. Both pressure
and volumetric strain are invariants, that is, their value does not change if axes {x, y, z} are rotated.
An important relation between pressure and volumetric strain can be obtained by adding the first
three equations in (5.17), which upon simplification yields
E
p=− v = −K v . (5.18)
3(1 − 2ν)
This coefficient K is called the bulk modulus. If Poisson’s ratio approaches 12 , which happens for
near incompressible materials, K → ∞.

5–8
5–9 §5.3 GENERALIZED HOOKE’S LAW IN 2D

Remark 5.1. In the solid mechanics literature p is also defined (depending on author’s preferences) as
p = σav = 13 (σx x + σ yy + σzz ), which is the negative of the above one. If so p = +K v . The definition
p = −σav is the most common one in fluid mechanics.

§5.2.3. Thermal Effect in 3D

To incorporate the effect of a temperature change T with respect to a base or reference temperature,
add α T to the three normal strains in (5.12):
1  
x x = σx x − ν σ yy − ν σzz + α T,
E
1  
 yy = −ν σx x + σ yy − ν σzz + α T, . (5.19)
E
1  
zz = −ν σx x − ν σ yy + σzz + α T.
E
No change in the shear strain-stress relation is needed because if the material is linearly elastic
and isotropic, a temperature change only produces normal strains. The strain-stress matrix relation
(5.14) expands to
 1 ν −ν 
−E 0 0 0
  E E    
x x  ν 1 ν  σx x 1
−E − 0 0 0 
  yy   E E   σ yy  1
   ν ν 1    
 zz   − E − E E 0 0 0   σ  1
 =   zz
 + α T  . (5.20)
 γx y   0 0 0 1 0 0   τx y  0
   G    
γ yz  1  τ yz 0
 0 0 0 0 0 
γzx G τzx 0
0 0 0 0 0 G 1

Inverting this relation provides the stress-strain relations that account for a temperature change:
      
σx x Ê (1 − ν) Ê ν Ê ν 0 0 0 x x 1
 σ yy   Ê ν Ê (1 − ν) Ê ν 0 0 0    yy  1
      
 σzz   Ê ν Ê ν Ê (1 − ν) 0 0 0   zz  E α T  1 
 =  −  ,
 τx y   0 0 0 G 0 0   γx y  1 − 2ν  0 
      
τ yz 0 0 0 0 G 0 γ yz 0
τzx 0 0 0 0 0 G γzx 0
(5.21)
where Ê is defined in (5.16). Note that if all mechanical normal strains x x ,  yy , and zz vanish, the
normal stresses in (5.21) are nonzero if T = 0. Those are called initial thermal stresses, and are
important in engineering systems exposed to large temperature variations, such as turbine engines,
satellites or reentry vehicles.

§5.3. Generalized Hooke’s Law in 2D

Two specializations of the foregoing 3D equations to two dimensions are of interest in the applica-
tions: plane stress and plane strain. Plane stress is more important in Aerospace structures, which
tend to be thin, so in this course more attention is given to that case. Both are reviewed next.

5–9
Lecture 5: STRESS-STRAIN MATERIAL LAWS 5–10

§5.3.1. Plane Stress

In this case all stress components with a z component are assumed to vanish. For a linearly elastic
isotropic material, the strain and stress matrices take on the form
 
x x γx y 0 σx x τx y 0
γ yx  yy 0 , τ yx σ yy 0 (5.22)
0 0 zz 0 0 0

Note that the zz strain, often called the transverse strain or thickness strain in applications, in
general will be nonzero because of Poisson’s ratio effect. The strain-stress equations are easily
obtained by going to (5.17) and setting σzz = τ yz = τzx = 0:

1   1   ν  
x x = σx x − ν σ yy ,  yy = −ν σx x + σ yy , zz = − σx x + σ yy ,
E E E (5.23)
τx y
γx y = , γ yz = γzx = 0.
G
which in matrix form, omitting known zero components, is
 1 ν 
  −E 0
x x E 
 ν 1  σx x
  yy   − E 0 
 = ν E
ν  σ yy . (5.24)
zz − −E 0  τ
E
γx y 1
xy
0 0 G
Inverting the matrix composed by the first, second and fourth rows of the above relation gives the
stress-strain equations
  
