Antennas and Radiating Systems: Dr. Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum Dr. Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum

8.
Antennas and Radiating Systems
Dr. Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum
1 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

8.1 Introduction
Antenna is a device used for radiating and receiving EM waves
Any wireless communication can’t happen without antennas.
Antennas have many applications like in
mobile communications (all mobile phones has in-built antennas)
wireless local areas networks (your laptop connecting wireless
internet also has antennas)
television (old TV antennas are Yagi-Uda antennas, now, generally disc
antennas are employed for direct to home (DTH) TVs)
satellite communications (usually have large parabolic antennas or
microstrip antenna arrays)
rockets and missiles (microstrip antenna arrays)

8.1 Introduction
Antennas
Radiation Antenna pattern and Types of Antenna

fundamentals parameters antennas arrays
When does a
charge radiate?
Wave equation for Hertz dipole

potential functions
Solution of wave equation Dipole antenna
for potential functions
Loop antenna
Fig. 8.1 Antennas (cover antenna pattern and parameters after types of antennas)

8.2 Radiation fundamentals
8.2.1 When does a charge radiates?
accelerating/decelerating charges radiate EM waves
Source
Fig. 8.2 A giant sphere of radius r with a source of EM wave at

its origin

Consider a giant sphere of radius r which encloses the source
of EM waves at the origin (Fig. 8.2)
The total power passing out of the spherical surface is given
by Poynting theorem,
r r r r∗ r
Ptotal (r ) = ∫ S avg • ds = ∫ Re E × H • ds ( )
lim
Ptotal = P (r )
r →∝

This is the energy per unit time that is radiated into infinity
and
it never comes back to the source
The signature of radiation is irreversible flow of energy away
from the source
Let us analyze the following three cases:
CASE 1: A stationary charge will not radiate.
no flow of charge =>no current=>no magnetic field=>no
radiation

CASE 2: A charge moving with constant velocity will not radiate.
The area of the giant sphere of Fig. 8.2 is 4̟ r2
So for the radiation to occur Poynting vector must decrease no
faster than 1/r2
from Coloumb’s law, electrostatic fields decrease as 1/r2,
whereas Biot Savart’s law states that magnetic fields decrease as
1/r2
So the total decrease in the Poynting vector is proportional to
1/r4 no radiation
CASE 3: A time varying current or acceleration (or deceleration) of
charge will radiate.

Basic radiation equation:
di dv
L =Q
dt dt
where L=length of current element, m
di =time changing current, As-1(units)
dt
Q=charge, C
dv
=acceleration of charge, ms-2
dt

To create radiation
there must be a time varying current or
acceleration (or deceleration) of charge
Static charges=>no radiation
If the charge motion is time varying with acceleration or
deceleration
then there will be radiation even if the wire is straight

Charges moving with uniform velocity:

no radiation if the wire is straight and infinite in extent and
radiation if the wire is
curved,
bent,
discontinuous,
terminated or
truncated (these will either accelerate or decelerate the charge)

For radiation, electric field will have a transversal component
instead of radial component
whenever a charge accelerates or decelerates
Example 8.1
Prove that in order to have radiation the electric field must
have spatial variation as 1/r where r is the distance from the
source

8.2.2 Wave equation for potential functions
r
One of the Maxwell’s equation ∇ • B = 0
r r
Hence B = ∇ × A
Putting this in the following Maxwell’s equation
r r
r
∇× E = −
∂B r
∇× E = −
∂ ∇× A ( )
∂t ∂t
r r
 r ∂A  r ∂A
⇒ ∇× E + =0 ⇒ E+ = −∇V
 ∂t  ∂t

Putting this in the following Maxwell’s equation
r ρ r
 ∂A  ρ
∇•E = ∇• 
+ ∇V  = −
rε  ∂t  ε
∂A ρ
⇒ ∇• 2
+∇ V = −
∂t ε r
r r ∂E
Another Maxwell’s equation ∇ × B = µJ + µε
∂t
Simplifies to r
 ∂A 
∂ + ∇V 
r r r r  ∂t 
2
(
∇ × ∇ × A = ∇ ∇ • A − ∇ A = µJ − µε ) ∂t
Lorentz Gauge condition
r ∂V
∇ • A + µε =0
∂t
Applying above condition
r
 ∂V  r r ∂ A ∂
2

⇒ ∇  − µε 2
 − ∇ A = µ J − µε  2 + ∇V 
 ∂t   ∂t ∂t 
r
r ∂ A r2
⇒ ∇ A − µε 2 = − µ J
2
∂t
r
(
∂ ∇• A )
+ ∇ 2V = −
ρ ∂ 2
V
⇒ ∇ 2V − µε 2 = −
ρ
∂t ε ∂t ε
8.2.2 Wave equation for potential functions
From Maxwell’s equations for time varying fields, we have
derived the two wave equations for potential functions
(magnetic vector and electric potentials)
r
2
r 2
∂ A r 2 ∂ 2V ρ
∇ A − µε 2 = − µJ ; ∇ V − µε 2 = −
∂t ∂t ε
Why find potential functions instead of fields?

8.2.3 Solution of wave equation for potential
functions
For time harmonic functions of potentials,
r 2 2
r r
∇ A + β A = − µJ
where β = ω µε
To solve the above equation, we can apply Green’s function
technique
Green’s function G is the solution of the above equation with
the R.H.S equal to a delta function
∇ 2 G + β 2 G = δ (space)
Once we obtain the Green’s function,
we can obtain the solution for any arbitrary current source by
applying the convolution theorem
For radiation problems,
the most appropriate coordinate system is spherical
since the wave travels out radially in all directions
∂G ∂G
It has also symmetry along θ and directions =
∂θ ∂φ
=0
Hence, the above equation reduces to

1 ∂  2 ∂G 
 r  + β 2 G = δ (r )
r 2 ∂r  ∂r 

Putting Ψ= G r,
∂2
Ψ + β 2 Ψ = rδ (r )
∂r 2
For r not equal to 0,
∂2
Ψ + β 2Ψ = 0
∂r 2
Therefore,
Ψ = Ae − jβ r + Be + jβ r

Since the radiation travels radially in positive r direction
negative r direction is not physically feasible for a source of a
field, we get,
Ψ = Ae − jβ r
Ae − jβr
G=
r
From example 8.2, we can find the constant A and hence
1 e − jβr
A= ;G =
4π 4πr

Since the medium surrounding the source is linear,
we can obtain the potential for any arbitrary current input
by the convolution of the impulse function (Green’s function) with the
input current
r r
− jβ r − r '
r µ
A= 0
4π ∫ J ()
r' e
r r r' dv '
V r −r

The prime coordinates denote the source variables
unprimed coordinates denote the observation points
The modulus sign in is to make sure that
is positive
r − r'
since the distance in spherical coordinates is always positive

8.3 Antenna pattern and parameters
8.3.1 What is antenna radiation pattern?

The radiation pattern of an antenna is a 3-D graphical
representation of the radiation properties of the antenna as a
function of position (usually in spherical coordinates)
If we imagine an antenna is placed at the origin of a spherical
coordinate system,
its radiation pattern is given by measurement of the magnitude
of the electric field over a surface of a sphere of radius r

Dipole Antenna
Omni-directional radiation pattern
Horn Antenna Directional radiation pattern

For a fixed r, electric field is only a function of θ and φ

r
E (θ , φ )
Two types of patterns are generally used:
r r
(a) field pattern (normalized E or H versus spherical
coordinate position) and
(b) power pattern (normalized power versus spherical
coordinate position).

