Chapter 8 Unit Operations Problems

1. Tomato juice concentration in a single effect evaporator

Raw juice 6% solids, tomato concentrate 35% solids.

Mass Balance, basis 100kg fresh juice

Solids Water Total
Raw juice 6 94 100
Concentrate 6 11 17
Water evaporated 83
i.e. 0.83kg water evaporated per kg fresh juice

Heat Balance
Pressure in evaporator 20kPa (abs)
Steam pressure = 100 kPa(gauge) 200kPa(abs)
From steam tables (Appendix 8)
Condensing temperature of steam is 120oC and the latent heat is 2202kJkg-1
Condensing temperature in evaporator is 60oC, and the latent heat is 2358kJkg-1
Temperature of entering juice is 18oC

Heat required to evaporate water from x kg juice per second

= latent heat + sensible heat
= latent heat x 0.83 x + x x 4.186 x 103 (60-18)
= 2358 x 103 x 0.83x + x x 4.186 x103 x 42
= 1957 x103 x + 177 x103 x
= 2134 x 103xJs-1
Heat transfer equation
Temperature of condensing steam = 120oC
Temperature difference across the evaporator = (120 – 60) = 60oC
U = 440 Jm-2s-1 oC-1 A = 12m2
q = UA T
= 440 x 12 x 60
= 317 x 103 Js-1

Therefore 2134 x 103x =317 x 103

x = 0.149 kgs-1
= 536 kg h-1

Rate of raw juice feed = 536kgh-1

2. Steam usage in two effects evaporator

Steam at 100kPa (gauge) = 200kPa (abs.)
Pressure in second effect = 20kPa (abs.)
From steam tables (Appendix 8)
Condensing temperature of steam is 120oC and the latent heat is 2202kJkg-1
Condensing temperature in second effect is 60oC, and the latent heat is 2358kJkg-1
Raw milk 9.5% solids, concentrated milk 35% solids. Flow raw milk 15,000 kg h-1

Mass Balance (kgh-1)

 Solids Liquids Total
Raw milk 1425 13,375 15,000
Concentrated milk 1425 2,646 4,071
Evaporated water 10,929

Heat Balance (Js-1)

q1 = q2
U1 A1 T1 = U2 A2 T2
U1 = 600 Jm-2s-1 oC-1 U2 = 450 Jm-2s-1 oC-1 A1 = A2
T1 + T2 = (120 –60) oC = 60 oC
T2 = 60 - T1
600 A T1 = 450 A (60 - T1)
600 T1 = 450 (60 - T1)
= 27 x 103 – 450 T1
1050 T1 =27 x 103
T1 = 25.7 26o C
T2 = 60 – 26 = 34oC

(a) Evaporating temperatures:

In first effect: (120 –26) = 94oC, latent heat = 2247kJkg-1
In second effect (94 – 34) = 60oC, latent heat = 2358kJkg-1

(b) Steam requirement

ws = steam condensed per hour in effect 1
w1 = water evaporated per hour in effect 1
w2 = water evaporated per hour in effect 2

w1 x 2247 x 103 = w2 x 2388 x 103

= ws x 2202 x 103

w2 = w1 x 2247 / 2388 = 0.94 w1

ws = w1 + 2247/2202 = 1.02 w1
w1 + w2 = 10,929kgh-1
w1 + 0.94 w1 = 10,929
1.94 w1 = 10,929 kg h-1
w1 = 5,633 kgh-1
w2 = 5,296 kgh-1
ws = 5,746 kgh-1

It required 5,746 kgh-1of steam to evaporate a total of 10,929 kgh-1 of water

i.e. 0.53 kg steam/kg water

(c) Heat exchange surface for first effect:

U1 = 600 Jm-1s-2 oC-1 T1 = 26oC
q = U1 A1 T1
3
(5,633 x 2247 x 10 )/3600 = 600 x A1 x 26
3516 x 103 = 15.6 x 103 x A
A1 = 225 m2
As the areas are the same, the heat transfer area in each effect is 225m2
 The total area for the two effects = 450 m2