σx x Ẽ Ẽ ν 0 x x
σ yy = Ẽ ν Ẽ 0  yy . (5.25)
τx y 0 0 G γx y
in which Ẽ = E/(1 − ν 2 ). In long form

E E
σx x = (x x + ν  yy ), σ yy = ( yy + ν x x ), τx y = G γx y . (5.26)
1 − ν2 1 − ν2

§5.3.2. Plane Strain

In this case all strain components with a z component are assumed to vanish. For a linearly elastic
isotropic material, the strain and stress matrices take on the form
 
x x γx y 0 σx x τx y 0
γ yx  yy 0 , τ yx σ yy 0 (5.27)
0 0 0 0 0 σzz

Note that the σzz stress, which is called the transverse stress in applications, in general will not
vanish. The strain-to-stress relations can be easily obtained by setting zz = γ yz = γzx = 0 in

5–10
5–11 §5.4 EXAMPLE: AN INFLATING BALLOON

(5.23). This gives

E  
σx x = (1 − ν) x x + ν  yy ,
(1 − 2ν)(1 + ν)
E  
σ yy = ν x x + (1 − ν)  yy ,
(1 − 2ν)(1 + ν) (5.28)
E  
σzz = ν x x + ν  yy ,
(1 − 2ν)(1 + ν)
τx y = G γx y , τ yz = 0, τzx = 0.
which in matrix form, with the zero components removed, is
   
σx x Ê (1 − ν) Ê ν 0 

 σ yy   Ê ν Ê (1 − ν) 0  xx
 =   yy . (5.29)
σzz Ê ν Ê ν 0
γx y
τx y 0 0 G

Inverting the system provided by extracting the first, second and fourth rows of (5.29) gives the
strain-stress relations, which are omitted for simplicity.
The effect of temperature changes can be incorporated in both plane stress and plane strain relations
without any difficulty.

§5.4. Example: An Inflating Balloon

This is a generalization of Problem 3 of Recitation #2. The main change is that all data is expressed
and kept in variable form until the problem is solved. Specific numbers are plugged in at the end.
This will be the only problem in the course where some features of nonlinear mechanics appear.
These come in by writing the governing equations in both the initial and final geometries, without
linearization.

§5.4.1. Problem Description

The problem is depicted in Figure 5.6. A spherical rubber balloon has initial diameter D0 under
inflation pressure p0 . This is called the initial configuration. The pressure is increased by p so
that the final pressure is p f = p0 + p. The balloon assumes a spherical shape with final diameter
D f = β D0 , in which β > 1. This will be called the final configuration. The initial wall thickness is
t0 << D0 and the final thickness is t f . Since the balloon geometry is assumed to remain spherical
for simplicity, we can apply to both configurations the stress formulas for the thin-wall spherical
vessel derived in Lecture 3.
The strains (but not stresses) are assumed to be zero in the initial configuration. The average
circumferential extensional strain assumed in the final configuration depends on whether we take
the Lagrangian or the Eulerian strain measure, which are designated by avL
and av
E
, respectively.
Obviously

π(D f − D0 ) π(D f − D0 ) β −1
 Lf = = β − 1,  Ef = = , (5.30)
π D0 πDf β

5–11
Lecture 5: STRESS-STRAIN MATERIAL LAWS 5–12

Initial (reference)
diameter D0 , under inflation
inflation pressure p0 pressure
pf = p0 + p
Final (deformed)
diameter Df = β D0

D0

For simplicity assume

a spherical ballon shape Df = β D0
for all calculations

Figure 5.6. Inflating balloon example problem.