3-D radiation patterns are difficult to draw and visualize in a

2-D plane like pages of this book
Usually they are drawn in two principal 2-D planes which are
orthogonal to each other
Generally, xz- and xy- plane are the two orthogonal principal
planes
E-plane (H-plane) is the plane in which there are maximum
electric (magnetic) fields for a linearly polarized antenna

θ max
θ
Fig. 8.3 (c) Typical radiation pattern of an antenna

A typical antenna radiation pattern looks like as in Fig. 8.3 (c)

It could be a polar plot as well
An antenna usually has either one of the following patterns:
(a) isotropic (uniform radiation in all directions, it is not
possible to realize this practically)
(b) directional (more efficient radiation in one direction than
another)
(c) omnidirectional (uniform radiation in one plane)

3
Dmax
0 < rnf 1 ≤ 0.62
λ
3 2
Dmax 2 Dmax
0.62 < rnf 2 ≤
λ λ
Fig. 8.3 (a) Antenna field regions 2

2 Dmax
< rff
λ

The antenna field regions could be divided broadly into three

regions (see Fig. 8.3 (a)):
Reactive near field region:
This is the region immediately surrounding the antenna
where the reactive field (stored energy-standing waves)
dominates
Reactive near field region is for a radius of
3
Dmax
0 < rnf 1 ≤ 0.62
λ
where Dmax is the maximum antenna dimension

Radiating near field (Fresnel) region:

The region in between the reactive near field and the far-field
(the radiation fields are dominant)
the field distribution is dependent on the distance from the
antenna
Radiating near field (Fresnel) region is usually for a radius of
3 2
Dmax 2 Dmax
0.62 < rnf 2 ≤
λ λ

Far field (Fraunhofer) region:

This is the region farthest from the antenna where the field
distribution is essentially independent of the distance from
the antenna (propagating waves)
 2D
2

Fraunhofer far field region is usually for a radius of  max
<r ff 
 λ 
In the far field region, the spherical wavefront radiated from
a source antenna can be approximated as plane wavefront
The phase error in approximating this is π/8

Fig. 8.3 (b) Illustration of

far field region
(antenna under test: AUT)

We can calculate the distance rff by equating the maximum

error (which is at the edges of the AUT of maximum
dimension Dmax) in the distance r by approximating spherical
wavefront to plane wavefront to λ/16 (Exercise 8.1)
8.3.2 Direction of the main beam (θmax)
A radiation lobe is a clear peak in the radiation intensity
surrounded by regions of weaker radiation intensity

Main beam is the biggest lobe in the radiation pattern of the

antenna
It is the radiation lobe in the direction of maximum radiation
θmax is the direction in which maximum radiation occurs
Any lobe other than the main lobe is called as minor lobe
The radiation lobe opposite to the main lobe is also termed
as back lobe
This will be more appropriate for polar plot of radiation pattern

8.3.3 Half power beam width (HPBW)

It is the angular separation between the half of the maximum
power radiation in the main beam
1
At these points, the radiation electric field reduces by 2
of the maximum electric field
Half power is also equal to -3-dB
We also call HPBW as -3-dB beamwidth
They are measured in the E-plane and H-plane radiation
patterns of the antenna

8.3.4 Beam width between first nulls (BWFN)

It is the angular separation between the first two nulls on
either side of the main beam
For same values of BWFN, we can have different values of
HPBW for narrow beams and broad beams
HPBW is a better parameter for specifying the effective
beam width

8.3.5 Side lobe level (SLL)

The side lobes are the lobes other than the main beam and
it shows the direction of the unwanted radiation in the antenna
radiation pattern
The amplitude of the maximum side lobe in comparison to
the main beam maximum amplitude of the electric field is
called as side lobe level (SLL)
It is normally expressed in dB and a SLL of -30 dB or less is
considered to be good for a communication system

8.3.6 Radiation intensity

Power crossing the area dA is S (θ , φ )dA
Radiation intensity is defined as power crossing per unit solid
angle
S (θ , φ )dA
U (θ , φ ) = = S (θ , φ )r 2 (W / Sr )
dΩ
π 2π
Prad = ∫ π U (θ , φ )d Ω = θ∫ φ∫ U (θ , φ ) sin θ dθ dφ
Ω= 4 =0 =0
π 2π
P 1
U avg = rad =
4π 4π ∫
θ φ
∫
=0 =0
U (θ , φ ) sin θ dθ dφ

8.3.7 Directivity
The directivity of an antenna is defined as
the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction from the
antenna
to the radiation intensity averaged over all directions
which equivalent to the radiation intensity of an isotropic antenna
U (θ , φ ) 4π U (θ , φ )
D(θ , φ ) = = π 2π
U avg
∫
θ φ
∫
=0 =0

D (θ, φ ) is maximum at θmax and minimum along θnull
U max 4π U max (θ , φ ) 4π
Dmax (θ , φ ) = = π 2π
=
Uavg ΩA
∫
θ φ
∫ U (θ , φ ) sin θ dθ dφ
=0 = 0
Ω A is also known as beam solid angle

It is also defined as the solid angle through which all the
antenna power would flow
if the radiation intensity was U max (θ , φ ) for all angles in Ω A

Given an antenna with one narrow major beam, negligible

radiation in its minor lobes
rad rad
Ω A ≈ θ HPBW × φ HPBW
where θ HPBW and φHPBW are the half-power beam widths in

radians which are perpendicular to each other
For narrow beam width antennas (θ HPBW , φHPBW << 1)
It can be shown that the maximum directivity is given by
4π
Dmax ≅ rad rad
θ HPBW × φ HPBW

If the beam widths are in degrees, we have

2
 180 
4π 
 π  41, 253
Dmax ≅ deg deg
= deg deg
θ HPBW × φ HPBW θ HPBW × φ HPBW
8.3.8 Gain
In defining directivity, we have assumed that the antenna
is lossless
But, antennas are made of conductors and dielectrics

It has same in-built losses accompanied with the conductors

and dielectrics
Thereby, the power input to the antenna is partly radiated
and
remaining part is lost in the imperfect conductors as well as in
dielectrics
The gain of an antenna in a given direction is defined as
the ratio of the intensity in a given direction
to the radiation intensity that would be obtained if the power
accepted by the antenna were radiated isotropically

