I. C. Engine - 3rd Year Engineering Coursre

Internal Combustion Engines
Kerbala University
College of Engineering
Mechanical Engineering Department
Academic Year 2012 - 2013
Class 3rd Year Class
Subject Internal Combustion
Engines
Lecturer Dr. Raoof M. Radhi
3rd year class
Mechanical Engineering
subject
 Internal Combustion Engines
 Ref. book
 “Engineering fundamentals of the I. C. Engine”
 By. “Willard W. Pulkrabek”
Class time table
 Theoretical lecture 2 hrs / week
 Tutorial 1 hr / week
 Lab 3 hrs / week
exam
 1st semester 2-3 exams
 Mid year exam
 2nd semester 2-3 exams
 Final exam
Grades /year
 1st semester exams 15 marks /100
 Mid year exam 20 marks /100
 2nd semester exams 15 marks /100
 Final exam 50 marks /100
----------------------------------------------------------
Total 100 /100
Grades /semester
 Mean exam marks 7.5
 Teacher assessment 2.5
 Lab work 5.0
----------------------------------------------------
Total 15
Industrial & scientific visits
 Musaiyab thermal power plant
 Musaiyab gas turbine power plant
 Musaiyab technical institute “automobile lab”
 Kerbala cement manufacturing company
Industrial & scientific visits
report
Students have to submit TWO technical report for each visit, and this will be
considered as lab report, and receives marks accordingly. These report should be
as follows:
1. 1st report – is descriptive 2. 2nd report – is analysis report, where

report presenting technical the students should collect technical
and engineering side of the data from the plant facilities (control
plant with all the necessary boards, gauges, log-book, technical
specifications, layouts, and documents, and engineering
diagrams, discussing clearly department). These data should be
thereby his point of view of adequate to enable the student to do
what he had actually seen, complete performance analysis and
understood, and concluded. performance assessment (work, power
output, efficiency) for the plant actual
operation.
basics
 Basics of previous subjects
thermodynamics
fluid mechanics
heat transfer
mathematics
 Units & definitions of “power, energy, work …”
syllabus
1. Introduction 8. Engine friction & lubrication
2. Operating characteristics 9. Engine boosting
3. Engine cycles i – supercharging
4. Thermochemistry- Fuels-combustion ii – turbocharging
i – thermo-chemistry 10. Testing and measurement
ii – fuel 11. Unconventional Engines
iii – combustion i – heat engine cycles
iv – electrical system ii – Wankle rotary engine
5. Gas exchange systems iii – Stirling engine
i – induction process & system
ii – gas motion inside cylinder
iii – exhaust process & system
6. Emissions & Air Pollution
7. Engine heat transfer
Student’s duties
 Students should follow  Students will be asked to
the lecture through : do through the course :
1. Lecture data show 1. Home work
presentation. 2. Quiz
2. Lecture notes 3. Assay or report on
3. Handout & leaflets. specific topics.
4. Text book
5. Any other class verbal
announcement
Examination
Normally, exam will be conducted as closed book exam under the responsibility of
the subject tutor, and within the official examination rules. However the tutor can
allow open book exam, but should brief students of his intention and his goals in
such exercise.
Open Book Exam

** Open book exam will allow:
•Open books
•Open notes
•Open calculators
•Open computers
•All provided class materials
•Worked out home work problems are allowed and encouraged
•Copies of homework answer sheets are allowed and encouraged
** Students will be asked to show detailed answers
Exam rules
Exam is to be an individual effort, students therefore
should remember the following rules:
1. No form of direct communication between students.
2. No passing of [papers, pencil, calculators, text book, or any other materials]
directly between students.
3. Students may only ask the tutor a limited form of questions that pertain clarity of
the exam questions.
4. Students will not be allowed to ask any question that may give hints towards the
answer.
Disobedience of any of the above and academic

dishonesty of any kind is considered as serious
offense, and will not be tolerated and will definitely
subject the student:
1. To at least failure of the course, and
2. Up to and possibly including expulsion from the university.
Lab work
REPORT PRESENTATION:
Presentation of your report is very important.
Title page should include:
Lab name.
Experiment number and name.
Student surname, name.
Laboratory group.
Experiment date
Lab. supervisor name
Object of the test should be briefly explained (IN YOUR OWN WORDS)
Data, collected during test, should be tabulated.
A sample calculation will be performed for a selected load condition
All results will be presented in a tabulated form.
Graphs: Selected graphs from the following will be drawn.
a) Corrected brake horse power
b) Corrected torque
c) Brake mean effective pressure
d) Brake specific fuel consumption
e) Brake thermal efficiency
f) Volumetric efficiency
g) Actual air-fuel ratio
h) Excess air coefficient
While plotting above graphs on a millimetric paper you are supposed to
draw the trend lines of the above properties versus engine speed.
Discussion & Conclusions: (Graphical outputs will be your domain for
this section. Graphs and reasons for observed performance
characteristics will be explained.
Also discuss the possible sources of errors that may be encountered in
the experiment.
Tutorial
• Tutorial class will be more productive, better objective, wider educative, if it

becomes student’s individual effort with close help of the tutor.
• Therefore, students will be arbitrary but equally divided into SIX Groups.
• A tutorial sheet will be circulated in the class for every subject during the year with
answers as footnote of each question.
• Each tutorial sheet contain six questions, one question for each tutorial group to
solve during the tutorial class .
• Each group solve the sheet question number similar to group number.
• Each group should appoint a coordinator with the other five groups for gathering
the solution of the six sheet questions. This will allow the solution of all sheet
questions to be spread among all groups
• tutorial group should experiments the benefits of TEAM WORK during the
process of problem solving , this means that every member of the group should
participate in the effort of solving the problem.
Students behavior
1. Class attendance must be consistence .
2. Determinant & Active during lecture discussion.
3. Cooperative.
4. Maintain class order.
5. Students are expected to show respect for order, law,
personal rights of others, and the education mission
of the department.
6. considers academic dishonesty to be a serious
offense
Lecturer responsibilities
1. Lecture materials must be within the subject
syllabus.
2. lecture presentation must be simple and informative.
3. Keeping class order.
4. Make himself available in none class time at a preset
time-table for students assistance.
Advice to students :
1. ** Student should first-of-all understand the subject.
** Understanding the subject does not mean accepting the information at
the instant of time
…. No
** Understanding the subject means understanding the engineering
thoughts in the subject
2. Student should study as much as it is required to understand the

engineering thoughts of the subjects. i.e
Study
Study
and …. Study
3. The lecturer →
→→ helps the student to understand ….
→→ not make him understand
Be careful how you interpret results
Internal Combustion Engine
Subject
Internal combustion Engines
Ref. Book
Engineering Fundamentals of the IC Engines
By – Willard W. Pulkrabek
Class weekly hours

Lectures - 2 hrs
Tutorials - 1 hr
Lab - 3 hrs
Internal Combustion Engines
1.01 - Introduction
2 Internal Combustion Engines chapter one

Contents
• Chapter One -- Introduction
• 1.1 – introduction
• 1-2 – energy conversion
• 1.3 – engine classification
• 1.4 – engine components
• 1.5 – basic engine cycles
• 1.6 – engine emissions & air pollution
• 1.7 – discussions

1.1 - Introduction
I – Definitions •
**Internal combustion •
engine as the name say
“combustion” is a
device concerns with
combustion process,
whereby heat is
produced.

In general I.C. Engine is a
heat engine, and this can
be defined as
“ A heat engine is a
device which converts the
chemical energy of a fuel
into thermal energy”
Such thermal energy is
used to produce
mechanical energy at the
out put shaft.

heat engines can be one of the followings :
1- external combustion engine (ECE).
2- internal combustion engine (ICE).
It is important to know that the

combustion process in a heat engine in
both (ECE & ICE) is actually a chemical
reaction between air (oxidant) and fuel at
a specific temperature and pressure and
within a confined volume (combustion
chamber) to produce chemical reaction
products (combustion products).

Comparison
• ICE • ECE
1. High max efficiency 1. Wide variety of fuel used
2. Low first cost 2. High staring torque
3. Absence of large heat 3. Almost free vibration
exchangers engine.
4. Efficient cooling sys. 4. Practical in a very large
5. Effective cycle power unit
temperature control 5. Practical in stationary
6. Practical in mobile application
application
7. Exhaust heat energy
utilization.

1.2 – Energy conversion
• The conversion process of the chemical energy in a fuel into
mechanical energy at the shaft out put can be explained as
follows :
1. Chemical energy of fuel is converted to thermal energy by oxidation

with air (O2) (combustion) in the combustion chamber.
2. Thermal energy raises the temperature and pressure of the gases within
the engine cylinder.
3. High pressure gases expands against the resistance of engine
mechanism and linkage.
4. The expansion process (power) forces the engine mechanism to
reciprocate (piston) and rotate (crank).
5. Piston reciprocates ups and down causes the crankshaft to rotate giving
the output shaft a rotational torque.

1.3 – Engine Classification
• Engines can be classified in many different ways, as they have many
attributes, whereby making them capable of meeting a variety of needs
and requirements.
• The followings are the most used methods of engine classification
1. cylinder numbers & arrangement
2. engine cycles
3. type of ignition
4. valve position & location
5. cam shaft properties
6. engine speed
7. method of air & fuel supply
8. fuel used
9. cooling system
10. application

There are so many parts that constitute
an internal combustion engine, which
makes it a very complex system.
Whereby, each part must act in a perfect
synchronization with the others to make
up
• *a well defined machine,
*a well balanced operation, and
*a well established timing.

1.4 – Engine Parts & Components

Many of these engine parts
and components, the students
will become familiar with
during the course time and
lectures.
However, the followings may
be considered as most
repeatable during the course,
and so, it is useful to mention
them in brief hereafter
1. Piston
cylindrical shaped mass
that reciprocates back
and forth in the cylinder,
transmitting the
pressure forces in the
combustion chamber to
the rotating crankshaft.

2. Connecting rod
it is a rod or linkage that
connect the
reciprocating piston
with the rotating
crankshaft.

3 - Crankshaft (crank)
it is a rotating shaft through which
engine work output is supplied to
external systems. Fixed with the cylinder
block, and receives motion forces from
the piston.

4 - Cylinder
circular cylinders in the
engine block inside which the
piston reciprocate, and
beneath which crank is fixed,
thus confining the motion
linkage.

5 - camshaft
rotating shaft used to push
open valves at proper time in
the engine cycle. The cam
profile is made to give such
desired movement to the
valve.

1-5 – Basic Engine Cycles

Most IC engines , both SI & CI,
operates on either four or two stroke
cycle, where:
**stroke – is piston travel between the
two dead centers The main types of cycles to be
**cycle – is a process to be completed considered are as follows :
once and continue to repeat itself in a
1. 4-stroke SI engine cycle
constant duration.
Therefore 2. 4-stroke CI engine cycle
4-stroke cycle requires 4 piston travels 3. 2-stroke SI engine cycle
between top & bottom dead centers , 4. 2-stroke CI engine cycle
while
the 2-stroke cycle requires 2 piston
travels

1.5.1 – 4-stroke SI engine cycle
• Comprises of four piston stroke to complete
one operational cycle through two
revolutions of the crankshaft , i.e :
1. Induction stroke
2. Compression stroke
3. Power stroke
4. Exhaust stroke

Intake Stroke
• The piston starts at the top
of the cylinder and moves
downward.
• The intake valve opens
allowing a fresh charge of
mixed fuel and air into the
cylinder.
• This is the intake stroke.

Compression Stroke
Once reaching bottom the •
piston moves back up.
The intake valve closes •
sealing the mixture inside
the cylinder.
The mixture compresses •
making the soon to come
explosion more powerful
and efficient.
This is the compression •
stroke.

Power Stroke
• When the piston reaches
the top of its stroke the fuel
mixture is ignited by the
spark plug.
• The gasoline charge in the
cylinder explodes with great
power.
• This is the power stroke

Exhaust Stroke
• Once the piston reaches the
bottom of its stroke the
piston again moves upward.
• The exhaust valve opens
and the burnt gasses are
forced out of the cylinder.
• This is the exhaust stroke
and the engine is ready to
begin the cycle again.