Since the balloon is assumed to remain spherical and its thickness is very small compared to its
diameter, the above strains hold at all points of the balloon wall, and are the same in any direction
tangent to the sphere. If we choose the sphere normal as local z axis, the wall is in a plane stress
state.
Next we introduce material laws. We will assume that rubber obeys the two-dimensional, plane
stress generalized Hooke’s law (5.26) with respect to the Eulerian strain measure, with effective
modulus of elasticity E and Poisson’s ratio ν.1 Setting x x =  yy =  Ef and γx y = 0 therein and
accounting for the initial stress σ0 , we obtain the inplane normal stress in the final configuration:
E E E β −1
σx x = σ yy = σ f = σ0 + ( Ef + ν Ef ) = σ0 +  Ef = σ0 + . (5.31)
1−ν 2 1−ν 1−ν β
The normal inplane wall stress is the same in all directions, so it is called simply σ0 and σ f , for
initial and final configurations, respectively. The inplane shear stress τ vanishes in all directions.
Assume D0 , t0 , E and ν are given as data. An interesting question: what is the relation between p
(the excess or gage pressure) and the diameter D f = β D0 ? And, is there a maximum pressure that
will cause the balloon to burst?

§5.4.2. When Will the Balloon Burst?

To relate p and β it is necessary to express the wall stresses σ0 and σ f in terms of geometry and
internal pressure. This is provided by equation (3.10) in Lecture 3, derived for a thin-wall spherical
vessel. In that equation replace p, R and t by quantities in the initial and final configurations:
p0 R 0 p0 D 0 pf Rf ( p0 + p) D f ( p0 + p) β D0
σ0 = = , σf = = = . (5.32)
2t0 4t0 2tf 4tf 4tf

1 This is a very rough approximation because the constitutive equations for rubber (and polymers in general) are highly
nonlinear. But getting closer to reality would take us into the realm of nonlinear elasticity, which is a graduate-level
topic.

5–12
5–13 §5.4 EXAMPLE: AN INFLATING BALLOON

p (MPa)
7 ν=0
6
5
4
3
2 ν=1/2
1
0 β = D f /D0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

Figure 5.7. Inflating pressure (in MPa) versus diameter expansion ratio
β = D f /D0 for a balloon with E = 1900 MPa, D0 = 50 mm, p0 = 0 MPa,
t0 = 0.18 mm, 1 ≤ β ≤ 4 and Poisson’s ratios ν = 0 and ν = 12 .

All quantities in the above expressions are known in terms of the data, except t f . A kinematic
analysis beyond the scope of this course shows that
  
1
t f = 1 + 2ν −1 t0 . (5.33)
β2
We can check (5.33) by inserting two limit values of Poisson’s ratio:
ν = 0: t f = t0 . This is correct since the thickness does not change.
ν = 1/2: t f = t0 /β 2 . Is this correct? If ν = 1/2 the material is incompressible and does not
change volume. The initial and final volume of the thin-wall spherical balloon are
V0 = π D02 t0 and V f = π D 2f t f = πβ 2 D02 t f , respectively. On setting V0 = V f and
solving for t f we get t f = t0 /β 2 .
To obtain p in terms of β, replace (5.33) into (5.32), equate this to (5.31) and solve for p. The
result provided by Mathematica is
4Et0 (1 − β)(2ν + β 2 (1 − 2ν)) + D0 p0 β(1 − ν)(4ν + β 2 (2 − β − 4ν))
p= (5.34)
D0 β 4 (1 − ν)
This expression simplifies considerably in the two Poisson’s ratio limits:
4E t0 (β − 1) + D0 p0 (2 − β) β
p|ν=0 = (5.35)
D0 β 2
8E t0 (β − 1) + D0 p0 (2 − β 3 ) β
p|ν=1/2 = (5.36)
D0 β 4
Pressure versus diameter ratio curves given by (5.35) and (5.36) are plotted in Figure 5.7 for
the numerical values indicated there. Those values correspond to the data used in Problem 3 of
Recitation 2, in which ν = 1/2 was specified from the start.
Rubber (and, in general, polymer materials) are nearly incompressible; for example ν ≈ 0.4995 for
rubber. Consequently, the response depicted in Figure 5.7 for ν = 1/2 is more physically relevant
than the other one.
Do the response plots in Figure 5.7 tell you when an inflating balloon is about to collapse? Yes.
This is the matter of Homework Exercise 3.5.

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