4π U (θ , φ ) 4π U (θ , φ )erad
G (θ , φ ) = = = erad D(θ , φ )
Pinput Prad
Note that definitions of the antenna directivity and gain are

essentially the same
except for the power terms used in the definitions
Directivity is the ratio of the antenna radiated power density at a
distant point to the total antenna radiated power radiated
isotropically
Gain is the ratio of the antenna radiated power density at a distant
point to the total antenna input power radiated isotropically

The antenna gain is usually measured based on Friis

transmission formula and it requires two identical antennas
One of the identical antennas is the radiating antenna, and
the other one is the receiving antenna
Assuming that the antennas are well matched in terms of
impedance and polarization,
the Friis transmission equation is
1  Pr 
2
Pr  λ   4π R 
=  Gt Gr Q Gt = Gr = G ∴ G =  20 log10   + 10 log10  
Pt  4π R  2   λ   Pt  

Friis transmission equation states that the ratio of the

received power at the receiving antenna and transmitted
power at the transmitting antenna is:
directly proportional to both gains of the transmitting (Gt) and
receiving (Gr) antennas
inversely proportional to square of the distance between the
transmitting and receiving antennas (1/R2) and
directly proportional to the square of the wavelength of the
signal transmitted (λ2)

Assumptions made are:

(a) antennas are placed in the far-field regions
(b) there is free space direct line of sight propagation
between the two antennas
(c) there are no interferences from other sources and
no multipaths between the transmitting and receiving antennas
due to
reflection,
refraction and
diffraction

8.3.9 Polarization
Let us consider antenna is placed at the origin of a
spherical coordinate system and wave is propagating
radially outward in all directions
In the far field region of an antenna,
r
E (θ , φ ) = Eθ (θ , φ ) θˆ + Eφ (θ , φ ) φˆ

Putting the time dependence, we have,

r
E (θ , φ , t ) = Eθ (θ , φ ) cos (ωt ) θˆ + Eφ (θ , φ ) cos (ωt + δ ) φˆ = Eθ (θ , φ , t ) θˆ + Eφ (θ , φ , t ) φˆ
where δ is the phase difference between the elevation and

azimuthal components of the electric field
The figure traced out by the tip of the radiated electric field
vector
as a function of time for a fixed position of space can be defined
as antenna polarization

a) LP
When δ=0, the two transversal electric field components are
in time phase
The total electric field vector
r
( E (θ , φ , t ) = Eθ (θ , φ ) cos (ωt ) θˆ + Eφ (θ , φ ) cos (ωt ) φˆ )
makes an angle θ LP with the θ -axis
 Eφ (θ , φ , t ) 
−1 −1
 Eφ (θ , φ , t ) 
θ LP = tan   = tan  
 θ (
E θ , φ , t )   θ (
E θ , φ , t ) 

The tip of the total radiated electric field vector traces out a
line
Therefore, the antenna’s polarization is LP
b) CP
When δ = ± π , the two transversal electric field components
2
are out of phase in time
and if the two transversal electric field components are of
equal amplitude
Eθ (θ , φ ) = Eφ (θ , φ ) = E0 (θ , φ )

The total electric field vector

r
( E (θ , φ , t ) = Eθ (θ , φ ) cos (ωt ) θˆ + Eφ (θ , φ ) sin (ωt ) φˆ )
makes an angle θCP with the θ -axis
 sin (ωt ) 
 = tan  tan (ωt )  = ωt
−1 −1
φCP = tan 
 cos (ωt ) 
This implies that the total radiated electric field vector of the
antenna traces out a circle as time progresses from 0 to 2π
ω
and so on

If the vector rotates counterclockwise (clockwise),

then the antenna polarization is RHCP (LHCP)
For
Eθ (θ , φ ) ≠ Eφ (θ , φ ) and δα ≠≠ 00,, ππ
the total electric field vector traces out an ellipse and

hence it is elliptically polarized (EP)
The ratio of the major and minor axes of the ellipse is called
axial ratio (AR)
For instance, AR=0 dB for CP and AR= ∞ dB for LP

Let us try to understand two terms (co- and cross-

polarization) which are important for the antenna radiation
pattern
Co-polarization means you measure the antenna with another
antenna oriented in the same polarization with the antenna
under test (AUT)
Cross-polarization means that you measure the antenna with
antenna oriented perpendicular w.r.t. the main polarization

Cross-polarization is the polarization orthogonal to the

polarization under consideration
For example, if the field of an antenna is horizontally
polarized, the cross-polarization for this case is vertical
polarization
If the polarization is RHCP, the cross-polarization is LHCP
Let us put this into mathematical expressions:
We may write the total electric field propagating along z-axis
as r
E = ( Ecouˆco + Ecr uˆcr ) e
− jβ z

where the co- and cross-polarization unit vectors satisfy the

orthonormality condition
*
uˆco • uˆco = 1, uˆcr • uˆcr* = 1, uˆco • uˆcr* = 0, uˆcr • uˆco
*
=0
Therefore, the co- and cross-polarization components of the

electric fields can be obtained as
r * r *
Eco = E • uˆco , Ecr = E • uˆcr

a) LP
For a general LP wave, we can write,
uˆco = cos φLP xˆ + sin φLP yˆ , uˆcr = sin φLP xˆ − cos φLP yˆ
For a x-directed LP wave, φLP =0, hence,
r * r *
uˆco = xˆ , uˆcr = − yˆ ; Eco = E • uˆco = Ex , Ecr = E • uˆcr = − E y
For a y-directed LP wave, φLP =900, hence,

r * r *
uˆco = yˆ , uˆcr = xˆ; Eco = E • uˆco = E y , Ecr = E • uˆcr = Ex

b) CP
For a RHCP wave, we can write,
xˆ − jyˆ xˆ + jyˆ
uˆco = , ucr =
ˆ
2 2
r * Ex + jE y r * Ex − jE y
Eco = E • uˆco = , Ecr = E • uˆcr =
2 2
For a LHCP wave, co- and cross-polarization unit vectors and

components of the electric field will interchange

c) EP
For a EP wave, we can write,
xˆ + Ae jφEP yˆ − Ae − jφEP xˆ + yˆ
uˆco = , uˆcr =
2
1+ A 1 + A2
In order to determine the far-field radiation pattern of an

AUT, two antennas are required
The one being tested (AUT) is normally free to rotate and it
is connected in receiving mode


Note that AUT as a receiving antenna measurement will

generate the same radiation pattern to that of AUT used as a
transmitting antenna (from reciprocity theorem)
Another antenna is usually fixed and it is connected in
transmitting mode
The AUT is rotated by a positioner and it can rotate 1-, 2-
and 3-degrees of freedom of rotation

The AUT is rotated in usually two principal planes (elevation

and azimuthal)
The received field strength is measured by a spectrum
analyzer or power meter
which will be used to generate the antenna radiation pattern in
two principal planes also known as E- and H- planes
The antenna radiation patterns in these two principal planes
can be used to generate the 3-D radiation pattern of an
antenna