Otto Cycle, ideal for spark ignition engines
Ideal cycles are simplified
1-5-2 / 4-stroke CI engine cycle
• These are similar to 4-stroke SI engine cycle with
the following exceptions :
1. Induction - similar to SI except that only air is
admitted without fuel.
2. Compression – similar to SI except that only air is
compressed, and fuel will be added near the end of
this stroke.
3. Power – after combustion, power stroke is similar
to SI
4. Exhaust – similar to SI

1.5.3 / 2 stroke SI engine cycle
1 - Power or expansion stroke

high cylinder pressure pushed 2. Exhaust blowdown
piston from TDC towards BDC with when exhaust port opens near end of
all ports closed. Air in crankcase is
power stroke
compressed by downward motion of
piston.
3. Cylinder scavenging when intake port opens 4. Compression stroke
and air-fuel is forced into cylinder under piston moves from BDC to TDC with
pressure. intake mixture pushes some of the all ports closed. Intake air fills
remaining exhaust out the open exhaust port. crankcase. Spark ignition occurs near
scavenging lasts until piston passes BDC and
closes intake and exhaust port end of compression stroke.
5. Combustion combustion occurs at almost constant volume near TDC.
1.6 – engine emissions
& air pollution
1. Emissions
Four major emissions produced by IC engines :
** unburnt hydrocarbon (HC)
due to rich mixture of air/fuel
** carbon monoxides (CO)
not enough O2 to form CO2
** nitrogen oxides (NOx)
excess O2 and high combustion temperature
** solid particulates
carbon particles as black smoke or soot

Methods to reduce engine emission
• Two methods are generally used to reduce engine
emissions and pollution rate :
1. Improve engine and fuel technology to obtain
better combustion process.
2. Exhaust after treatment
Using thermal and catalytic converters that promote
chemical reaction in the exhaust to convert
harmful emission to acceptable forms such as ( CO2
, H2O , N2 )

1.7 – discussions
1. ICE is a heat engine that covert chemical energy in fuel into
mechanical work at the output shaft.
2. Most ICE are reciprocating type, whereby piston reciprocate
back and forth inside the cylinder.
3. Important technological inventions that influence the
development of ICE are:
**discovery of crud oil resulted in the development of
reliable fuel appropriate for ICE use.
**manufacturing pneumatic rubber tire made the
automobile more practical, desirable, comfortable, thus
generate a large market demand.

Internal Combustion Engine
Subject
Internal combustion Engines
Ref. Book
Engineering Fundamentals of the IC Engines
By – Willard W. Pulkrabek
Class weekly hours

Lectures - 2 hrs
Tutorials - 1 hr
Lab - 3 hrs
Chapter One - Introduction
1.02 – Engine Classifications

Engine parts
Classification methods
• Engines can be classified in I – cylinder numbers & arrangement
many different ways, as II – engine cycles
they have many attributes, III – type of ignition
whereby making them IV – valve position & location
capable of meeting a V – cam shaft properties
variety of needs and VI – engine speed
requirements. VII – method of air supply
VIII - method of fuel supply
• however, engines in general
are classified according to IX- fuel used
the following methods : X – cooling system
XI - application
I – cylinder numbers & arrangement
1. Number of cylinders
2. Vertical & horizontal
3. Inline & V-type
4. Single & opposed
piston
II – engine cycles
1. Two stroke
2. Four stokes
3. Five stroke
4. Six strokes
III – type of ignition
1. Spark ignition
2. Compression ignition
IV – valve position & location
• a- valve in block (L)

• b- valve in head (I)
• c- one in head and
one in block (F)
• d- on opposite sides
V – cam shaft properties
1 - Location
• crank case
• cylinder head
2 - Numbers
• single overhead cam
• double overhead cam
3 - Driver
• chain
• gear
• tooth belt
4 - Linkage
• direct valve-cam contact
• valve train (push rod + rocker arm)
Crankcase-cylinder head
location
Single & double OHC
***
Cam drive linkage
VI – engine speed
1. Low speed engine ( 95 – 250 rpm )

2. Medium speed engine ( 300 – 1000 rpm)
3. High speed engine ( over 1000 rpm)
VII – method of air supply
• Air intake
1. Naturally aspiration
2. Supercharging
3. Turbo-charging
4. Crankcase compression
VIII – method of fuel supply
• Fuel supply
1. Carburetion
2. Multi-port fuel
injection
3. Throttle body fuel
injection
IX- fuel used
1. Liquid
2. Gas
3. Duel fuel
4. Solid
X – cooling system
liquid cooling Air cooling
XI - application
1. Automobile
2. Locomotive
3. Stationary
4. Marine
5. Aircraft
6. Small portable
summary
• I – cylinder numbers & arrangement
• II – engine cycles
• III – type of ignition
• IV – valve position & location
• V – cam shaft properties
• VI – engine speed
• VII – method of air supply
• VIII - method of fuel supply
• IX- fuel used
• X – cooling system
• XI - application
example
• Several or all of these classification terms can

be used at the same time :
• ( turbocharged-spark ignition-4 stroke-
overhead valve-water cooled-gasoline-
multipoint-V8-automobile ) engine
Chapter two
Operating characteristics
2.01 - Introduction
Contents
Chapter two – operating characteristics •
2.1 – introduction
2.1.1 – introductory remarks
2.1.2 - definitions
2.2 – engine geometry
2.1 - introduction
2.1.1. general introductory remarks
i -The benefit of running an ICE is to produce
useful output that can be utilized to perform
some action that human cannot do easily.
This means that ICE converts fuel energy into
mechanical output
power
ii- indicated ; is what the
engine is really
producing, that is
indicated inside the
cylinder in terms of
work, power, mep …etc.
iii- brake ; is what the
engine is actually
delivering, similarly the
work, power, mep
measured at the output
shaft.
iv- the values of the two
inefficiency
parameters is always
given as ( indicated >
brake ), and the
difference is the losses
mostly due to mechanical
inefficiencies, i.e :
indicated – brake = losses
and;
(brake / indicated ) = ηm
and this can be in terms of
work, power or mep
losses
v - Engine losses can be characterized as follows:

1- friction losses •
these are mechanical losses due to
friction between all sliding surfaces;
“ con rod bearings; crankshaft bearing;
camshaft bearings … etc “
2- parasitic losses •
these are the losses due to loads required
to operate engine auxiliaries such;
“ air conditioner; oil pump; water pump; alternator;
supercharger; and all other auxiliaries.”
2.1.2 - definitions
1. Work (W)
It is the force exerted over a distance.
When there is no movement of an object, there will be no work
done regardless of how much force is exerted.
2. Mean effective pressure (mep)
this is the average pressure inside the
cylinder, or
“ a hypothetical pressure acting on the piston
through the power stroke “
3. Power ( W).
it is the rate at which the engine is doing work.
4. Torque (τ)
a force acting at a moment distance, or torque is a force that,
when applied , tends to twist an object rather than its physical
movement.
2.2 - Engine geometry
B = cylinder bore •
= piston diameter
S = piston stroke •
= distance between TDC & BDC
Piston displacement is •
the piston swept
volume (Vd)
Vd = (π/4) B² . S
Correlations – engine parameters
1. Bore & stroke
2. Con rod & crank off-set
3. Average piston speed
4. Compression ratio
5. Engine speed
1. Bore (B) & stroke(S)
0.5 cm ≤ B ≤ 0.5 m
0.8 ≤ B/S ≤ 1.2
S=4B for very large engines
in general
B=S square engine
B<S under square (large engines)
B>S over square
2. Con rod (r) & crank offset(a)

R = r/a
3-4 ≤ R ≤ 5-10
small engine ← → large engine
3. Average piston speed
5 ≤ Up ≤ 15 m/s
Up ≤ 15 m/s engine high performance automobile
5 ≤ Up m/s large diesel engine
5. Compression ratio Cr
Cr = VBDC / VTDC
= (Vd + Vc)/Vc
8 ≤ SI ≤ 11
12 ≤ CI ≤ 24
4. Engine speed
200-400 ← →12000-higher
Up accelerates & decelerates twice in each crank
rpm,
So N-↑ and t-↓ for each rpm
hence, Up-↑ as N-↑ .
A limit must be set to avoid material strength
failure in components like piston and con rod.
Related volumes
1.Clearance volume (Vc) .� 3.Total volume (Vt)

this is the minimum volume Is the sum of Vc & Vd
in the combustion
chamber with the piston Vt = V c + V d
at the TDC
4. TDC & BDC
2. Displacement volume (Vd) .�
Vc = VTDC
volume swept by the piston Vt = VBDC

as it travels through one
stroke
tutorial
• For a given (Vd), variation of (B↕,S↕) may be
applied in such a way to maintain
Vd=constant.
• In this respect complete the table below by
stating ( ↑ ) or ( ↓ ) for each parameter under
each case :
In this respect complete the table below by stating( ↑ ) or
( ↓ ) for each parameter under each case :
S↑ B↓ S↓ B ↑
Surface area
Heat loss
Thermal efficiency
Piston speed
friction
Power output
Choose the correct answer
continue
Ch.2 – operating characteristics
2.03 - Derivation of slider – crank

model
notations
• b = cylinder bore
• S = piston stroke
• a = crank off-set
• S = 2a
• l = con rod length
• θ= crank angle
• s = slider = F(θ)
• TDC=top dead center
• BDC=bottom dead C
x = piston travel from TDC to position θ
S = 2a crank offset diameter.
1. Swept volume Vd for one cylinder is
Vd = (π/4) B² . S
2. Clearance volume Vc
Vc = VTDC
2. Total volume
Vt = VBDC = Vd + Vc
Compression ratio (Cr )
From which (Vc) can be expressed as :

General trigonometry
• cos² + sin² = 1
• cos = √1 - sin²
• cos 2θ = cos² - sin²
• sin 2θ = 2 sinθ cosθ
• sinA/a=sinB/b=sinC/c
***
1. Δ fgh
hf = a cos θ
hg = a sin θ
2. Δ ehg
eh = r cosφ
hg = r sinφ
3. From the two triangles :
hg = a sin θ = r sinφ
• so
sinφ = (a/r) sin θ
4. Also
ef = hf + eh
ef = a cos θ + r cosφ
5. Since 9. From fig.
cos² + sin² = 1 ef = hf + eh
cos = √1 - sin² = a cos θ + r cosφ
6. and since from 3 and this is equal to the
sinφ = (a/r) sin θ slider distance (s), the
7. Then s = a cos θ + r cosφ
cosφ = √1 - sin²φ
From (8) we get
8. Sub. Eq.6 in eq.7 s =a cos θ +r √1 -(a/r)² sin² θ
cosφ =√1 -(a/r)² sin² θ s = a cos θ + √r² -a² sin² θ
s = slider = F(θ)
which determines the piston
position at any crank angle
Also
s = the distance between
crank axis and piston wrist
pin axis
1. Piston at TDC
s=r+a
2. Piston at BDC
s=r-a
Piston position is defined by the angle (θ) that the
piston center line makes with the crank offset. Such
position effects many operating variables, the main of
which are the five variables mentioned below. These
complicated mathematical correlations helps in
understanding the engine performance during actual
piston movement inside the cylinder, where (θ) can take
any value (4-stroke for example) from (θ = 0°) at the
start till the end of the cycle at (θ = 720°)
1 - Piston travel x = f (θ)