3. Plate evaporator concentrating milk

10% solids in fresh to 30% solids in concentrated milk. Flow rate 1500kgh-1

Mass balance kgh-1

Solids Liquid Total
Fresh milk 150 1350 1500
Concentrated milk 150 350 500
Evaporated water 1000
(a) Number of plates
Steam at 200kPa(abs.), condensing temperature 120oC, latent heat 2202 kJkg-1
Evaporating temperature 75oC, latent heat 2322 kJkg-1
Heating surface per plate is 0.44m2
U = 650 Jm-2s-1 oC-1
x = no. of plates
q = U A T
= 650 A (120-75) Js-1
= 650 A 45
= 29.25 x 103 A Js-1
Heat to evaporate water
= (1000 x 2322 x 103)/3600
= 6.45 x 105
A = (6.45 x 105)(29.25 x 103)
= 22 m2
Each plate = 0.44 m2
Number of plates = 50

(b) With a film on the plates:

(1/U2) = 1/U + x/k
= 1/650 + 0.001/0.1
= 0.0015 + 0.01
= 0.0115
U2 = 87

Therefore capacity of evaporator is reduced by (87)/ 650

= 0.134
Capacity of evaporator is reduced by 13%

4. Triple effect evaporator

Feed 5% solids, product 25% solids. Input 10,000kgh-1
Mass Balance kgh-1
Solids Liquid Total
Feed 500 9500 10,000
Product 500 1500 2,000
Water evaporated 8,000
(a) Evaporation in each effect
Steam at 200kPa (abs.), condensing temperature 120oC, latent heat 2202 kJkg-1
Pressure in last effect 55kPa(abs.), condensing temperature 83oC, latent heat 2303kJkg-1
q1 = q2 = q3
 U1 A1 T1 = U2 A2 T2 = U3 A3 T3

U1 = 600 Jm-2s-1oC-1 U2 = 500 Jm-2s-1oC-1 U3 = 350 Jm-2s-1oC-1

A1 = A2 = A3 = A

T1 + T2 + T3 = (120-83) = 37oC

T2 = T1 U1/U2 T3 = T1 U1/U3
T1 + T1 U1/U2 + T1U1/U3 = 37oC
T1 + T1 600/500 + T1 600/350 = 37oC
T1 + 1.2 T1 + 1.71T1 = 37oC
3.91T1 = 37oC
T1 = 9.5oC
T2 = 1.2 x 9.5 = 11.5oC
T3 = 1.71 x 9.5 = 16oC
T1 = 9.5 T2 = 11.5 T3 = 16oC
Evaporating temperature in first effect = 120 – 9.5 = 110.5oC
Evaporating temperature in second effect = 110.5 – 11.5 = 99oC
Evaporating temperature in third effect = 99-16 = 83oC

Latent heat in first effect = 2229 kJkg-1

Latent heat in second effect = 2260 kJkg-1
Latent heat in third effect = 2301 kJkg-1
w1 = water evaporated in first effect per hour
w2 = water evaporated in second effect per hour
w3 = water evaporated in third effect per hour
ws = quantity of steam condensed
w1 x 2229 x 103 = w2 2260 x 103 = w3 2301 x 103
= ws 2202 x103
w1 + w2 + w3 = 8000kgh-1
w1 + w1 2229 /2260 + w1 2229 / 2301 = 8000
w1 + 0.986w1 + 0.969w1 = 8000
2.955 w1 = 8000
w1 = 2707 kgh-1
w2 = 2669 kgh-1
w3 = 2623 kgh-1

Evaporation in each effect: 1st Effect 2707kgh-1, 2nd Effect 2669 kgh-1, 3rd Effect 2623 kgh-1

(b) Input of steam

ws = 2707 x 2229/2202 = 2740 kgh-1

Quantity of steam per kg water = 2740/8000 = 0.343kgkg-1

5. Boiling Point Elevations

Evaporating temperature in first effect = 110.5 + 0.60 = 111.1oC
Evaporating temperature in second effect = 99 + 1.50 = 100.5oC
Evaporating temperature in third effect = 83 + 4 = 87oC
Latent heat in first effect = 2227 kJkg-1
Latent heat in second effect = 2256 kJkg-1
Latent heat in third effect = 2291 kJkg-1
w1 = water evaporated in first effect per hour
w2 = water evaporated in second effect per hour
w3 = water evaporated in third effect per hour
ws = quantity of steam condensed
w1 x 2227 x 103 = w2 2256 x 103 = w3 2291 x 103
3
= ws 2202 x10
w1 + w2 + w3 = 8000kgh-1
w1 + w1 2227 /2256 + w1 2227 / 2291 = 8000
w1 + 0.987w1 + 0.972w1 = 8000kgh-1
2.959 w1 = 8000
w1 = 2704
w2 = 2669
w3 = 2628
ws = 2704 x 2227/2202 = 2735

Evaporation in each effect: 1st Effect 2704kgh-1, 2nd Effect 2669 kgh-1, 3rd Effect 2628 kgh-1
Quantity of steam per kg water = 2735/8000 = 0.342kgkg-1
No change in input steam required.