Equivalent circuit of an antenna

8.3.10 Quality factor and bandwidth

The equivalent circuit of a resonant antenna can be
approximated by a series RLC resonant circuit
where R=Rr+RL are the radiation and loss resistances,
L is the inductance and
C is the capacitance of the antenna

For a resonant antenna like dipoles, the FBW is related

to the radiation efficiency and quality factor Q
(FBW=1/Q)
The quality factor of an antenna is defined as 2πf0 (f0 is
the resonant frequency) times the energy stored over the
power radiated and Ohmic losses
1 2 1 2 1
I L+ I 2
Q = 2π f 0
4 4 ( 2π f 0 ) L
=
2π f 0 L
=
1
1 2
I ( Rr + RL ) Rr + RL 2π f 0 ( Rr + RL ) C
2
1 Rr
= = Qlossless • erad
2π f 0 Rr C ( Rr + RL )

where Qlossless is the quality factor when the antenna is

lossless (RL=0) and
erad is the antenna radiation efficiency.
Note that the radiation efficiency of an antenna is defined as
the ratio of the power delivered to the radiation resistance Rr
to the power delivered to Rr and RL
1 2
I Rr
2 Rr
erad = =
1
I
2
( Rr + RL ) ( Rr + RL )
2

Small Antennas

There is a very important concept on designing electrically

small antennas
When kr<1 (electrically small antennas), the quality factor
Q of a small antenna can found from the J. L. Chu’s relation
2
1 + 2 ( kr )
Q= • erad
( kr )
3
{1 + ( kr ) }
2
where k is the wave number and r is the radius of the smallest

sphere enclosing the antenna

The above relation gives the relationship between the antenna

size, efficiency and quality factor.
This expression can be reduced further for smallest Q for a
LP very small antenna (kr<<1) as follows:
1 1
Qmin = 3
+
( kr ) kr
Harrington gave also a practical upper limit to the gain of a
small antenna for a reasonable BW as
2
Gmax = ( kr ) + 2 ( kr )

For example, for a Hertz dipole of very small length 0.01λ,

Qmin =32283
It has very high Q and hence a very narrow FBW (0.000031)
Gmax=0.0638 or -12dB
Note that in the above calculations r=0.005λ has been used
But the gain of the antenna in dB is also negative
Antenna size, quality factor, bandwidth and radiation
efficiency is interlinked
There is no complete freedom to optimize each one of them
independently

RECAP:
Antenna acts as an interface between a guided wave and a
free-space wave
One of the most important characteristics of an antenna is its
directional property
Ability to concentrate radiated power in a certain direction
Or receive power from a preferred direction
This directional property is characterized in Radiation pattern
From reciprocity theorem, we can show that
the pattern characteristics of an antenna are the same in the
transmit and
the receive modes
Feed
Source Line
Antenna Radiated fields
A plot of electric or magnetic field intensity as function of
the direction at a constant distance from the antenna is
known as the electric field pattern or magnetic field pattern
The field intensity along a direction (θ,φ) is given by the
length of the position vector to a point on the surface of the
3D shape in the direction (θ,φ)

Directivity of an isotropic antenna
is taken for reference for defining
gain
Directivity of an antenna indicates
how well the antenna radiate in a
particular direction in comparison
P0/4π
with an isotropic antenna
radiating the same amount of
power (P0)
Assume erad=1, U (θ , φ ) 4π U (θ , φ )
D(θ , φ ) = = π 2π
gain = directivity U avg
∫ ∫
θ =0 φ =0
DdB=10log10(D) dBi
Generally single value of gain or directivity is given in that

case the gain or directivity is along the main beam peak
Antenna equivalent circuit can be thought of as
Radiation resistance
Loss resistance
Reactive parts
So the feed line also has a characteristic impedance Z0 usually
of 50 Ohm
At the input of the antenna, the impedance seen by the feed
line can be assumed as ZL

Then the reflection coefficient and VSWR may be calculated as
Z L − Z0 1+ Γ
Γ= ;VSWR =
Z L + Z0 1− Γ
0 ≤ Γ ≤ 1,1 ≤ VSWR ≤ ∞
BW : VSWR ≤ 2
Polarization of the antenna is the polarization of the wave

radiated by the antenna in the far field
Polarization of the antenna is direction-dependent
Conventionally polarization of the wave is along the main beam
direction

Received signal power in a wireless communication link

The received signal power is a function of four elements:
The transmitter output electrical power (pT)
The fraction of the transmitter electrical power directed at the
receiver defined by the transmit antenna gain (gT)
The loss of energy in the communication medium
The fraction of the received electrical power directed at the
receiver defined by the received antenna gain (gR)

Power flux density (pfd) for isotropic radiator at a distance r

=p0/(4πr2)
Power transmitted= pT gT
pfd= pT gT /(4πr2)
In dB,
PFD= PT +GT-10log4πr2=EIRP-10log4πr2 (dBW/m2)
where equivalent isotropic radiated power=EIRP
No matter what, a large portion of the transmitted
energy 10log4πr2 is not seen by the receiver

The received power at the receiver antenna is

Pr=pfd×Aer
Effective aperture is defined as the ratio of power delivered
to the load if antenna to the Poynting vector in any direction
(θ,φ)
Ae (θ,φ) =Pr (θ,φ) /S (m2)
Note that for any antenna it can be shown that
G/Ae=(4×π)/λ2
Or, Ae=G λ2 /(4×π)

Pr=pfd×Ae= pT gTgr λ2 /(4×πr)2

PR=PT+GT+GR-20log((4×πr) ×c/f) (dBW)
The last term is called range loss or power loss between
two isotropic antennas at particular range and frequency

8.4 Kinds of antennas
8.4.1 Hertz dipole
Let us find the fields of a small current carrying element of
length dl
An infinitesimally small current element is called a
Hertz dipole
Electrically small antennas are small relative to wavelength
Whereas electrically large antennas are large relative to
wavelength
Hertz dipole is not of much practical use
but it is the basic building block of any kind of antennas

The infinitesimal time-varying current in the Hertz dipole is
I (t ) = I 0 e jωt zˆ
where ω is the angular frequency of the current

Since the current is assumed along the z-direction, the
magnetic vector potential at the observation point P is along
z-direction (see section 3.10)
r µ 0 I 0 dle − jβr e jωt

A = Az zˆ = zˆ
4πr

Fig. 8.5 Hertz dipole r̂
located at the origin and P ( r ,θ , φ )
φˆ
oriented along z-axis θˆ
I 0 e jωt

r r'
Note that for this case J ( r ) dv ' = I 0 dle jωt
For infinitesimally small current element at the origin

r r r
r −r' = r
using the coordinate transformation from the Rectangular to
Spherical coordinate systems (see section 1.3.3)
 Ar   sin θ cos φ sin θ sin φ cos θ   Ax   sin θ cos φ sin θ sin φ cos θ   0 
    