2 – cylinder volume Vcyl = f(θ)
3 - Piston speed Up = f (θ)
4 - Piston acceleration ap = f(θ)
5 - Cylinder wall surface area Acw = f(θ)
Piston travel x = f (θ )
10. If the slider reaches a
position at (θ ) crank
angle, then the piston
would have travelled a
distance (x) from TDC,
where
x=(r+a)–s
and
s = a cos θ +√r² -a² sin² θ
Sub value of (s) to find (x)
x=(r+a)–s
There are three specific piston position
1 - at TDC →→→ (θ = 0) →→→ { cos 0 = 1 and sin 0 = 0}
so, s = a + r
x=(r+a)–s
then x = 0
2 - at BDC →→→ (θ = 180) →→→ cos 180 = -1 and sin 180 = 0

so, s = - a + r i.e →→→ s = r - a
and therefore
x=(r+a)–s
x = ( r + a ) – (r - a )
x = 2 a = piston stroke
This means that the crank shaft rotates (180 deg) and the piston travels the complete distance of
a stroke .
3 – at (θ ) , then
x=(r+a)–s
Whereby, the piston position can be specified by substituting any specific value of (θ ), to
find the corresponding value of (s), from which (x) can be evaluated.
V cylinder = f(θ)
Vt = Vd + Vc and Vc = Vd / (Cr – 1 ) and Vd = (π/4) B² . S
Vθ = Vc+(π/4) B² . X
Vθ = Vd / (Cr – 1 ) + (π/4) B² . X
x = ( r + a ) – s →→→ x = ( r + a ) – [a cos θ +√r² -a² sin² θ]
x = ( r + a ) – [a cos θ +√r² -a² sin² θ]
Vθ = Vd / (Cr – 1 ) + (π/4) B² . X
Vθ = Vd / (Cr – 1 ) + (π/4) B² . {( r + a ) – [a cos θ +√r² -a² sin² θ]}
Vθ = Vd /(Cr –1) + (π/4) B² . a{((r/a) +1) – [ cos θ +√(r²/ a² )-sin² θ]}
Let R = r/a
Vθ = Vd /(Cr –1) + (π/4) B² . a{((R) +1) – [ cos θ +√R² - sin² θ]}
And let a = ½ S
Vθ = Vd /(Cr –1) + (π/4) B² .S/2 {((R) +1) – [ cos θ +√R² - sin² θ]}
But (π/4) B² .S/2 = Vd / 2
Vθ = Vd /(Cr –1) + (Vd /2 ) { ((R) +1) – [ cos θ +√R² - sin² θ] }
Piston speed Up = f (θ )
• Since
• s = a cos θ +√r² -a² sin² θ
• The instantaneous piston speed can be found
by
differentiation of (s) with respect to time :
• ds / dt = Up
• ds / dt = (ds/d θ) . (d θ/ dt)
• ds / dt = - ω a sin θ + {1/[2(√r² -a² sin² θ)]} [- 2 ω a² sin θ cos θ ]
ds / dt = - ω a sin θ + {1/[2(√r² -a² sin²θ)]} [- 2 ω a² sin θ cos θ ]
The (-ve) sign means direction, and since both terms of this equation are (-ve), it means
that movement is in one direction, so if both terms are (-ve) or (+ve) gives similar
meaning. Therefore, the instantaneous piston speed is
Up = ω a sin θ + {[ ω a² sin θ cos θ ] /[√r² - a² sin²θ]}
Up = ω a sin θ + {[ ω a² sin θ cos θ ] /[√r² - a² sin²θ]}
Taking (ω . a) as common factor, we get
Up = ω a {sin θ + {[ a sin θ cos θ ] /[√r² - a² sin²θ]}
let R=r/a
Up = ω a {sin θ + {[ a sin θ cos θ ] /a[√r²/ a² - sin²θ]}
Up = ω a {sin θ + {[ sin θ cos θ ] /[√R² - sin²θ]}

Piston acceleration ap = f(θ)
• Since the piston velocity is
• Up = ds / dt
• Up = (ds/d θ) . (d θ/ dt)
• Up = ω a {sin θ + {[ sin θ cos θ ] /[√R² - sin²θ]}
• And the piston acceleration at this instant is
• ap = (dUp/d t) . (d θ/ dt)
• a = a ω² {cos θ + (a/r) cos 2θ }
p
• Acceleration will be max when θ = 0

• ap ]max = a ω² { 1+ (a/r) }
Surface area Ax = f(θ)
• Surface area of interest here is • i – piston top surface area (Ap)
that area exposed to heat
transfer, or more specifically that • It is constant and equals to
area of the surfaces facing the • Ap = (π/4) B²
inside of the cylinder and
subjected to continuous
variations in temperature and • ii–cylinder head surface area (Ach)
pressure during engine operation. • It is also constant and equals to
• As piston changes position, the
revealed magnitudes of the • Ach = (π/4) D² = (π/4) B²
surface area varies accordingly
• However, there are three distinct
surface areas under consideration • iii – cylinder wall surface area (Acw)
: • It is variable and depends on the exposed
• i – piston top surface area (Ap) cylinder wall revealed by the piston travel
• ii – cylinder head surface area (Ach) (x)
• iii – cylinder wall surface area (Acw)
• Acw = π.B.x = π.B (r + a – s )
Cylinder wall surface area Acw = f(θ)
• Acw = π.B.x = π.B (r + a – s )
• Acw = π.B (r + a – (a cos θ +√r² -a² sin² θ))
• Acw = π.B.a (r/a + 1 – 1/a(a cos θ +√r² -a² sin² θ))
• Acw = π.B.a (R + 1 – (cos θ +√R² - sin² θ))
• Since S = 2a →→→ a = S/2
• Acw = π.B.S/2 (1 + R – (cos θ +√R² - sin² θ))
• Total surface area A t
• A =A +A +A
t p ch cw
• A t = 2 ((π/4) B² )+ π.B.S/2 (1 + R – (cos θ +√R² - sin² θ))

Concluding remarks
• From above it can be seen clearly that the crank angle can describe the piston status from
various aspects, i.e :
1. Piston travel distance x = f(θ)

x = ( r + a ) – [a cos θ +√r² -a² sin² θ]
2. Piston swept volume V = f(θ)
Vθ = Vd /(Cr –1) + (Vd /2 ) { ((R) +1) – [ cos θ +√R² - sin² θ] }
3. Piston instantaneous speed Up = f(θ)
Up = ω a {sin θ + {[ sin θ cos θ ] /[√R² - sin²θ]}
4. Piston acceleration ap = f(θ)

ap = a ω² {cos θ + (a/r) cos 2θ }
5. Surface are At = f(θ)
At = 2 ((π/4) B² )+ π.B.S/2 (1 + R – (cos θ +√R² - sin² θ))
General info
cos² + sin² = 1
cos = √1 - sin²
cos 2θ = cos² - sin²
sin 2θ = 2 sinθ cosθ
sin(- θ ) = - sin θ
cos (- θ) = cos θ
Sin law
sinA/a=sinB/b=sinC/c
Two angles correlation (θ & φ)
• The two angles can be correlated
to find x
• X=a(1-cos θ )±r(1-cos φ )
• Using sin law
sin θ /r = sin φ /a
sin φ = a/r sin θ
• But [cos = √1 - sin²]
• cos φ = √1 - sin² φ
= √1 –( a/r sin θ) ²
• Applying this formula for series
and considering only the first
term gives
• cos φ = 1 – ( a²/2 r²) sin² θ
• Sub in above to find (x)
• X =a[(1-cos θ )±{½ (a/ r) sin² θ}]
Non – dimensional correlations
1. S = 2a • From previous lectures
a = S/2 and above correlations,
2. ω = 2πN a non-dimensional
correlations can be
N = ω / 2π obtained in terms of :
3. The average piston • I – volumes.
speed Up
• II- piston speed
Up = 2SN
• Non-dimensional
= (2)(2a)(ω / 2π) correlations are useful
= (2/π) a . ω to avoid units variation
volumes
• Since
• Vc = Vd / (Cr – 1 )
• Vd = (π/4) B² . S
• Vθ = Vc+(π/4) B² . X
• Vθ = Vd /(Cr –1) + (Vd /2 ) { ((R) +1) – [ cos θ +√R² - sin² θ] }
• Then
• Vθ/Vc = 1 +½(Cr –1) { (1+R ) – [ cos θ +√R² - sin² θ] }

• Vθ/Vd = 1 /(Cr –1) + (1 /2 ) { (1+R ) – [ cos θ +√R² - sin² θ] }
Piston speed
• The instantaneous piston speed ( Up )
• Up = ω a {sin θ + {[ sin θ cos θ ] /[√R² -
sin²θ]}
• The average piston speed ( Up‾)

• Up‾ = (2/π) a . ω
• Up/ Up‾ = (π/2) sin θ { 1 + [cos θ /(√R² -

sin²θ)]}
summery
1. S = 2a →→→ a = S/2
2. Vc = Vd / (Cr – 1 )
Vd = (π/4) B² . S
Vθ = Vc+(π/4) B² . X
Vθ = Vd /(Cr –1) + (Vd /2 ) { (R +1) – [ cos θ +√R² - sin² θ] }
3. s = r ± a
x=r+a–s
R=r/a
4. A = A + A + A
t p ch cw
A = 2 ((π/4) B² )+ π.B.S/2 (1 + R – (cos θ +√R² - sin² θ))

t
***
5. Up = ω a {sin θ + {[ sin θ cos θ ] /[√R² - sin²θ]}
6 . a = a ω² {cos θ + (a/r) cos 2θ }

p
7. Vθ/Vc = 1 +½(Cr –1) { (1+R ) – [ cos θ +√R² - sin² θ] }

Vθ/Vd = 1 /(Cr –1) + (1 /2 ) { (1+R ) – [ cos θ +√R² - sin² θ] }
Up/ Up‾ = (π/2) sin θ { 1 + [cos θ /(√R² - sin²θ)]}
8. ω = 2πN
N = ω / 2π
Up = 2SN = (2/π) a . ω
Ch.2 – operating characteristics
2.03 - Engine power

work
• Work (W) is always the • But since
force (F) exerted over a • P = F/A
distance (x). F=P.A
• When there is no movement of an
object, there will be no work • A = piston face area
done, regardless of how much P = pressure acting on
force is exerted.
piston face due to
• W=F.X
combustion
W = work (kJ/kg)
• P = Pg – Pc
F = force
• Pg = gas pressure inside
x = distance piston moves
the cylinder due to
combustion process
Pc = pressure in crank case
• Sub and rearrange • When considering unit
• W=P.A.X mass, the expression
• For small displacement (dx)
“specific” is used, i.e
• dW = P . A . dx • Specific work; is the
• Where ( A. dx = dV) incremental work done per unit mass
swept volume of AF mixture :
• So, dW = P. dV • w = W/m
• Therefore ;
• And specific volume is
• W = ʃ P.dV • v = V/m
• Where ( ʃ P.dV ) is the • Therefore , the specific
area under the (PV) work (w) is
diagram • w = ʃ P. dv
In this equation if (P) is the
pressure inside the cylinder, ** The specific work is
then the work is the indicated (+ve) when the gas
work (w)i . producing the pressure is
however, the actual work
delivered by the crank shaft is expanding ( power or
the brake work (w)b , and expansion stroke )
(w)i - (w)b = (w)l ** The specific work is
Where (w)l is the specific work
lost (-ve) when the gas is
(w)l = [ friction + parasitic ] compressed and the
specific work work is done on the gas
The units representing work is
( kJ/kg) by the outside source.
Mean effective pressure (mep)
• Due to piston motion and • So, the work done by
stroke, the pressure (mep) is :
inside the cylinder is • W = ʃ P.dV
continuously changing • W = mep . Vd
during the cycle, • Then
• and therefore we can • mep = w/Vd = w/ ∆v
define (mep) as
• ∆v = v - vBDC TDC
“the everage pressure • Since (mep) is related to (w),

acting on the piston then the type of (w) used in
through the power the equation determines the
stroke” type of (mep).
• (w)b → bmep • For typical engines
• (w)i → imep
• For SI engines
• (w)pump → pmep
• (w)friction → fmep 850 kPa≤ bmep≤ 1050 kPa
• if gmep is gross mep
• and nmep is net mep
• nmep = gmep + pmep • for CI engines
• bmep = nmep – fmep kPa700≤ bmep ≤ 900 kPa
• bmep = imep – fmep
• bmep = η . imep
m
Power (Ẇ)
• Calculation of engine
power output can be
done in several
methods, since the
definition of power is
the rate at which
engine is doing work,
then power is related
to work and speed.
1. Related to work
Ẇ = W . (N/n)
W : work (kJ/kg)
N : engine speed (rpm x 1/60) rps
n = 2 for 4 stroke engine
= 1 for 2 stroke engine
Ẇ = power output (kW)
2a. Related to (mep) 2b / If P = bar
Ẇ = k[PLAN/n] / C Ẇ = k[PLAN/n] .C
The conversion factor (C)
Where :
C = 100000/(60 x 1000 ) for (kW)
C = conversion factor Where
k = number of cylinders P (bar) x 10⁵ = N/m²
Ẇ = power output (kW) N(rpm /60) = rev/s
P = mep (N/m² ) P(N/m²)/1000 = KN/m²→ kW
L = piston stroke (m) C = 10/6
A = piston cross section area (m²)
N = engine speed (rpm)
n = rev/cycle
• The conversion factor (C)

C = 60 x 1000 for (kW)
Where
N(rpm /60) = rev/s
P(N/m²)/1000 = KN/m² → kW
2c. Related to (mep) • The conversion factor (C)
Ẇ = k[PLAN/n] / C C = 4500 for (metric hp)
Where : C = 6120 for (kW)
C = conversion factor
k = number of cylinders
Ẇ = power output (kW, metric hp)
P = mep (kgf/cm² )
L = piston stroke (m)
A = piston cross section area (cm²)
N = engine speed (rpm)
n = rev/cycle
3. Related to mean Up • Sub in equation to
Ẇ = [PLAN/n] / C get
Since
L= stroke (S) Ẇ = [P. A.Up] / n C
N= engine speed
And
Up = 2LN = 2SN
Then
Up/2 = LN
4. Related to combustion • ṁa = is the air mass rate
• ṁa = ηv . Vd . Ρa . (N/60n)
Ẇ = ṁf . CV . ηth.i • ṁa : air mass rate kg/s
• Also since • ηv : volumetric efficiency
Vd = π/4 B² S
• FA = ṁf /ṁa •
• swept volume (m³)
• or AF = ṁa /ṁf • ρa = Pin/(Rg.Tin)
• then , ṁf = FA. ṁa • inlet air density
• (N/60n) : rev/s
• Ẇ =(FA.ṁa) CV . ηth.i • Pin (kPa),
• Rg = 0.287 kJ/kg.k
• Tin ( deg. K)
From above equation, we can notice the followings :
If either (mf) or (AF) is given then, the power can be evaluated if

engine geometry is known.
Considering the term (CV . ηth.i )
CV - is the fuel calorific value which is the fuel heating
value (Q).
ηth.i - is the thermal efficiency of the engine cycle, which
means the fraction of heat liberated from fuel
(CV . ηth.i ) that could be converted to mechanical
energy.
In general power output = heat energy in fuel x ability of conversion
What is the engine ability of conversion

