WHAT IS SPACE AND TIME TRADEOFF?
- This is a simple algorithm design technique that realizes this
- A space-time or time-memory tradeoff is a situation where the
memory use can be reduce at the cost of slower program execution,
or vice versa.
- It is one of the most important issues in computer science
- Computation time can be reduce at the cost of increased memory
employed.
- Input Enhancement the idea to preprocess the problem’s input in
whole or just simple part of the whole, and store the additional
information obtained to accelerate solving problem.
INPUT ENHANCEMENT IN STRING MANIPUALATION
- Input enhancement can be applied in different string manipulation
problems.
- Pattern matching problems
- Input enhancement using Brute force algorithm:
1. Align pattern at beginning of text
2. Moving from left to right, compare each character of pattern to
the corresponding character in text until either:
a. All characters are found to match (successful search); or
b. A mismatch is detected
3. While pattern is not found and the text is not yet exhausted,
realign pattern one position to the right and repeat step 2.
HORPOOL’S ALGORITHM
distinction for most input patterns.
- Its main objective is to make the comparison of pattern characters to
text from right to left instead of left to right.
- The main application of Shift table includes the following:
1. Stores number of character to shift by depending on first
character compared.
2. Construct by scanning pattern before searching starts.
3. Indexed by the alphabet of text and pattern.
4. All entries are initialized to pattern length.
BOYER-MOORE ALGORITHM
- This is when the comparison of the rightmost character in the pattern
with the corresponding character c in the text fails.
HASHING ALGORITHM
- This is the different approach to searching on the value of the key.
- It is based on the idea of distributing keys among a one-dimensional
array, which is referred to as the hash table.
- It is considered as a very efficient way to implement dictionaries.
- Hashing is based on the idea of distributing keys among a one-
dimensional array H[0…m-1] called hash table.
- The distribution is done by computing for each key, the value of
some predefined function h called the hash function.
Collision
- Good hash functions result in fewer collisions, but some collisions
should be expected. If you choose a hash table’s size m to be smaller
than the number of keys, you will get collision.
- Are phenomenons of two or more keys being hashed into the same
cell of the hash table.
Open Hashing
- Each cell is a header of linked list of all keys hashed to it.
Close Hashing
- One key per cell
 - In case of collision, it finds another cell by
o Linear probing: use next free bucket
o Double hashing: use second hash function to compute
increment
- Generally, the effectiveness of searching depends on the lengths of
the linked list, which, in turn, depend on the dictionary and table size
s, as well as the quality of the hash function.
- If hash function distribute keys uniformly, average length of linked
list will be:
o a=ry’m
- this ration is called load factor.
ABOUT GREEDY ALGORITHM DESIGN TECHNIQUE
- GREEDY ALGORITHMS are simple and straight forward.
- Most greedy algorithms are easy to develop, implement, and time
efficient
- Suggests constructing a solution through sequence of steps, each
expanding a partially constructed obtained so far, until a complete
solution to the problem is reached.
- On each step, which is the central point of this technique, the choices
mode must be:
o Feasible
o Locally Optimal
o Irrevocable
- Each step, it suggests a “greedy” grab of the best alternative
available.
1. Informal Algorithm - starts with nothing and at every stage without
passing the given amount and adds the largest coins already chosen.
2. Formal Algorithm – makes change for n units using the least possible
number of coins.
The Greedy algorithm consists of four functions and these are as follows:
1. A function that validates whether the selected set of items
provided a solution.
2. A function that validates the feasibility of a set.
3. The selection function which does not appear explicitly, but
gives the value of a solution.
PRIM’S ALGORITHM
– is an algorithm in graph theory that finds a minimum spanning tree
for a connected weighted graph.
o Spanning Tree of a connected graph is its connected acyclic
sub graph like a tree that contain all the vertices of the graph
[LEV07].
o A Minimum spanning tree (MST) of a weighted connected
graph is its spanning tree of the smallest weight, where the
weight of a tree is defined as the sum of the weights on all its
edges [LEV07].
o The Minimum spanning tree problem is the problem of
finding a minimum spanning tree for a given weighted
connected graph [LEV07].
Prim’s algorithm works as follows:
1. Create a tree containing a single vertex, chosen arbitrarily
from the graph
2. Create a set containing all the edges in the graph
3. Loop until every edge in the set connects two vertices in the
tree
i. Remove from the set an edge with minimum weight
that connects a vertex in the tree with a vertex not in
the tree
ii. Add that edge to the tree
KRUSKAL’S ALGORITHM
- an algorithm in graph theory that finds a minimum spanning tree for
a connected weighted graph [www.wordiq.com]
- introduced by Joseph Kruskal
 - an algorithm which find a subset of the edges that forms a tree that
includes every vertex, where the total weight of all the edges in the
tree is minimized
- If in case the graph is not connected, it finds a minimum spanning
forest connected component.
- Step 2: Sub sequently, we will look for the two nodes with the
smallest combined frequency weights and combine them to forma
third node, ensuing a simple two-level tree
- Step 3: Repeat step 2 until all of the nodes on each level are
combined in a single tree.

Kruskal’s algorithm works as follows:

1. Create a forest F(a set of trees), where each
vertex in the graph is a separate tree
2. Create a set S containing all the edges in the
graph
3. While S is nonempty
a. Remove an edge with minimum
weight from S
b. If that edge connects two different
trees, then add it to the forest, combining two trees into a
single tree
c. Otherwise discard that edge

DIJKTRA’S ALGORITHM

- introduced in 1959 by Edsger Dijktra, who is a Dutch computer

scientist
- a graph search algorithm that solves the single-source shortest path
problem for a graph with nonnegative edge path costs, producing a
shortest path tree [www.wikipedia.org]
- finds the shortest paths to a graph’s vertices in order of their distance
from a given source
o it finds the shortest path form the source to a vertex nearest
to it, then to the second and so on.

HUFFMAN TREE ALGORITHM

- Huffman tree: Are binary trees which are based on the probability
distribution of a symbol set and the principle that symbols occurring
more frequently will be represented by shorter codes than other, less
probable ones.

Three basic steps in constructing a tree:

- Step 1: Arrange the entire character set into a row and should be
ordered according to its frequency from lowest to highest or vise
versa.