 Aθ  =  cos θ cos φ cos θ sin φ − sin θ   Ay  = cos θ cos φ cos θ sin φ − sin θ   0 
 Aφ   − sin φ cos φ 0   Az   − sin φ cos φ 0   Az 
 
⇒ Ar = Az cos θ ; Aθ = − Az sin θ ; Aφ = 0

 rˆ rθˆ r sin θφˆ 
r  
r ∇× A
QH = =
1 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
µ0 µ0 r 2 sin θ  ∂r ∂θ ∂φ 
 
 Ar rAθ r sin θ Aφ 
Using the symmetry of the problem (no variation in φ ), we

have,
r  
H=
1  ∂ ∂ ∂
≡ 0
µ0 r 2 sin θ  ∂r ∂θ ∂φ 
 
 Az cos θ −rAz sin θ 0 

r sin θ ∂ ∂ 
⇒ H r = 0; Hθ = 0; Hφ =  ( − rA z sin θ ) − ( z
A cos θ )
µ0 r 2 sin θ  ∂r ∂θ 
φˆI 0 dle + jωt  ∂ ∂  e − j β r cos θ   φˆ I 0 dle + jωt  e − j β r sin θ 

⇒ Hφ =  ( −e sin θ ) −
− jβ r − jβ r
  =  jβ e sin θ + 
4π r  ∂r ∂θ  r   4 π r  r 
φˆI 0 dle + jωt e − jβ r sin θ  j β 1  

=  + 2 
4π  r r 
The Hertz dipole has only φ component of the magnetic
field, i.e., the magnetic field circulates the dipole

r
The electric field for ( J = 0 in free space, we don’t have
any conduction current flowing) can be obtained as
r
r ∇× H
E=
jωε
Using the symmetry of the problem (no variation in φ ) like
before, we have,

r  
1 ∂ ∂ ∂ 1  ∂ ∂ ˆ 
E= ≡0 =  ( r sin θ H ) ˆ
r − ( r sin θ H ) rθ
jωε r 2 sin θ  ∂r  jωε r 2 sin θ  ∂θ φ φ
∂θ ∂φ ∂r 
 
 0 0 r sin θ H φ 

I 0 dle jωt e − j β r  j β 1   ∂  I 0 dle jωt e− j β r  j β 1 
Er =  +   ( r sin θ )  =
2
 + 2  r 2sin θ cos θ
jωε r 2 sin θ 4π  r r 2   ∂θ  jωε r 2
sin θ 4 π  r r 
Note that Er has only 1/r2 and 1/r3 variation with r

r ∂ I 0 dle jωt sin θ ∂   1 
Eθ = − (
r sin θH φ = − )   jβ + e − jβr 
∂r   r
jωε r 2 sin θ ∂r jωε r 4π 
I 0 dle jωt sin θ − jβ r  j β 2 β j 

= e  + 2
− 3
4πε  ω r ω r ω r 
We see that electric field is in the (r, θ) plane whereas the

magnetic field has φ component only

Therefore, the electric field and magnetic field are
perpendicular to each other (Which wave is this?)
Points to be noted:
1) Fields can be classified into three categories
(a) Radiation fields (spatial variation 1/r)
(b) Induction fields (spatial variation 1/r2) and
(c) Electrostatic fields (spatial variation 1/r3)

2) Field variation with f since β = ω µε
a) Electrostatic fields (1/r3) are also inversely proportional to
the frequency ( 1 )
ω
β
b) Induction field (1/r2) is independent of frequency ( )
ω
β2
c) Radiation field (1/r) is proportional to frequency ( )
ω

2) Field variation with r
For small values of r,
electrostatic field is the dominant term and
For large values of r,
radiation field is the dominant term
We can also observe that the three types of fields are equal in
magnitude when
β2/r= β/r2=1/r3 => r=1/β= λ/2̟

For r< λ/2̟, 1/r3 term dominates
For r>> λ/2̟, the 1/r term dominates
Near field region:
For r<< λ/2̟
(in fact the near field region distance r= λ/2̟ is for D<<λ
for an ideal infinitesimally small Hertz dipole
3
and the near field region distance for r = 0.62 D is for
λ
D>>λ), electrostatic fields dominate

as r<< λ/2̟
Q e − jβ r → 1
I 0 dl cos θ e jωt I dl sin θ e jωt

Er ≈ −2 j 3
; Eθ ≈ − j 0
4πεω r 4πεω r 3
The magnitude of the near field is
2 I 0 dl
E = Er + Eθ 2 = 3
4 cos 2
θ + sin 2
θ
4πεω r

A polar plot of the near field can be generated by writing a
MATLAB program for plotting
F (θ ) = 4 cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ
Maximum field is along θ=00, θ=1800 and minimum is along

θ=900, θ=2700 (see Fig. 8.6(a))

Fig. 8.6 (a) Near field pattern plot of a Hertz dipole located at the
origin and oriented along z-axis (maximum radiation along z-axis)

Far field region:
For r>> λ/2̟ (in between reactive near field and
Fraunhofer far field region, there exists the Fresnel near field
region that’s why we have chosen an r>> λ/2̟), radiation
field is the dominant term
In other words kr>>1, we have,
I 0 dl sin θ e jωt e − j β r β 2 I 0 dl sin θ e jωt e − jβ r β

Eθ = j ; Hφ = j
4πεω r 4π r

The electric fields and magnetic fields are in phase with each
other
They are 90˚ out of phase with the current due to the (j)
term in the expressions of Eθ and Hφ
It is interesting to note that the ratio of electric field and
magnetic field is constant
Eθ β ω µε µ
= = = =η
Hφ ωε ωε ε

Hence, the fields have sinusoidal variations with θ
They are zero along θ=0
No radiation along z-axis unlike near field case
They are maximum along θ=π /2 (see Fig. 8.6 (b))

Fig. 8.6 (b) E-plane radiation pattern of a Hertz dipole in far field
(H-plane radiation will look like a circle)

Power flow:
1 r r* 1
S avg
2
{ 2
} {( )
= Re E × H = Re Er rˆ + Eθ θˆ × H ϕ *φˆ }
2
1  θ  β 3
S avg {
* $
= Re Eθ Hφ r =
2
1

I 0 }
dl sin
 r$
2  4π r  ωε
Antenna power flows radially outward

Power density is not same in all directions
The net real power is only due to the radiations fields (i.e.
jβ2/r and jβ/r) of electric and magnetic fields

In the far field, electric field is along θˆ direction
magnetic field is along φˆ direction
Both of them are perpendicular to the power flow (Poynting
vector) which is along r$ direction
Total radiated power:
The total radiated power from a Hertz dipole
W = ∫∫ S avg r 2 sin θ dθ dφ
2
 dl 
∴W = 40π 2 I 0 2  
λ