In this respect, ability of conversion is best looked at through terms of efficiencies :
ηc - combustion efficiency, which is the ability of how much of the fuel that can really
be burned.
ηf - fuel conversion efficiency, which is the ability of how much heat energy can
really be converted to power.
So [ṁf . CV] determines the total heat that can possibly be produced by combustion
process.
Using the above efficiencies :
Heat input to the engine
Qin = ṁf . CV . η c
Power output from engine
Ẇ = ṁf . CV. ηf
+++
• Heat input to the engine • ηth = Ẇ / Qin
Qin = ṁf . CV . η c • ηth = ṁ . CV. η / ṁ . CV . η
f f f c
• Power output from engine
Ẇ = ṁf . CV. ηf • ηth = ηf / η c
• η th. - is the thermal
efficiency of the engine
cycle, which means the
fraction of heat input
from fuel (CV . ηth.i ) that
can be used as power
output.
summary
From all of the previous equations, power
correlation can be summarized as follows :
1. Ẇ = W . (N/n)
2. Ẇ = [PLAN/n] / C
3. Ẇ = [P. A.Up] / n C
4. Ẇ = ṁf . CV . ηth.
5. Ẇ = 2πƬN
Engine Torque Ƭ
• Torque is a force acting at • Since Ẇ = W . (N/n)
a distance, measured in • And 2πƬ = W/n
Using the common factor (W) to
(N.m). •
obtain torque-power correlation
• Or more specifically • Ẇ = 2πƬN
“torque is a force that,
when applied, results in
twisting an object rather
than it’s physical
movement”.
• Analytically, torque is
• 2πƬ = W/n = bmep.Vd/n
• Ƭ = bmep.Vd/ 2π n
Specific fuel consumption
• sfc = fuel mass rate / engine power
• sfc = ṁf / Ẇ
• The indicated or brake (sfc) in this
correlation depends on the power used, i.e
• isfc = ṁf / Ẇi
• bsfc = ṁf / Ẇb
• The (sfc) is usually measured in the
units (gm/kW.hr)
Specific performance parameters
• These parameters are useful to 3. Specific power (SP)
evaluate engine performance and
compare it with other engines of SP = brake power/piston face area
different size, weight, and output. SP = Ẇb / Ap
1. Specific volume (SV) 4. power density (PD)
SV= swept volume/brake power PD = brake power / engine size
SV = Vd / Ẇb PD = Ẇb / Vd-engine
2. Specific weight (SW) 5. Specific emissions (SE)
SW = engine weight / brake power SE ]x = ṁx / Ẇ
SW = engine Wt/ Ẇb
X – an exhaust gas constituent (HC,C,NOx)
6. emission index (EI)

EI = ṁx / ṁf
Air / fuel mixture
• Oxygen, from ambient air, is • The ratios of both mass rates
needed in the engine cylinder are more commonly used, i.e
to chemically react with fuel • Air/fuel ratio = air/fuel = AF
HC constituents.
AF = ṁa / ṁf ( mass rates kg/s)
• In order to control such
chemical reaction AF = ma / mf ( mass kg)
(combustion), there must be a • Fuel/air ratio = fuel/air = FA
limit set upon both reactants FA = ṁf / ṁa ( mass rates kg/s)
to keep the reaction FA = mf / ma ( mass kg)
(combustion) safe and
economical. • It is useful to acknowledge that
• Therefore air and fuel mass AF = 1/FA
rates are set in such a values
that satisfy such requirements and
FA = 1/AF
Ideal & Actual combustion
• In ideal combustion process, • In actual combustion
there will be just enough process (AF)a differ from
oxygen in the air supplied to (AF)st due to many causes
the engine to completely react
and convert the fuel mass (to be discussed later).
entering the engine cylinder • So new expression
into (CO2 & H2O). appears called “the
• This condition is called equivalence ratio φ”
“stoichiometric (AF)st or (FA)st “ .
• (AF) limits in SI engines • Φ = (AF)st / (AF)a
very rich←[6←15→19]→very lean Φ = (FA)a / (FA)st
• (AF)limits in CI engines • Φ = 1 stoichiometric
18← →70 < 1 lean (O2 in exh.)
> 1 rich (CO,HC in exh)
Engine efficiencies
 Many types of 1. Air standard eff.
efficiencies are 2. Ideal eff.
encountered when
dealing with the theory, 3. Indicated, brake eff.
design, and operation of 4. Mechanical eff.
IC Engines.
 In general, efficiency is
5. Relative eff.
an expression describing 6. Diagram eff.
how well the engine 7. Combustion eff.
performing it’s task and 8. Charge eff.
how close such
performance to the ideal 9. Volumetric eff.
value. 10. Scavenge eff.
 The common types of 11. Trapping eff.
engine efficiencies are :
1. Air standard eff. (ηas). 2. Ideal efficiency (ηid).
this is also know as This is the efficiency of an
thermodynamic eff. ideal engine using
Which is theoretical for working fluid similar to
engine cycle using air as actual engine, but at the
working fluid, and it is a same time it’s cycle
function of the works without heat
compression ratio and losses.
method of combustion. Variable specific heat (Cp),
Otto for example is : (which is a function of
(ηotto)as = 1 – [ 1 /(Cr)ⁿ ] temperature), are taken
Where ( n = ɣ - 1 ) into consideration in
evaluating (ηid ).
 Indicated performance in general
parameters such as
 η = Ẇ / ṁf .CV
(W, mep, Ẇ) are
evaluated inside the  and specifically
cylinder.  ηi = Ẇi / ṁf .CV
 Brake power at the  ηb = Ẇb / ṁf .CV
output shaft will be less
than indicated due to
various mechanical
losses. Hence,
4. Mechanical eff. (ηm )  Useful correlation :
η m = Ẇb / Ẇ i  ηb = ηm . η i
= bmep / imep
= bsfc / isfc
= η b / ηi
5. Relative eff (ηr) 6. Combustion eff. (ηc)
This is the ratio of indicated ηc = Qin / ṁf .CV
eff. to ideal eff.
Which is the rate of heat
ηr = ηi / ηid generated to fuel
And it shows how close the actual
engine comes to the
heating value, as heat
theoretically possible generated is less then
performance, where fuel heating value due
theoretically air or excess air
raises it up to (0.95), while to
insufficient air reduces it down I - incomplete combustion
to (0.77) II – insufficient air.
III – chemical dissociation
7. Fuel conversion 8. Charge eff. (ηch)
eff. (ηf) It shows how well the
It shows how much of piston displacement
heat energy is really is being utilized, and
converted to power so it is commonly
ηf = Ẇ / ṁf .CV related to the process
of induction air into
the cylinder
 This is the ratio of the  In actual cycle,
(area under the actual *opening and closing
indicator diagram) to valves,
the (area under the * acceleration-
ideal PV diagram), deceleration of piston,
where the ideal PV * other delay factors,
diagram shows the makes sharp corners
sharp corners at more rounded, and thus
instance of changing reducing it’s area by an
from stroke to the next amount depending on
or from event to the many operating factors.
next, which means
zero time factor.
9. Volumetric eff (ηv) 10. Scavenge eff. (ηsc)
Getting more air into engine It is related to 2-stroke engines,
cylinder means more fuel and it is the ratio of the amount
of air or air/gas mixture which
can be burned, and thus
remains in the cylinder at the
more power produced. actual beginning of compression
Therefore it is important to to the amount of air that can
maximize as much as theoretically fill the cylinder.
possible the amount of air In other words, it indicates to what
induced. extent the residual gases being
replaced by fresh air
ηv = ṁa / [ ρa . Vd . (N/n)]
0.75 ← ηv → 0.9
11. Trapping eff.
(ηtrap)
It is related to 2- stroke engines,
and it is the ratio of the amount
of fresh charge retained
(trapped) in the cylinder to the
total amount of fresh charge
delivered to the engine.
It indicates the fraction of fresh
air retained in the cylinder.
Performance of an
Automobile
2.05 - Fundamentals
Tractive effort : is the torque available at the contact between driving the
wheel and the road
Ƭe – engine torque (N.m)

N – engine speed (rpm)
Ẇb – engine brake power (kW)
Ƭw - torque at driving wheel
G – gear box ratio
ηt - overall transmission eff.
F – tractive effort (N)
Rw – radius of driving wheel (m)
Finally, it can be concluded
Chapter Three
Engine Cycles
3.1 – Air Standard Cycles

Introduction
• The actual thermodynamics and chemical
processes in ICE are too complicated for a
complete theoretical analysis representation.
• As the working fluid inside the cylinder
undergoes a complex process in terms of :
1. Duration
2. Magnitude
between extreme levels of for example
“heating-cooling”; “acceleration-deceleration”;
“pressurizing-depressurizing” during the course
of one cycle and through continuous operation.
Therefore the accuracy of such analysis is a very difficult task, for more specific
reasons of :
1. The complex chemical reaction that takes place when the fuel burns.
2. The friction effects between rotating parts.
3. The heat transfer between the gases and various contact surfaces.
Two commonly employed approximations to simplify and improve actual engine

cycle accuracy are :
a / ideal air standard cycle.
b / fuel-air cycle.
simplification
• simplification of such complexities, at least
for preliminary design and testing aspects, it is
usual as a first step to consider the “AIR
STANDARD CYCLE” rather then (AIR-FUEL
CYCLE) , thus making use of such established
theory for the analysis and calculation of the
working properties (P, T, ʋ)at any state point.
considerations
• In selecting an • However, the air
idealized process, one standard cycle
always will be faced approach have been
with the conflicting widely used in ICE for
facts that: the following
advantages :
i- it is easier to analyze.
i- based on few simple
ii- but the results are assumptions
farther away from
ii- lending itself to rapid
reality.
and easy mathematical
handling.
Assumptions
1. The working medium is a 6. Losses by heat transfer from the

perfect gas with constant (Cp- apparatus to the atmosphere
M.Wt) corresponding to values
at room temperature, and are assumed to be zero in this
follows the gas law: PV = mRT analysis.
(m=constant) 7. The working medium at the end
2. No chemical reactions occur of the process (cycle) is
during the cycle. The heat
addition and heat rejection unchanged and is at the same
processes are merely heat condition as at the beginning of
transfer processes. the process (cycle).
3. The processes are isentropic, i.e 8. State (1) on the PV diagram
reversible and adiabatic.
represent ambient operating
4. working fluid KE & PE are
neglected conditions.
5. Engine operation is frictionless. 9. Physical constants are for air,
such as (MWt, Cp, Cv, ɣ)
PV diagram
• Such cycle is best be
represented by the PV
diagram, from which it
can be seen that at each
state point, the working
fluid is defined by (3)
parameters (P,V,T).
• These parameters
changes from one state to
another according to the
process conducted on the
working fluid.
Cycle Selection
• Many working cycles have been proposed for
Internal combustion Engine analysis, and
many have been tried and tested, but,
• Three have proved to be practical and
representative :
1. Otto cycle (constant volume)
2. Diesel cycle (constant pressure)
3. Dual cycle (mixed or combination)
Otto cycle
• The Otto cycle, is also called
a constant volume or
explosion cycle. This is the
equivalent air cycle for
reciprocating piston engines
using spark ignition.
• 1-2 : isentropic compression
• 2-3 : constant volume heat addition.
• 3-4 : isentropic expansion
• 4-1 : constant volume heat rejection
Diesel cycle
• This cycle, proposed by a German
engineer, Dr. Rudolph Diesel , is also
called the constant pressure cycle.
• it is equivalent to air cycle for the
reciprocating slow speed
compression ignition engine.
• it has processes similar to that of the
Otto cycle except that the heat is
added at constant pressure.
• 1-2 : isentropic compression.
• 2-3 : constant pressure heat addition.
• 3-4 : isentropic expansion.
• 4-1 : constant volume heat rejection.
Dual cycle
• It is also called “limited
pressure cycle”
• better represent most
high speed engines.
• In this cycle part of the
combustion accruing at
constant volume, and the
rest at constant pressure.
• 1-2 : isentropic compression
• 2-3 : constant (V) heat added
• 3-4 : constant (P) heat added
• 4-5 : constant (V) heat rejected
Actual cycle
Using the air standard cycle to represent a given real cycle is