6. (a)Cooling in a jet condenser

Temperature cooling water = 12oC Max. temperature exit water = 25 oC
o
Temperature of hot vapour = 70 C Latent heat = 2334kJkg-1
Mass flow = 4000kgh-1
Fresh milk = 9% solids
Milk concentrate = 30% solids

Mass balance kgh-1

Solids Liquid Total
Fresh milk 360 3640 4000
Concentrated milk 360 840 1200
Evaporated water 2800
(a) Jet condenser
Heat Balance
Heat removed from condensate = 2334 x 103 + (70 –25) x 4.186 x 103
= 2334 x 103 + 188 x 103
= 2522 x 103 Jkg-1
Heat taken in by cooling water = (25-12) x 4.186x103
= 54.4 x x103 Jkg-1
Quantity of heat removed from condensate
= 2800 x 2522 x 103 Jh-1
= 7062 x 106 J h-1
Quantity of cooling water needed = 7062 x 106 / 54.4 x x103
= 130 x 103kgh-1
(b) Cooling in a surface condenser
U = 2200 Jm-2s-1 oC-1
Mean temperature difference T = (70 – 12)/2 + (70 –25)/2
= 29 + 22.5
= 51.5oC
Quantity of heat removed = 7062 x 106 Jh-1
= UA T
= 2200 x A x 51.5 x 3600
A = 7062 x 106 /(2200 x 51.5 x 3600)
= 17.3m2
Necessary heat transfer area is 17.3m2
Quantity of water needed
q = wt. x spec.heat x T
7062 x 106 = w x 4.18 x 103 x ( 25 –12)
w = 130 x 103 kgh-1
The water needed per hour is 130 x 103 kg
Thi is the same as in the jest condenser, but in practice the jet condenser does not have 100%
efficiency in use of water, and water used would be greater.

7. Mechanical recompression
In the evaporator:
Total water evaporated
Vapours recompressed
Energy used per kg vapour
Steam
Temperature of vapours
Total steam w
Heat available in steam
Heat in returned vapour
Energy used in compressor
Heat energy available
Steam energy saved
= 2800 kgh-1
= 1400kgh-1
= 160 kJkg-1
= 100 kPA (abs)
Latent heat 2258 kJkg-1 Temp 99.6oC
= 70oC
Latent Heat 2334 kJkg-1
= (2334 x 2800) / 2258
= 2894kgh-1
= 2894 x 2258 x103
= 6535 x 106J
= 1400 x 2334 x103
= 3268 x 106J
= 160 x 103 x 1400J
= 224 x 106 J
= (3268 –224) x 106
= 3044 x 106 J
= (3044 x 106)/(6535 x 106)
= 0.466
= 46.6%

8. Calandria type evaporator

No. of tubes = 100
Length of tube = 1 metre
Diameter of tube = 5cm = 0.05m
Area of tube = A
Pressure in evaporator = 80kPa(abs,) Temperature = 93.5oC Latent heat 2274 kJkg-1
Specific heat of juice = 4.19kJkg-1oC-1
Pressure of steam = 100kPa(abs) Temperature = 99.6oC Latent heat 2258kJkg-1
A = DL
= 3.14 x 0.05 x 1
= 0.157 m2
Total area for 100 tubes = 15.7 m2
Heat Balance
Heat taken in by juice per kg = 2274 x 103 + (93.5 –18) x 4.19 x103
= 2274 x 103 + 316 x103
= 2590 x 10 3 Jkg-1

Heat transferred from steam jacket

q = UA  T
= 440 x 15.7 x (93.5 - 18)
= 5.216 x105Js-1

If Ju = wt of water evaporated from juice per hour

2590 x 103 Ju = 5.216 x105 x 3600

Ju = 725kgh-1

Rate of evaporation is 725 kgh-1