Power radiated by the Hertz dipole is proportional to
the square of the dipole length and
inversely proportional to the dipole wavelength
It implies more and more power is radiated as
the frequency and
the length
of the Hertz dipole increases
Radiation resistance of a Hertz Dipole:
Hertz dipole can be equivalently modeled as a radiation
resistance

Since W=1/2 I02 Rrad
2
 dl 
∴W = 40π 2 I 0 2  
λ 2
2  dl 
implies that Rrad = 80π  
λ
Radiation pattern of a Hertz Dipole:
F(θ, )=sin θ for a Hertz dipole
The 3D plot of sin θ looks like an apple (see Figure 8.6 (c))

Fig. 8.6 (c) A typical 3-D radiation pattern of a Hertz dipole in the far field

To get the 3-D plot from the 2-D plot you need to rotate the
E-plane pattern along the H-plane pattern
For this case it will give the shape of an apple
Note that θ is also known as elevation angle and φ as
azimuth angle
E-plane pattern for a dipole is also known as elevation
pattern
H-plane pattern as azimuthal pattern

As mentioned before, it is easier to visualize 2-D plots than
3-D on a 2-D plane like pages of this book
Two principal planes radiation patterns are normally plotted
E-plane (vertical: all planes containing z-axis like xz-plane, yz-
plane)
H-plane (horizontal) radiations patterns
are sufficient to describe the radiation pattern of a Hertz
dipole
H-plane (xy-plane) radiation pattern is in the form of circle
of radius 1 since F(θ, φ ) is independent of φ

Since the ratio of electric and magnetic field amplitudes in
the far field region of an antenna is 377 Ohm
We may also plot the power pattern instead of field pattern
from the relation p(θ, )=sin2 θ
Polarization of Hertz dipole:
In the far-field region of a Hertz dipole, only θ component of
the electric field the electric field is LP along θˆ direction
That means electric field is perpendicular to the line from
the center of the dipole to the field observation point (see
Fig. 8.5) and it lies in the plane containing this line and the
dipole axis

8.4.2 Dipole antenna
The next extension of a Hertz dipole is a linear antenna or a
dipole of finite length as depicted in Fig. 8.7 (a)
It consists of a conductor of length 2L fed by a voltage or
current source at its center
The current distribution can be obtained by assuming an o.c.
transmission line
For o.c. transmission line
V0 + − j β z + jβ z V0 +
I ( z) =
Z0
e ( −e )= −2 j
Z0
sin β z

Fig. 8.7 (a) Dipole of length

2L (Dipole can be assumed
to composed of many Hertz dipoles)

The current is zero at z= L (since at the ends, there is no
path for the current to flow), so, we can write,
V0 + V0 +
I ( z ) = −2 j sin( β ( L − z )) = I 0 sin  β ( L − z )  ; I 0 = −2 j
Z0 Z0
The electric field due to the current element dz
(it has the same expression of the Hertz dipole of the previous section
except that now we have a length of dz and current of I(z) )
at far away observation point or in the far field can be
written as
j β 2 sin θ I ( z )dze − jβ R1 dEθ
dEθ = ; dHφ =
4πεω R1 η0

Since the observation point P is at a very far distance, the
lines OP and QP are parallel and therefore
∴ R1 ≅ R − z cos θ
Note that for the amplitude, we can approximate
1 1
≅
R1 R
since the dipole size is quite small in comparison to the distance
of the observation point P from the origin
Hence j β 2 sin θ I ( z )dze − j β R e j β Z cosθ
dEθ ≅
4πεω R

Since we have assumed that the dipole of length 2L is
composed of many Hertz dipoles as depicted in Fig. 8.7 (a)
(this is one of the reasons why we say that Hertz dipole or
infinitesimal dipole is the building block for many antennas),
we can write the total radiated electric field as
L L
j β 2 sin θ I ( z )e − j β R e jβ Z cosθ
L
j β 2 sin θ I 0 sin( β ( L − z ))e − jβ R e j β Z cosθ
Eθ = ∫
z =− L
dEθ = ∫
z =− L
4πεω R
dz = ∫
z =− L
4πεω R
dz

It can be shown that (see textbook for derivations)
e− j β R  cos ( β L cos θ ) − cos β L  e− jβ R

⇒ Eθ ≅ j 60 I 0   = j 60 I 0 F (θ )
R  sin θ  R
In the previous equation, the term under bracket is F(θ)

and it is the variation of electric field as a function of θ and
it is the E-plane radiation pattern

In the H-plane,
Eθ is a constant and it is not a function of φ
hence it is a circle
The E–plane radiation pattern of the dipole varies with the length of
the dipole as depicted in Fig. 8.8
Note that according to Fig. 8.7 (a), we have considered the total
dipole length is 2L) and the H-plane radiation is always a circle
Fig. 8.8 E-plane radiation pattern for dipole of length
(a) 2L=2×λ/4= λ/2
(b) 2L=2×λ=2λ
(c) 2L=2×2λ=4λ

(a) 2L=2×λ/4= λ/2

(b) 2L=2×λ=2λ

(c) 2L=2×2λ=4λ

Points to be noted:
1. Input impedance of the dipole (z=0)
Vin Vin
Z in = =
I in I 0 sin β L
For dipole of length 2L, where L =odd multiples of

λ mπ V
,βL = ,sin β L =1, Z in = in
4 2 I0
For dipole of length 2L, where L =even multiples of .

λ
, β L = mπ ,sin β L = 0 ⇒ Z in = ∞
4

That’s why it is preferable to have dipoles of length odd multiples
of λ/2,
otherwise it is difficult to have a source with infinite impedance
2. Since increasing the dipole length more and more current is
available for radiation,
• the total power radiated increases monotonically
3. The electric field has only θ$ component and hence it is linearly
polarized
4. The radiation pattern have nulls and it can be calculated by
equating F(θ)=0

cos( β L cos θ null ) − cos β L
=0
sin θ null
mλ
⇒ cos θ null = ±1 ±
π
o For m=0, cos θ null = ±1,θ null = 0, π

But, in denominator sin θ null is also zero
So let us take the limit of F(θ) as θ→0, and see

1   ( β L cos θ ) ( β L cos θ )   ( β L ) ( β L )  
2 4 2 4
 cos ( β L cos θ ) − cos ( β L ) 
  ≅ Lim  1 − +  − 1 − + 
Lim    
θ →0,π 
sin θ  θ →0,π sin θ 2! 4!
 
2! 4!
 ( β L )2 sin 2 θ ( β L )4 (1 − cos 4 θ )  1 
( )
β L
2
sin θ ( β L )
4
sin θ (1 + cos 2 θ ) 
=
Lim  − × =
Lim  − =0
θ →0,π 
2! 4!  sin θ θ →0,π 
2! 4! 
 