called the equivalent cycle having the following characteristics in
common with the real cycle.
1. Similar sequence of process
2. Same (Vmax/Vmin) ratio.
3. Same (P&T) at chosen ref. point.
4. App. Value of heat added per
unit mass
corrected for the
air cycle → characteristics of → becomes →
fuel & air medium ↓
↓
fuel / air
cycle
modified to ↓
account for ↓
combustion
actual cycle ← becomes ← losses, time, ←↓
losses, direct
heat losses,
leakages .. Etc.
Theory versus practice
1. Compression and expansion in 3. The assumption of process location
actual engine are not adiabatic of state points on PV-diagram
processes, as considerable also deviate from actual system ,
amount of heat is transferred where
from the hot working gas and I – valves opening & closing are
the cooling system through time dependent.
cylinder walls. Hence, (n specific
index) is used instead of (ɣ). ii- combustion process is not
Where, (n < ɣ ). constant (V & P) occurrence.
2. The assumption of perfect 4. State point (1) in the ideal cycle
gas working fluid and thus represent the start of
(Cv,Cp) values are constant compression and end of
deviate from actual working expansion at the same time,
conditions as (nc,ne) are while such points are markedly
both temperature dependent. different ( why ?)
***
5. Due to friction between moving • 6. From all of the above
parts; heat lost to coolant; and
the pumping action at inlet..the the PV-diagram for both
actual engine is subjected to the actual and the ideal
various power losses, whereby
reducing the useful power at the
cycles looks as shown
engine output shaft. here.
Chapter Three
Engine Cycles
3.2 – Cycle thermodynamics
introduction
• Looking at the diagram ,
five specific state points
can be distinguished.
• To generalize this diagram,
denotation of state points
shall be as follows :
1. (1-2-3-4-5) represent
dual cycle.
2. (1-2-3-5) represent otto
cycle where (3&4)
represent same point.
3. (1-3-4-5) represent diesel
cycle where (2&3)
represent same point.
Cycle process
1 - start of the cycle
1-2 – compression stroke.
2-3 – heat added at constant (V)
3-4 – heat added at constant (P)
4-5 – expansion stroke
5-1 – heat rejected at constant (V)
1 - end of cycle and start of next
constants
For air and during For exhaust gas and during
induction and compression power and exhaust
strokes. strokes.
1. Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg.k 1. Cp = 1.108 kJ/kg.k
2. Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg.k 2. Cv = 0.821 kJ/kg.k
3. R = 0.287 kJ/kg.k 3. R = 0.287 kJ/kg.k
= Cp - Cv = Cp - Cv
4. ɣ = 1.4 1. k = 1.35
= Cp / Cv = Cp / Cv
Useful correlations
• Compression ratio (Cr)
(Cr) =V1/V2
• Pressure ratio (λ)
λ = P 3 / P2
• Cut-off ratio (β)
β = V4 / V 3
• Expansion ratio (∂)
∂ = V5 / V4
• Max. pressure (Pmax)
Pmax = P3
“Cp – Cv – R” correlation
• R = universal gas constant • R = Cp – Cv
• Cp = specific heat at • Cv = R / (ɣ - 1)
constant pressure • Cp = ɣ R /(ɣ - 1)
• Cv = specific heat at • ɣ = C p / Cv
constant volume
• ɣ = specific heat ratio
P-T-V correlation
• Since, adiabatic process • dw = pdV = RT. dV/V
means no heat is
transferred to or from the
• And [ du = Cv.dT]
working fluid during the • So from [du + dw = 0]
process, then • Cv.dT + RT dV/V = 0
• Q = ΔU + W = 0 • Divid by (T) to get
• Incrementally • Cv.dT/T + R.dV/V = 0
• du + dw = 0
• For unit mass [PV = RT]
→ [P = RT/V]
from which, the followings are derived :
Cycle temperature = f(T1)
• Since state point (1)

represent ambient
operating conditions,
• Then
• T1 can easily be
defined by the room
temperature
Also recalling :
Compression ratio (Cr) →→→ Cr = V1/V2
Pressure ratio (λ) →→→ λ = P3 / P2
Cut-off ratio (β) →→→ β = V4 / V3
Expansion ratio (∂) →→→ ∂ = V5 / V4
Max. pressure (Pmax) →→→ Pmax = P3
Then each state point can be expressed in terms of (T1), i.e

Tx = f(T1)
Where (Tx) could be any one of cycle state points (2 , 3, 4 , and 5)
Using the shown correlations with the general thermodynamic knowledge, we get :
Mean temperature for compression & expansion
1 - Mean temperature for compression (Tmc)
2 - Mean temperature for expansion (Tme)
Since the actual indices for compression and expansion (nc & ne) are
a function of temperature, then the above correlation under actual
operating conditions are iterative process.
Cycle thermal efficiency
• Thermal eff. = useful work / heat added

ηth =Wuseful /Qin = (Qin – Qout) / Qin= 1 – (Qout) / Qin)
• From PV-diagram, heat added at constant volume and
constant pressure for unit mass is :
• Qin = Cv (T3 – T2) + Cp (T4 – T3)
• Qout = Cv (T5 – T1)
Sub in above and rearranging to obtain the final expression for thermal efficiency :
The peak cylinder pressure
• Maximum cylinder pressure (Pmax) can be
derived from the area under the PV-diagram,
where :
• Work output = area under diagram
• Total area under the diagram of a dual cycle is
the net area under each process line, whereby
encapsulating a limited area that corresponds
to the useful work obtained from such cycle
under specific operating conditions.
***
• An = a34 + a – a12 45
• Where
• a34 = P3(V4-V3)
• P3 = Pmax
• V4/V3 = β
• V3 = V2 = V1/Cr
• Sub and rearrange to get
• a34 =Pmax[(V1/Cr)-(β-1)]
***
• Similarly for • And for
• a45 = ʃ PdV • a12 = ʃ PdV
• Integrating from (V4) to • Integrating from (V1) to
(V5) (V2)
“otto-diesel-dual” cycles
• From all of the previous analysis, dual cycle is
considered.
• However, to convert to otto and diesel is a very
simple task, which will be done as follows:
1. Otto cycle
let [β = 1] and continue the same analysis to
obtain all of the required results.
2. Diesel cycle
let [λ = 1] to obtain the required results
Tutorial
1. Derive the following correlations :
• R = Cp – Cv
• Cv = R / (ɣ - 1)
• Cp = ɣ R /(ɣ - 1)
• ɣ = C p / Cv
• 2. Derive the following correlations :
• P(V)**ɣ = C
• T(V)**(ɣ-1) = C
• T/{P**(ɣ-1)/ ɣ} + C
Tutorial
3. Derive the cycle state point in terms of (T1) to
obtain the following expressions :
1. T2 = Cr **(ɣ - 1 ) T1
2. T3 = λ. Cr **(ɣ - 1 ) T1
3. T4 = β. λ. Cr **(ɣ - 1 ) T1
4. T5 = β **(ɣ). λ.T1
Tutorial
4. show that the following correlations are true.

i - Tmc = T1 . [{Cr**(nc-1) + 1}/2]
ii - Tme = {T1.P3[1 + (1/Cr**(ne-1))]}/2P1.Cr
5. Derive the following expression for the cycle
thermal efficiency:
η = 1 – {(1/ (Cr **(ɣ - 1 )) {[(λ (β** ɣ)) – 1] /
[(λ-1) + (λ.ɣ (β – 1))]
Chapter Three
Engine Cycles
3 – 5 Mean effective pressure
Mean effective pressure (mep)
Due to piston motion and stroke, the pressure inside the cylinder is continuously
changing during the cycle, and therefore “the average pressure acting on the piston
through the power stroke” is a valuable measure of an engine's capacity to do work that
is independent of engine displacement. This gives a simple but clear definition of what
we shall call MEP , i.e , the average (mean) pressure which, if imposed on the pistons
uniformly from the top to the bottom of each power stroke, would produce the measured
(brake) power output.
However, it is important to remember that mean effective pressure does not reflect the
actual pressures inside an individual combustion chamber—although the two are certainly
related—and serves only as a convenient measure of performance.
The (mep) can be related to several engine performance parameters, such as :
W = work per cycle in joule
P = power output in watt
pmep = mean effective pressure in pascal
Vd = displacement volume in cubic metre
Nc = number of revolutions per cycle (for a 4-stroke engine nc = 2 )
N = number of revolutions per second
T = torque in newton-metre
1. In terms of work and power output
The power produced by the engine is equal to the work done per operating cycle times
the number of operating cycles per second. If N is the number of revolutions per second,
and nc is the number of revolutions per cycle, the number of cycles per second is just their
ratio. We can write
W = work per cycle in joule

By definition: P = power output in watt
pmep = mean effective pressure in pascal
W = pmepVd Vd = displacement volume in cubic metre
nc = number of revolutions per cycle (for a 4-stroke engine nc = 2 )
N = number of revolutions per second
pmep = W / Vd
also note that the work output is
so that W = Qsup - Qrej
Another common equation for engine power output calculation is
Ẇ = [PLAN/n] / C
Where it can be rewritten as below to maintain previous nomenclature
i – in terms of engine speed

P = [PmepLAN/n] / C
ii – in terms of piston speed

P = [Pmep. A.Up/n] / C
2 – in term of engine torque
Since the torque T is related to the angular speed (which is just N 2 π) and
power produced by
P = TN2π
Then the equation for mep in terms of torque becomes,
Notice that speed has dropped out of the equation and the only variables are the
torque and displacement volume
Since the range of maximum brake mean effective pressures for good engine designs
is well established, we now have an engine displacement independent measure of the
torque producing capacity of an engine design. This is useful for comparing engines of
different displacements.
Mean effective pressure is also useful for initial design calculations; that is, given a
torque (T) , we can use standard (mep ) values to estimate the required engine
displacement (Vd).
3. In terms of air standard cycle.
For the three main air standard cycles, Otto, Diesel, and dual cycles, the mean
effective pressure can be expressed in terms of :
Compression ratio (Cr = Vt / Vc)

Pressure ratio (λ = P3 / P2 )
Cut off ratio (β = V4 / V3 for dual or V3/V2 for diesel)
Specific heat ratio (γ = Cp / Cv)
i – Otto cycle
ii – Diesel cycle
iii – Dual cycle

Types of mean effective pressures
Mean effective pressure (MEP) is defined by the location
measurement and method of calculation, some commonly used
MEPs are given here.
•Brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) - Mean effective pressure
calculated from brake power
•Indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP) - Mean effective pressure
calculated from in cylinder pressure, average in cylinder pressure
over engine cycle, 720°.
•Friction mean effective pressure (FMEP) - Theoretical mean
effective pressure required to over come engine friction, can be
thought of as mean effective pressure lost due to friction.
BMEP = IMEP – FMEP
Also when (mep) related to (w), then the type of (w) used in the
equation determines the type of (mep).
• MEP for typical engines
• SI engines
850 kPa≤ bmep≤ 1050 kPa
• CI engines
kPa700≤ bmep ≤ 900 kPa
Chapter Three
engine cycles
3.5 – cycles comparison
Air standard cycles have significant parameters in cycle analysis, such as
1. Compression ratio
2. Peak pressure
3. Peak temperature
4. Heat addition
5. Heat rejection
6. Net work
These parameters are useful for comparing Otto, Diesel, and dual cycle performance.
However in such comparison some of these parameters are kept fixed while other
are used.
1 – same compression ratio and heat addition
As stated, the compression ratio and heat input

are kept the same for the three cycles. Where
Cr = V1 / V2
Qin = 23 = 23” = 22’3’
But heat rejected differ , i.e
Otto Qro = 14
Diesel Qrs = 14”
Dual Qrd = 14’
From which
And since
Then
2 – same compression ratio and heat rejection
the compression ratio and heat rejected are

kept the same for the three cycles. Where
Cr = V1 / V2
Qr = process (14)
But heat supplied differ , i.e
Otto Qin = 23
Diesel Qin = 23”
Dual Qin = 22’3’
From which
And since
Then, again
3 – same peak pressure, peak temperature and heat rejection
The three cycles have the same max pressure

and max temperature, also the same heat
rejected, but different compression ratio,
where
Since heat rejected is the same, then

4 – same peak pressure and heat input
The three cycles have the same max pressure ,

also the same heat input, but different
compression ratio,
where
CHAPTER FOUR
Thermo-chemistry
4.1 .1- introduction
4.1 - Introduction
• Thermo-chemistry is a • When chemical reaction
branch of thermodynamics takes place, energy is
where concern is focused always liberated or
on relations between heat absorbed, part of which is in
and energy, thus studying the form of heat.
the behavior of gases when • In such chemical change,
“ heated, cooled, expanded, this heat is called “ heat of
compressed “ , i.e , P, v , T reaction “ .
and q are involved . • However, it is useful to
• Also , it is important to know and define all types of
know that the heat ( q ) is heat associated with
either liberated or absorbed chemical reaction .
.
4.2 – Types of heat energy
• 4-2-1 – heat of reaction • Such representation is shown

in the following example:
• Is the quantity of heat ( in
calorie ) liberated or absorbed •
when “ gm-mole of reagents • C + O2 = CO2 ; ΔH = - 94052 cal
indicated by the chemical •
equation have being • this means that under
chemically reacted “ . condition of constant (P), 12
• Such heat is denoted by ( ΔH ) gm of (C) combined with 32
+ ΔH absorbed by the system. gm of O2 to yield 44 gm of CO2
liberating 94052 cal.
- ΔH liberated from the
system.
•
***
• 4-2-2 – heat of combustion
• Is the quantity of heat ( only liberated in this
respect ) when 1 gm-mole of substance is
completely oxidized , i.e
• i- complete combustion :
• C2H2 + 2.5 O2 = 2CO2 + H2O ; ΔH= - 310615 cal
• ii – incomplete combustion :
• C2H2 + 1.5 O2 = 2CO ; ΔH= - 175343 cal
• both (i & ii) are equations of heat of reaction, but
only (i) represent heat of combustion where C2H2
is completely oxidized
***
• 4-2-3 – heat of formation • 4-2-4 – heat of solution
• Is quantity of heat ( + & - ) • Is the quantity of heat ( + & - )
when 1 gm-mole of compound when 1 gm-mole of substance
is formed from it’s elements. dissolved in a large volume of
• Two types of such energy is water (completely dissolved) .
defined :
• 4-2-5 – heat of neutralization
i- exothermic compound with ( -ΔH ) • The heat of neutralization of
• C + O2 = CO2 ; ΔH = - 94052 cal an acid by a base “ is the
heat of formation of CO2 quantity of heat (+ & -) when
1 gm-mole of the acid in
ii- endothermic compound with ( +ΔH ) diluted aqueous solution is
• 2C + H2 = C2H2 ; ΔH = + 54194 neutralized by a diluted
cal heat of formation of C2H2 solution of the base .
4-3- Elementary thermo-chemistry
• Before discussing thermo-chemistry • 4.3.2- HC fuels.

in details, there are few terms and • Most HC fuels consist mainly of (H2) and
element directly related to this (C) , with may be some minor amount of
subject, and therefore must be other Element such as ( N2 , O2 , S ….etc) .
understood . • Therefore the chemical formula for HC
• fuel may be Generally presented as
• 4-3-1-Combustion reaction
• In I.C .Engine, energy is provided by • Cn Hm Xy
the combustion of the HC fuels in air,
which convert Chemical energy to • Where
other useful form of energy , for
example mechanical. • N : molecules of C
• Theoretically, Chemical energy of fuel • M ; molecules of H (m/2 for H2)
is converted to internal energy of • Y ; molecules of X element that may
gases. Therefore, combustion Process be present in a particular fuel
is all about the elements behavior of
fuel and air .
•
4.3.3- Composition of air
constituent symbol MW % by volume % by weight

oxygen O2 32 20.99 23.2
nitrogen N2 28 78.03 76.8
argon A 40 0.94 Included with N2
Carbon dioxide CO2 44 0.03 Included with N2
other -- -- 0.01 Included with N2
100 % 100 %
air -- Σ(MW X %vol) 28.97
constituent
***
• From above, it can be seen that two main
elements are noticeably present in air, i.e ( O2
& N2).
• Also , it is important to note that (1 mole of
air) = :
1. [20.99% O2 + 79.01% N2] by volume.
2. [23.2% O2 + 76.8% N2] by weight
i – by volume analysis
• 1 mole air = 0.2099 mole O2 + 0.7901 mole N2
• 0.7901/02099 = 3.764 mole N2 for every mole O2
• 3.764 mole N2 + 1 mole O2 = 4.764 mole air
• Since (O2) is only considered in combustion reaction,
then it can be stated that “ if one mole of O2 required
for complete reaction, then (4.764)moles of air must
be supplied.”
ii- by weight analysis
• 1 mole air = 0.232 mole O2 + 0.768 mole N2
• 0.768/0.232 = 3.310 mole N2 for every mole O2
• Similarly
• 3.31 mole N2 + 1 mole O2 = 4.31 mole air
• Therefore
• “ for one mole of O2 required, 4.31 mole of air must
be supplied.
4.3.4 - Stoichiometry
• Maximum energy is produced • “Stoichiomertry ;
when all of the fuel element is theoretical; ideal;
converted by the chemical chemically corrected”
reaction with stoichiometric represent similar meaning
amount of O2
of just enough O2 to
• Example achieve complete
• C + O2 = CO2 chemical conversion.
• 2H2 + O2 = 2H2O • Therefore, stoichiometry
• Where none of the reactants is a description of the
appear in the reaction products. proper quantities of the
• So stoichiometric O2 means just fuel and O2 involved in a
enough O2 present to convert (C) particular chemical
or (H2) to (CO2) & (H2O) respectively reaction.
***
• Also, the ratio of fuel to air (or • From above, and since
air to fuel) gives another stoichiometry and AF are both
description of quantities of fuel describes a particular amount of
fuel and air under a particular
and air (O2) involved in the chemical reaction.
process of combustion, which • So it can be assumed that (AF or
is actually a chemical reaction, FA) can also be denoted as
where : stoichiometric, where
1. (air/fuel) ratio • (AF)st : means the amount of fuel
AF = ma / mf and air that forms this ratio is in a
proportion that satisfy
= ṁa / ṁf stoichiometry conditions.
2. (fuel/air) ratio • Ranges of AF for SI & CI engines
are:
FA = mf / ma
• SIE (6 ←15 →19)
= ṁ f / ṁa • CIE (18 ↔ 70)
3. FA = 1 / AF
***
• “stoichiometric (AF)st or (FA)st “ .
• (AF) limits in SI engines
too rich← ←│6←15→19 │→ → too lean
too rich←│rich←│St│→lean│ → too lean
no combustion ←│Combustion possible│ → no combustion

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
• (AF) limits in CI engines
18← →70
This forms non-homogeneous mixture, where combustion occur in region
where combustible mixture exists, although other regions sustain
combustion due to too rich or too lean mixture.
4.3.5- moles & MWt
1. (gm MWt) - is the MWt of a 5. (N-m-MWt) correlation
substance expressed in (gm) where :
{similarly in kg} • N = number of moles
2. (mole) – in a balanced chemical • m = mass of the substance ( gm,
reaction equation, each one kg)
unit of reactants or products is
called “mole”. • MWt = substance molecular
weight.
3. (mole & MWt) - one mole of a
substance equals the substance • N]x = m]x / MWt]x
(MWt) expressed in (gm or kg).
• Or
4. Whether (mole or k.mole) and
consequently (gm MWt or kg
MWt), gives the same results,
• m]x = N]x . MWt]x
since a factor of (1000) in used
for both values.
***
4.4- types of fuel
• Liquid fuels are normally used • In doing so, heat of reaction is
in IC Engines, however, some liberated.
engines may be designed to • The utilization of such heat
accept gaseous fuels. Also in energy and converting it into
electricity generation plant, other forms of energy
solid fuel (coal) is used in the (mechanical in this respect) is
boiler furnace. the whole idea behind the
• In general, combustion is theory of internal combustion
actually a chemical reaction engines.
process under certain • In order to avoid loose
conditions, where the fuel boundaries of this subject, it is
element reacts with oxygen useful to limit our
present in air to forms oxides considerations within the
of these elements “hydro-carbon” types of fuel
Hydro-carbon fuel (HC)
• In general, most HCs consist mainly of C and
(H2), with some types may includes minor
amount of (N2, O2, S, … etc), so
1. Liquid fuel: with chemical formula CnHm.
2. Gaseous fuel: with c.f CnHmOr
3. Solid fuel : with c.f CnHmSz
4.4.1 – liquid HC fuel
• The general reaction equation of liquid HC fuel
with air under stoichiometric conditions is :
• Where (n, m) as described previously

• n - molecules of C in fuel
• m/2 - molecules of H2 in fuel
• 3.76 - moles of N2 for every mole of O2
• (n + m/4)O2 + 3.76(n + m/4)N2 = 4.76 (n + m/4) mole of air required to
provide (n + m/4)O2 necessary to maintain stoichiometry
4.4.2- gaseous HC fuel
• Similarly, the general chemical reaction of
gaseous fuel with air under stoichiometric
conditions is :
• m/2 - molecules H2 in fuel
• r/2 - molecules of O2 in fuel
• (n + m/4 –r/2)O2 + 3.76(n + m/4 –r/2)N2 = 4.76 (n + m/4 –r/2) mole of
air required to provide (n + m/4 –r/2)O2 necessary to satisfy
stoichiometry
4.4.3- solid HC fuel
• Briefly
• m/2 - molecules H2 in fuel
• z - molecules of S in fuel
• This type of reaction is actually associated with ECE rather than ICE, and it
is mentioned here to complete an overall picture of the chemical reaction
of the three types of fuels.
Rich & lean combustion mixture
1. Lean mixture – • Rich mixture –
means that there is means that there is
more air present less air present than
than stoichiometry stoichiometry
requires, and thus requires, and thus air
excess air is said to deficiency is said to
exist. exist.
4.4.4- Equivalence ratio φ
• Φ it is a measure of the actual FA mixture relative to stoichiometric
FA
• Φ = AFst / AFa = FAa / FAst

• Where
1. (air/fuel) ratio
AF = ma / mf = ṁa / ṁf
2. (fuel/air) ratio
FA = mf / ma = ṁf / ṁa
3. FA = 1 / AF
φ = 1 stoichiometric (max energy released)
φ < 1 lean ( O2 appear in exhaust)
φ > 1 rich (CO & HC appear in exhaust)
In SI engines
1.2 > φ > 0.9
For unit mass of fuel
{[nf.MWf ] act} = {[nf.MWf ] st}
Then
If unit mass of fuel is supplied, and since
Therefore
4.4.5- air coefficient α
• Gact - is the actual
value given from
actual conditions
α = air coefficient • Gtheo - this must be
• G = is the mass of air required for calculated, and it is
the chemical reaction with 1 kg of
fuel done as follows :
• Gact = actual amount (mass) of
air used to burn1kg fuel
(kg air / kg fuel)
• Gtheo = theoretical amount (mass)
of air required for complete
combustion of 1 kg fuel
(kg air/kg fuel)
Since the general chemical
this amount of O2 requires (x) amount
reaction for liquid fuel is
of air.
CnHm + (n + m/4)O2 + 3.76(n + m/4)N2 =
n CO2 + m/2 H2O + 3.76 (n +m/4)N2 But for 1kg of air there 0.23kg of O2
And since [ N = ms/MWt] X = 1/0.23 [ 32(n+m/4)]
Then [ ms = N. MWt] X = 4.31 [32(n+m/4)] kg air/kg O2
i- for fuel Since G is kg air/kg fuel

N=1
MWt = 12n + m
Gtheo = X / 12n +m
Therefore Gtheo = {4.31 [32(n+m/4)]}/(12n +m)
ms = (1) (12n + m)
ms = 12n +m kg fuel Finally
ii – for air
mass of oxygen
ms = N. MWt
N = n +m/4 from eq.
MWt = 32
ms = 32(n +m/4)
𝛼 = 1 stoichiometric
𝛼 > 1 lean
𝛼 < 1 rich
𝛼 can also be included in

the general chemical
reaction equation for both
liquid and gaseous HC
fuels.
CnHm + α (n + m/4)O2 + 3.76 α (n + m/4)N2 = n CO2 + m/2 H2O +