5. To find θ for maximum radiation, we have to find the solution of

dF (θ )
=0
dθ
We can also take the mean of the first two nulls to approximate θ max

Monopole antennas:
A monopole is a dipole that has been divided in half at its
center feed point and
fed against a ground plane
Monopole is usually fed from a coaxial cable (see Fig. 8.7 (b))
A monopole of length L placed above a perfectly conducting
and infinite ground plane
will have the same field distribution to that of a dipole of length
2L without the ground plane

Monopole
Ground plane
Coaxial cable Image of monopole
Dipole in free space
(b) Monopole of length L over a ground plane

This is because an image of the monopole will be formed
inside the ground plane
(similar to the method of images in chapter 2)
The monopole looks like a dipole in free space (see Fig. 8.7
(b))
Since this monopole is of length L only,
it will radiate only half of the total radiated power of a dipole of
length 2L
Hence, the radiation resistance of a monopole is half that of a
dipole

Similarly, directivity of the monopole is twice that of a dipole
Since the field distributions are the same for a monopole and
dipole,
the maximum radiation intensity will be also same for both
cases
But for monopole,
the total radiated power is half that of a dipole
Hence, the directivity of a monopole above a conducting
ground plane is
twice that of dipole in free space

8.4.3 Loop antenna
Loop antennas could be of various shapes:
circular,
triangular,
square,
elliptical, etc.
They are widely used in applications up to 3GHz
Loop antennas can be classified into two:
electrically small (circumference < 0.1 λ) and
electrically large (circumference approximately equals to λ)

Electrically small loop antennas have
very small radiation resistance
They have
very low radiation and
are practically useless
Electrically small loop antennas could be analyzed assuming
that
it is equivalently represented as a Hertz dipole
Let us consider electrically large circular loop of constant
current

Fig. 8.9 Loop antenna
θ
r
r
ψ
φ r
R
φ' r
r'
P'

We can express magnetic vector potential (see textbook) as
µ I 0 ae − jβ r
Aφ (θ ) = π j { J1 ( β a sin θ ) − J1 (− β a sin θ )}
4π r
m
Q Jn ( z ) = zn ∑
∞
( −1) z 2m
∴ J n (− z ) = (−1) n J n ( z ) ⇒ J1 ( − β a sin θ ) = − J1 ( β a sin θ )
m =0 2 2m+n
m !( n + m ) !
j µ I 0 ae− j β r J1 ( β a sin θ )
∴ Aφ (θ ) =
2r
We can express electric field as
r
r
∴E = − j
(
∇ ∇• A ) − jω Ar
ωµε

Note that magnetic vector potential has only φ component
which is a function of θ variable only
r
∴∇ • A = 0;
ωµ I 0 ae − j β r J1 ( β a sin θ )
Q Aθ = Ar = 0 ⇒ Eθ = − jω Aθ = 0; Er = − jω Ar = 0 ∴ Eφ = − jω Aφ =
2r
−ωµ I 0 ae − j β r
Eφ
Hθ = − = J1 ( β a sin θ ) ; H r = Hφ = 0
η 2η r

Poynting vector for a wave radiating in radially outward
direction
should have direction along positive radial direction
Therefore Hθ must be negative
Fig. 8.10 shows the far-field radiation pattern of the loop
antenna
It can be observed that the radiation field has higher
magnitude
with the larger radius of the loop antenna
For larger radiation power we need a loop antenna of larger
radius

Fig. 8.10 Plot of for various values of angle θ (far-field radiation

patterns) (dotted line a=0.1λ, dashed line a=0.2λ, solid
line a=0.3λ)
For small loops
1 1 1
βa < ; J1 ( βa sin θ ) = βa sin θ − (βa sin θ )3 + ... ≅ 1 βa sin θ
3 2 16 2
ωµ I 0 a e− j β r 1 ωµ I 0 a e− j β r 1
∴ Eφ = ( β a sin θ ) ; Hθ = − ( β a sin θ )
2 r 2 η 2r 2
Note that for the dipole polarization was along θˆ direction

But for small loop antennas it is along the φˆ direction

8.5 Antenna Arrays
One of the disadvantages of single antenna is that

it has fixed radiation pattern
That means once we have designed and constructed an
antenna,
the beam or radiation pattern is fixed
If we want to tune the radiation pattern,
we need to apply the technique of antenna arrays
Antenna array is a
configuration of multiple antennas (elements) arranged
to achieve a given radiation pattern

8.5 Antenna Arrays
There are several array design variables

which can be changed to achieve the overall array pattern design
Some of the array design variables are:
(a) array shape
linear,
circular,
planar, etc.
(b) element spacing
(c) element excitation amplitude φ
(d) element excitation phase
(e) patterns of array elements

8.5 Antenna Arrays
Given an antenna array of identical elements,

the radiation pattern of the antenna array may be found
according to the
pattern multiplication principle
It basically means that array pattern is equal to φ
the product of the

pattern of the individual array element into
array factor , a function dependent only on
the geometry of the array
the excitation amplitude and phase of the elements

8.5 Antenna Arrays
8.5.1 Two element array
Let us investigate an array of
two infinitesimal dipoles positioned along the z axis as shown in Fig.
8.10 (a)
The field radiated by the two elements,
assuming no coupling between the elements
is equal to the sum of the two fields
r r r − j β r1 2 jδ1 − j β r2 2 jδ 2
jI dl sin θ e β e jI dl sin θ e β e
Etotal = E1 + E2 = θˆ 1
+ θˆ 2
4πεω r1 4πεω r2
where the two antennas are excited with current

I1 < δ1 and I2 < δ 2

8.5 Antenna Arrays
θ1
r
r1
θ r
r
θ2 r
r2
Fig. 8.10 (a) Two Hertz dipoles

8.5 Antenna Arrays
For I1 = I 2 = I o
α α
δ1 = ,δ2 = −
2 2
r jI dl sin θβ 2 − jβ r
e  j  β2d cosθ + α2  − j  β2d cosθ + α2  
Etotal = θˆ 0 e  
+e  

4πεω r  
 
2 − jβ r
jI dl sin θβ e  βd α
= θˆ 0 2 cos  cos θ + 
4πεω r  2 2

8.5 Antenna Arrays
Hence the total field of the array is equal to

the field of single element positioned at the origin
multiplied by a factor which is called as the array factor
Array factor is given
1 
AF = 2 cos  ( β d cos θ + α ) 
2 
Normalized array factor is
1 
AF2 = cos  ( β d cos θ + α ) 
2 

8.5 Antenna Arrays
8.5.2 N element uniform linear array (ULA)

This idea of two element array can be extended
to N element array of uniform amplitude and spacing
Let us assume that N Hertz dipoles are placed along a
straight line along z-axis at positions
0,
d,
2d, …,
(N-2) d and
(N-1) d
respectively

8.5 Antenna Arrays
Current of equal amplitudes
but with phase difference of
0,
α,
2α, … ,
(N-2) α and
(N-1) α
are excited to the corresponding dipoles at
0,
d,
2d, …,
(N-2) d and
(N-1) d
respectively

8.5 Antenna Arrays
z
( N − 1)
I〈 α
I 〈 ( N − 1)α (N-1)d 2
.
. I 〈α
.
I 〈0
I 〈 2α 2d
I 〈α I 〈−α
d
( N − 1)
I 〈0 0 I 〈− α
2
Fig. 8.10 (b) ULA 1 (c) ULA 2 (assume N is an odd number)

8.5 Antenna Arrays
Then the array factor for the N element ULA of Fig. 8.10 (b)
will become
j ( β d cosθ +α ) 2 j ( β d cosθ +α ) j ( N −1)( β d cosθ +α )

∴ AF = 1 + e +e + ..... + e
1 − e jNψ
N
⇒ AF = ∑ e j (n −1)(β d cos θ + α ) ⇒AF N = ;ψ = β d cos θ + α
1− e j ψ
n =1
jNψ N −1  j ( N2 )ψ N
− j ( )ψ  N −1
N
sin( )ψ
e −1 = e j(
2
)ψ e −e 2  =e 2
j ( )ψ
2
=  j ( 1 )ψ 1  ψ
e jψ − 1  e 2 − e 2
− j ( )ψ
 sin(
2
)

8.5 Antenna Arrays
( N − 1)
I〈 α
If the reference point is at the physical 2
center of the array as depicted in

I 〈α
Fig. 8.10 (c), the array factor is
N
sin( )ψ
2 I 〈0
( AF ) N =
ψ
sin( )
2
For small values of I 〈−α
N
sin( )ψ
( AF ) N = 2
ψ I 〈−
( N − 1)
α
2
2

8.5 Antenna Arrays
The maximum value of AF is for ψ = 0 and its value is N

Apply L’ Hospital rule since it is of the form sin 0
0
To normalize the array factor so that the maximum value is
equal to unity, we get,
 N  N
sin( )ψ sin( )ψ
1 2  2
( AF ) N =  ≅ N
N  sin 1 ψ  ψ
 2  2

8.5 Antenna Arrays
This is the normalized array factor for ULA

As N increases, the main lobe narrows
The number of lobes is equal to N
one main lobe and
other N-1 side lobes
in one period of the AF
The side lobes widths are of 2̟/N and
main lobes are two times wider than the side lobes
The SLL decreases with increasing N
This can be verified from Fig. 8.11 (see textbook)

8.5 Antenna Arrays
 N 
sin( )ψ
1 2 
( AF ) N =  
Null of the array N  sin 1 ψ 
 2 
To find the null of the array,
N
sin( )ψ = 0 Qψ = ( β cos θ ) d + α
2
N N 2nπ
⇒ ψ = ± nπ ⇒ {( β cos θ ) d + α } = ± nπ ⇒ β d cos θ = −α ±
2 2 N
 1  2nπ  
⇒ θ n = cos −1   −α ±  n = 1, 2,3,......
βd  N 

8.5 Antenna Arrays
 N 
sin( )ψ
1 2 
( AF ) N =  
N  sin 1 ψ 
Maximum values  2 
It attains the maximum values for ψ = 0
ψ 1
2
=
2
( β d cos θ + α ) =0
θ =θ m
 α 
⇒ θ m = cos −1  − 
 βd 
8.5.3 Broadside array

We know that when

8.5 Antenna Arrays
ψ = β d cosθ + α = 0
the maximum radiation occurs
It is desired that maximum occurs at θ=90˚
ψ = β d cos θ + α θ =90 = 0 ⇒ α = 00
0
8.5.4 Endfire array

We know that when ψ = β d cos θ + α = 0

8.5 Antenna Arrays
It is desired that maximum occurs at θ=0˚,
ψ = β d cos θ + α θ =0 = 0 ⇒ α = − β d
0
8.5.5 Phase scanning array

We know that when ψ = β d cos θ + α = 0
It is desired that maximum occurs at θ=θ0
ψ = β d cos θ + α θ =θ = 0 ⇒ α = − β d cos θ 0
0

8.5 Antenna Arrays
( N − 1)
I〈 α
Draw the polar plot of radiation pattern for the following 2
uniform linear array (ULA)

I 〈α
of N isotropic radiating antennas spaced λ/2
apart for the following cases:
(a) Broadside array (Maximum field is at θ=90˚)
θ I 〈0
(b) End fire array (Maximum field is at θ=0˚)

(c) Maximum field is at θ=60˚ and
I 〈−α
(d) Null at θ=60˚  N 
sin( )ψ
1 2 
( AF ) N =  
N  sin 1 ψ  ( N − 1)
I 〈− α
 2  2

8.5 Antenna Arrays ψ = β d cos θ + α θ =90 = 0 ⇒ α = 00
0
(a) Broadside array (Maximum field is at θ=90˚)

8.5 Antenna Arrays ψ = β d cos θ + α θ =0 = 0 ⇒ α = − β d
0
(b) End fire array (Maximum field is at θ=0˚)

8.5 Antenna Arrays
(c) Maximum field is at θ=60˚

ψ = β d cos θ + α θ =θ = 0 ⇒ α = − β d cos θ 0
0

8.5 Antenna Arrays
(d) Null at θ=60˚ 2nπ

α= − βd cos θ null , n = 1,2,3,L
N

Antennas and Radiating Systems: Dr. Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum Dr. Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum

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8.

Antennas and Radiating Systems

Dr. Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum

1 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

2 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

Radiation Antenna pattern and Types of Antenna

Wave equation for Hertz dipole

3 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

Fig. 8.2 A giant sphere of radius r with a source of EM wave at

4 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

5 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

6 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

7 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

8 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

9 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

Charges moving with uniform velocity:

10 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

11 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

12 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

15 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

Hence, the above equation reduces to

17 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

18 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

From example 8.2, we can find the constant A and hence

19 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

20 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

21 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

8.3.1 What is antenna radiation pattern?

22 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

Horn Antenna Directional radiation pattern

For a fixed r, electric field is only a function of θ and φ

25 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

3-D radiation patterns are difficult to draw and visualize in a

26 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

Fig. 8.3 (c) Typical radiation pattern of an antenna

27 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

A typical antenna radiation pattern looks like as in Fig. 8.3 (c)

28 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

Fig. 8.3 (a) Antenna field regions 2

29 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

The antenna field regions could be divided broadly into three

where Dmax is the maximum antenna dimension

30 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

Radiating near field (Fresnel) region:

31 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

Far field (Fraunhofer) region:

32 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

Fig. 8.3 (b) Illustration of

33 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

We can calculate the distance rff by equating the maximum

34 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

Main beam is the biggest lobe in the radiation pattern of the

35 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

8.3.3 Half power beam width (HPBW)

36 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

8.3.4 Beam width between first nulls (BWFN)

37 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

8.3.5 Side lobe level (SLL)

38 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

8.3.6 Radiation intensity

39 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

40 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum 4/26/2016

D (θ, φ ) is maximum at θmax and minimum along θnull