[(α – 1)(n + m/4)]O2 + 3.76 α (n +m/4)N2
CnHmOr + α (n + m/4 - r/2)O2 + 3.76 α (n + m/4 - r/2)N2 = n CO2 +
m/2 H2O + (α-1)(n + m/4 - r/2)O2 + 3.76 α (n + m/4 - r/2 )N2
Remarks with (α )
1. Amount of air supplied to ICE for 4. In order to account for all of the
combustion of fuel varies with : above, (α ), must be selected to
i- mixture formation (adding & mixing) satisfy the design criteria. i.e
ii- engine load 𝛼 = Gact / Gtheo
iii- ignition conditions (timing & duration) and its value inserted into the
iv- other operating conditions. chemical reaction equation of any
2. accordingly, the air supply may be :
HC fuels,
i- higher │ than that
ii- equal │ theoretically [𝛼 (n + m/4)O2 ] which means
iii- smaller │ required that number of moles of (O2) is
3. Therefore the air may be supplied : corrected by (α) for all of the
i- actual as it is above considerations.
ii- stoichiometric
ϴ fraction of ( C ) burns to (CO)
• From all of the above, the air Let ϴ fraction of ( C ) burns to (CO)
coefficient ( α ) is specifically Then, for liquid HC fuel
important under rich mixture, as • CnHm + α(n + m/4)O2 + 3.76 α(n +
m/4)N2 =
lean and stoichiometric mixture
keeps combustion process clean (1- ϴ) n CO2 + ϴn CO + ϴn/2
and maintain economic fuel H2 + (m/2 - ϴn/2) H2O + 3.76
consumption. α (n +m/4)N2
an expression for (ϴ) can be found by doing
• Where as rich mixture means less O2 balance before and after combustion.
O2 is available for the combustion α(n + m/4) = (1- ϴ) n + ϴn/2 + (m/4 -
process to reach completion. ϴn/4)
• Lack of O2 therefore results in that α(n + m/4) = n - ¾ ϴn + m/4
not all of the ( C ) in the fuel is ¾ ϴn= (1 – α) (n + m/4)
converted to (CO2) , and ϴ =(4/3n) (1 – α) (n + m/4)
consequently (CO) may also appear
in the products,
AF & α
1 – Since 3. From which the followings can be
expressed
2. Since
then AF = Gact = α . Gtheo

FA & N
From above
Sub in this equation
Finally, the ratio of number of moles of O2 and

fuel can be expressed as follows :
summery
Air/fuel ratio (AF)
tutorial
1. For the balanced chemical reaction
CH4 + 2O2 = CO2 + 2H2O
find the mass of each constituents
2. For the reaction in (1) above, check what
happens if (20 gm) of (CH4) is used.
3. Write the chemical reaction equations of
methane (CH4) burns with
i- (150 %) stoichiometric air
ii- (80 %) stoichiometric air
CHAPTER FOUR
Thermo-chemistry
4.1.2 – combustion Kinetics

introduction
• Any chemical reaction • Ex. CO + ½ O2 = CO2
can be represented by • This is a stoichiometric
the equation equation where the
element coefficients are [1 ,
A+B=C+D
½ , 1] and these are
• But actually this called stoichiometric
reaction is better coefficients (Ʋ).
represented by • Ʋco = 1
A+B↔C+D • Ʋo2 = ½
• Ʋco2 = 1
dissociation
• Stoichiometric reaction is • At the same time certain
ideal, but in practice and under amount of CO2 may dissociate
particular conditions, some of back to [CO+O2] by an amount
the products are dissociated of say (∂)
back to the original reactants, • ∂ CO2 → ∂ CO + ½∂ O2
so • So the final constituents
A+B↔C+D produced from this reaction
• In the previous ex. are
(1-∂) CO2 + ∂ CO + ½∂ O2
CO + ½ O2 ↔ CO2 •
• And therefore the reaction can be
Where the forward reaction is represented by the chemical
equation
CO + ½ O2 → CO2
CO + ½ O2 → (1-∂) CO2 + ∂ CO + ½∂ O2
Equilibrium & Dissociation
• Both equilibrium and • This means
dissociation are related to rate of reaction = rate of dissociation
the state of the reformation
From the above, it can be said that :
of the reactants from the
products under given 1. If there is dissociation ,
conditions as shown in the there may not be
above chemical equation, equilibrium.
hence 2. But certainly, when there is
1. If (∂) exist, it implies that equilibrium there must be
dissociation is taking place. a certain degree of
dissociation.
2. But only if (∂ = constant)
equilibrium is established.
Rate of chemical reaction (Rr)
Reaction rate is defined as the rate of disappearance of component (A) of a given reacting
mixture.
Ʋ a A + Ʋ b B = Ʋc C + Ʋ d D Where
Rr = reaction rate (gm.mole/lit.sec)
The reaction rate (Rr) is CA, CB = concentration of A & B (gm
mole/lit)
K = reaction rate constant (lit/gm.mole.sec)
Concentrations are usually expressed as follows :
CA → [A]
CB → [B]
CC → [C]
CD → [D]
Equilibrium
• Most chemical reactions are
reversible, that is they can and do run • equilibrium constants for solutions
in both directions. The forward and are usually determined in terms of
reverse reactions are competing with constituents concentrations ( Kc ).
each other and differ in reaction • Likewise( Kp )for gases depends on
rates. These rates depend on the partial pressure.
concentration and therefore change
with time of the reaction: the reverse • Therefore there are two
rate gradually increases and becomes distinct equilibrium
equal to the rate of the forward
reaction, establishing the so-called coefficients :
chemical equilibrium. 1. Kp = f(ƥ) for gases
• The time to reach equilibrium
depends on such parameters as 2. Kc = f[c] for liquids
temperature, pressure and the
materials involved.
Equilibrium coefficient (Kp)
• As stated earlier, the rates of reaction and
dissociation must be equal to establish equilibrium.
• Ex. [wA + xB ↔ yC + zD]
• From which ,the equilibrium coefficient (Kp) can be
expressed in terms of constituents partial pressure
• Where • Ex.2
• w, x, y, z – number of • CO2 + H2 ↔ H2O + CO
moles of each constituents
involved.
• ƥ- partial pressure
• Ex.1
• 2 CO + O2 ↔ 2CO2
Equilibrium coefficient (Kc)
Using the reaction rate approach to consider the reaction dissociation, i.e forward and
backward reaction.
Ʋa A+Ʋb B ↔ Ʋc C+Ʋd D Equilibrium is established when

[Rf = Rb], Then
1-The forward reaction rate Rf
Kf – forward reaction rate constant
2 - The backward reaction rate Rb
Kb – backward reaction rate constant. (Kc) is the equilibrium coefficient.

Kp - Kc
Kp – equilibrium coefficient. in terms of partial pressure
Kc – equilibrium coefficient. in terms of concentrations
The two equilibrium coefficients are related in the following formula :
Rm – universal gas constant
Derivation of this correlation will be presented

in a tutorial class.
Tutorial
• Derive the following • and partial pressure ( ƥi )
expression for [Kc=f(Kp)] • ( ƥi ) = (ni/n) p
• Kc = Kp { (Rm . T)**[(Ʋa +Ʋb ) - (Ʋc +Ʋd )] } • ni – number of moles of (i)
• ------------------------------------- • n - No. of moles of mixture
• For perfect gas • ( ƥi ) – partial pres. of (i)
• Pi .V = ni . R.T • p – total pressure
• ni /V = Pi/R.T • Sub in (Kp) eq.
• But ni/V = [V]i {[nc ]** Ʋc} {[nD ]**Ʋd }
• [V]i**x =( ƥi ** x) 1/(RT)**x Kp = ----------------------------- (p/n)**∆Ʋ
{[nA ]** Ʋa} {[nB ]**Ʋb] }
• Also
{[ƥc ]** Ʋc} {[ƥD ]**Ʋd }
∆Ʋ = Ʋc + Ʋd - Ʋa - Ʋb
Kp = ---------------------------
{[ƥA ]** Ʋa} {[ƥB ]**Ʋb] }
***
• Since [(ƥc ** c) 1/(RT)**c][(ƥd ** d) 1/(RT)**d ]

Kc = -------------------------------------------------------
[C]** Ʋc . [D]**Ʋd [(ƥa ** a) 1/(RT)**a][( ƥb ** b) 1/(RT)**b ]
Kc = ------------------------
[A]** Ʋa . [B]**Ʋb] (ƥc ** c)(ƥd ** d) [1/(RT)**c][1/(RT)**d ]
From the eq. Kc = ----------------------- -------------------------
(ƥa ** a)(ƥb ** b) [1/(RT)**a][1/(RT)**b ]
[V]i**x =( ƥi ** x) 1/(RT)**x
We get Kc = Kp .(RT)**[( Ʋa + Ʋb) - (Ʋc - Ʋd )]
[C]** Ʋc =( ƥc ** c) 1/(RT)**c
[D]**Ʋd =( ƥd ** d) 1/(RT)**d
[A]** Ʋa =( ƥa ** a) 1/(RT)**a
[B]**Ʋb] =( ƥb ** b) 1/(RT)**b
Therefore
CHAPTER FOUR
Thermo-chemistry
4.1.3 – Fuel heating value
Fuel heating value
• The heating value (HV) or calorific value (CV) of a fuel can be
defined as “the magnitude of the heat of reaction, at
constant pressure or at constant volume, released from
the complete combustion of a unit mass of fuel”,
expressed in (kJ/kg).
• It is useful to repeat here that the complete
combustion means that all ( C ) is converted to (CO2),
and all (H2) to (H2O).
• As most fuels contain (H2) which forms water when
burned. The heating value of a fuel will be different,
depending on whether the water in combustion
products is in the liquid or vapour form.
Therefore, depending on whether the water in combustion products is in the form of
liquid or vapor , the heating value may be classified as:
1. Lower heating value (LHV)
when the water produced from the combustion process remains as vapor, and leaves
in such form with the other combustion products.
2. Higher heating value (HHV)
when water in the combustion products is completely condensed, whereby the heat
of vaporization is recovered.
It is useful to note that the difference between the two values at room temperature is :
HHV – LHV=mass of water x latent heat of vaporization of water
Ex. For gasoline fuel, from tables , values of LHV and HHV are:
LHV = 44000 kJ/kg
HHV = 47300 kJ/kg
Latent heat of water vaporization = 47300 – 44000 = 3300 kJ/kg water
LHV is usually used in I.C engine analysis, as energy released and / or exchanged in the
combustion chamber occurs at high temperature, whereby, water in the exhaust
mixture almost always remains in the vapor form.
Estimation of HHV
• When chemical composition of a fuel is not known, a reasonable estimate
of it’s (HHV) may be obtained from it’s specific gravity :
• HHV = 2.326 [ 17450 + 170 ( ° API) ] kJ/kg
• where
• °API = American Petroleum Institute Standard
= (141.5/sp.G at 15°C) – 131.5
• Sp. G = specific gravity (gravity = density)
• = gravity of oil / gravity of water
• This measuring standard is usually used in connection with diesel fuel, where a good diesel
fuel have ( °API = 70 °F )
CHAPTER FOUR
Thermo-chemistry
4.1.5 – Hydrocarbons Families
introduction
• Hydrocarbons are one of the Earth's most important
energy resources. The predominant use of
hydrocarbons is as a combustible fuel source.
• Hydrocarbons are economically important because
major fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural
gas, and its derivatives such as plastics, paraffin, waxes,
solvents and oils are hydrocarbons.
• Hydrocarbons can be gases ( methane and propane),
liquids ( hexane and benzene), waxes or low melting
solids ( paraffin wax and naphthalene) or polymers
(polyethylene, polypropylene and polystyrene).
Oil refinery
• An oil refinery or petroleum refinery is an
industrial process plant where crude oil is
processed and refined into more useful
petroleum products, such as gasoline,
diesel fuel, asphalt base, heating oil,
kerosene, and liquefied petroleum gas.[1][2]
• Oil refineries are typically large sprawling
industrial complexes with extensive piping
running throughout, carrying streams of
fluids between large chemical processing
units. In many ways, oil refineries use
much of the technology of, and can be
thought of as types of chemical plants.
The crude oil feedstock has typically been
processed by an oil production plant.
There is usually an oil depot (tank farm) at
or near an oil refinery for storage of bulk
liquid products.
operation
• Crude oil is separated into fractions by
fractional distillation.
• The fractions at the top of the
fractionating column have lower boiling
points than the fractions at the bottom.
• The heavy bottom fractions are often
cracked into lighter, more useful products.
• All of the fractions are processed further
in other refining units.
• However, two specific operation are used
to separates crude oil components :
1. Cracking : is the process in breaking
large molecular components into more
useful smaller molecular weight
components.
2. Distillation : is the process used to
separate the mixture into single or
smaller rangers of components.
Notes on crude oil
• Crude oil varies greatly in • Large MWt components have
appearance depending on its high boiling temperature.
composition. It is usually black small MWt components have low
or dark brown (although it may boiling point.
be yellowish, reddish, or even • High boiling point components,
greenish). such as tar and asphalt can be
• Crude oil is made up almost returned back to the refinery for
entirely of carbon and cracking into smaller MWt .
hydrogen. • Low boiling point components are
• C & H can combine in so many a very desirable products, such
ways , and tests shows that as solvent and fuels like gasoline
“25,000” different kind of HCs can
really be obtained.
• Such combination may include
very a large molecular to very
light molecular components.
1. Crude oil
2. Gasoline
3. Kerosene
4. Diesel oil
5. Sulfur
6. Asphalt
7. Motor oil
8. LPG
Major products
• Oil can be used in a variety of ways • Petroleum products are usually
because it contains hydrocarbons of grouped into three categories: light
varying molecular masses, forms and distillates (LPG, gasoline, naphtha),
lengths such as middle distillates (kerosene, diesel),
• paraffins, aromatics, naphthenes (or heavy distillates and residuum (heavy
fuel oil, lubricating oils, wax, asphalt).
cycloalkanes), alkenes, dienes, and This classification is based on the way
alkynes. crude oil is distilled and separated
• While the molecules in crude oil include into fractions (called distillates and
different atoms such as sulfur and residuum) as in the above drawing.
nitrogen, the hydrocarbons are the most • Liquified petroleum gas (LPG)
common form of molecules, which are • Gasoline (also known as petrol)
molecules of varying lengths and • Naphtha
complexity made of hydrogen and carbon • Kerosene and related jet aircraft fuels
atoms, and a small number of oxygen
• Diesel fuel
atoms. The differences in the structure of
these molecules account for their varying • Fuel oils
physical and chemical properties, and it is • Lubricating oils
this variety that makes crude oil useful in • Paraffin wax
a broad range of applications • Asphalt and tar
applications
• Hydrocarbons proved to be an 1. Automobile gasoline.
essential discovery for mankind, 2. Diesel fuel
as the variety of it’s useful 3. Jet fuel
application, made life progress at 4. Home heating fuel
a much greater rate, without 5. Industrial fuel
which so many mankind activities 6. Natural gas (cooking).
may prove to be very difficult if
7. Lubricants
not impossible.
8. Asphalt
• Therefore the products from
9. Rubber manufacturing
refined crude oil can be used for
many applications such as for
10. Paint manufacturing
example : 11. Plastic manufacturing
12. Explosion production
13. Alcohols.
14. wax
Refinery flow diagram
Hydrocarbons families
• Since crude oil comes out from the ground in various
parts of the world, it has been agreed to standardize
the products of HCs by means of number of different
families such as :
1. Paraffins
2. Olefins
3. Diolfins
4. Acetylenes
5. Cyclo-parafins
6. Aromatics
7. Alcoholes
• All of which may be considered as “saturated &
unsaturated”
Types of
hydrocarbons
1. Saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes or paraffins)
are the simplest of the hydrocarbon species
and are composed entirely of single bonds
and are saturated with hydrogen or another
carbon atom.
The general formula for saturated
hydrocarbons is CnH2n+2 (assuming non-
cyclic structures).
Saturated hydrocarbons are the basis of
petroleum fuels and are either found as
linear or branched species.
***
linear chain branch chain
Propane C3H8 Isobutane C4H10
***
2. Unsaturated Hydrocarbon have one or more
double or triple bonds between carbon
atoms.
*Those with double bond are called alkenes.
i- one double bond have the formula CnH2n
(olefins)
ii- two double bond with formulaCnH2n-2
(diolefins)
*Those containing triple bonds are called
alkynes, with general formula CnH2n-2
(acetylene)
alkenes
olfines diolfines
alkynes
***
3. Cyclo-alkanes (cyclo-paraffins)
are hydrocarbons containing one or more
carbon rings to which hydrogen atoms are
attached. The general formula for a saturated
hydrocarbon containing one ring is CnH2n.
cyclo
***
4. Aromatic Hydrocarbon, also known as
arenes, are hydrocarbons that have at least
one aromatic ring.
general formula is CnH2n-6
5. Alcohols
these are paraffins with (OH) replaces one (H)
examples
methanol CH3OH
ethanol C2H5OH
***
CHAPTER FOUR
Thermo-chemistry
4.1.6 - Gasoline
introduction
• Gasoline or petrol,
• is a toxic translucent, yellow-tinted liquid mixture of many
hydrocarbons, derived from petroleum, which is primarily used as a
fuel in internal combustion engines.
• It consists mostly of aliphatic hydrocarbons obtained by the
fractional distillation of petroleum, enhanced with isooctane or the
aromatic hydrocarbons toluene and benzene to increase its octane
rating. Small quantities of various additives are common, for the
purposes of tuning engine performance or reducing harmful
exhaust emissions. Some mixtures also contain significant
quantities of ethanol as a partial alternative fuel.
• Under normal ambient conditions it's material state is liquid and
not a true gas as opposed to liquefied petroleum gas or "natural
gas".
refinery
• Gasoline is produced in oil
refineries.
• Material that is separated
from crude oil via distillation,
called straight-run gasoline,
does not meet the required
specifications for modern
engines (in particular octane
rating; see below), but will
form part of the blend.
• The bulk of a typical gasoline
consists of hydrocarbons with
between four and 12 carbon
atoms per molecule.
***
• Overall, a typical gasoline is
predominantly a mixture of
paraffins (alkanes),
naphthenes (cycloalkanes),
and olefins (alkenes).
• The actual ratio depends on:
1. the oil refinery that makes
the gasoline, as not all
refineries have the same set
of processing units;
2. crude oil feed used by the
refinery;
3. the grade of gasoline, in
particular, the octane rating.
Gasoline properties
1. Density 3. self-ignition temperature SIT
• The specific gravity (or relative if the temperature of AF mixture
density) of gasoline ranges from is raised high enough, the mixture
0.71–0.77 ( 719.7 kg/m3), will ignite itself without the need
Gasoline floats on water; water of a spark or external igniter.
cannot generally be used to the temperature above which
extinguish a gasoline fire, unless this occurs is called the “ self
used in a fine mist. ignition temperature “ and will be
2. Volatility denoted by “SIT” .
• is the tendency of a substance to
vaporize. Volatility is directly
related to a substance's vapor
pressure. At a given temperature,
a substance with higher vapor
pressure vaporizes more readily
than a substance with a lower
vapor pressure.
Notes on volatility
• As mentioned previously, low 4. however, too high volatility is
boiling point HC components undesirable, because :
is : i- reduces volumetric
1. Is very useful products efficiency, as fuel vapor
2. it’s low boiling temperature replaces air during induction
means it has high volatility. stroke.
3. High volatility components ii- it can cause vapor lock
can vaporize at low which prevent fuel flow
temperature, which is useful through carburetor lines.
for cold starting of an engine,
as fuel must vaporize before it
can be burned.
Notes on SIT
• SIT is usually obtained when • If SIT is reached in SI engines,
having high Cr. then pressure pulses are
• In CI engines, Cr is usually high generated, often in audible
and SIT is obtained, this what frequency, which may cause
really makes the principles of serious damage to the engine.
ignition in CI engines. This phenomena is called
• In SI engines SIT may be “knocking or pinging or
referred to as “auto-ignition”, detonation”.
or “pre-ignition”. And this is
not desirable at all in SI engine
operation. As ignition start by
the spark of a spark plug at
pre-set time of the cycle, this
is why low Cr is imposed on
the design of SI engines.
Specified gasoline
• Gasoline for reasonable
approximation can be
considered as single
component hydro-carbon
fuel, such as :
1. Gasoline
chemical formula C8H15
MWt = 111
2. Iso-octane
chemical formula C8H18
MWt = 114
Octane number
• Octane number is a fuel • The higher the ON the
properties that describes “ higher it’s resistance to self
how well the fuel will or will ignition.
not self ignite “. • Therefore, high ON
• Or improves engine
• Octane number is a performance and prevents
measure of the fuel knocking , and therefore,
resistance to spontaneous prevent possible engine
(self) ignition during damage, thus improving
compression stroke prior to engine service life.
the desired position of the
piston in the cylinder set by
valve and ignition timing.
Octane rating
• Internal combustion engines are designed to
burn gasoline in a controlled process called
deflagration.
• But in some cases, gasoline can also combust
abnormally by detonation, which wastes
energy and can damage the engine.
• One way to reduce detonation is to increase
the gasoline's resistance to auto-ignition,
which is expressed by its octane rating
Deflagration is a technical term describing subsonic combustion that usually
propagates through thermal conductivity (hot burning material heats the next
layer of cold material and ignites it)
Detonation ( knock, spark knock, pinging or pinking) in SI engines

occurs when combustion of the air/fuel mixture in the cylinder
starts off correctly in response to ignition by the spark plug, but
one or more pockets of air/fuel mixture explode outside the
envelope of the normal combustion front.
Auto-ignition The autoignition temperature of a substance is the

lowest temperature at which it will spontaneously ignite in a
normal atmosphere without an external source of ignition, such as
a flame or spark
Tutorial
• What do understand by the terms below as
related to SI engine :
1. Pre-ignition
2. Self-ignition
3. Auto-ignition
4. detonation
1. Pre-ignition: the increase in the rate of heat transfer to the cylinder walls may cause
local hot spots, i.e overheating projected parts such as “”spark plug electrodes; exhaust
valve head; metal corners in the combustion chamber; carbon deposits… etc””, which
may reach a temperature high enough to ignite the charge before the occurrence of the
actual timed spark. Such local pre-ignition spots may occur in the spark plug,
overheated exhaust valves, or may be on a glowing carbon deposits in the combustion
chamber.
2. Self-ignition: if the temperature of AF mixture is raised high enough, the mixture will
ignite itself without the need of a spark or external igniter. the temperature above
which this occurs is called the “ self ignition temperature “ and will be denoted by
“SIT” .
3. Auto-ignition: is the initiation of combustion without the necessity of a flame, and
therefore it is one the causes that leads to the occurrence of engine knock. In this case
the flame speed is assumed normal before the onset of auto-ignition, whereby gas
vibration created by number of end gas elements auto-ignites almost instantaneously.
Therefore, auto-ignition does not occur immediately as the self-ignition temperature is
reached, where some ignition delay period is required before the mixture becomes
explosive.
4. Detonation: this is a very sudden rise of pressure during combustion accompanied by
metallic hammer like sound that take place in the farthest away from spark plug zone.
Wherein a true pressure wave formed by pre-flame reaction ( delay period) travel at
about twice sonic speed, is the mechanism of such phenomena.
Octane rating
• Octane rating is measured • The octane rating became
relative to a mixture of important as the military
2,2,4-trimethylpentane sought higher output for
and n-heptane. aircraft engines in the late
• There are different 1930s and the 1940s.
conventions for • A higher octane rating
expressing octane ratings, simulates a higher
so a fuel may have several compression ratio, and
different octane ratings thus higher temperatures
based on the measure and pressures, which
used. translate to higher power
output.
Measuring ON
• Two kind of fuels are used as • To find the (ON) of a fuel , the
standard or primary reference following test is carried using
fuels (PRF) : special test engine :
1. Iso-octane (2,2,4 tri-methyl- 1. The fuel (x) is used, Cr is
pentane) having low boiling adjusted at specified operating
point and has very slight conditions until a standard level
tendency to knock, and of knock is experienced.
therefore it’s 2. Fuel (x) is replaced by mixture
ON = 100 of the (PRF) through special
2. n-heptane, which is designed intake system to have
characterized by high tendency any blend of mixture, until same
to detonate, therefore it’s level of knock is obtained.
ON = 0 3. At that instant,
the (%) of iso-octane in the
mixture represent the (ON) of
fuel(x).
***
• For example, • Because some fuels are
petrol with the same more knock-resistant than
knocking characteristics as iso-octane, the definition
a mixture of 90% iso-octane has been extended to allow
and 10% heptane would for octane numbers higher
have an octane rating of than 100.
90.
• This does not mean that the
petrol contains just iso-
octane and heptane in
these proportions, but that
it has the same detonation
resistance properties.
Measuring methods
1 - Research method RON [Research Octane Number ]
The most common type of octane rating worldwide is the (RON). determined by running the
fuel in a test engine with a variable compression ratio under controlled conditions, and
comparing the results with those for mixtures of iso-octane and n-heptane.
2 - Motoring method MON [Motor Octane Number ]

(MON), is a better measure of how the fuel behaves when under load, as it is determined at
900 rpm engine speed, instead of the 600 rpm for RON. MON testing uses a similar test
engine to that used in RON testing, but with a preheated fuel mixture, higher engine speed,
and variable ignition timing to further stress the fuel's knock resistance.
3 - Aviation method AON

"octane booster" gasoline additives was commonly used for ON improvement , but since
the 1970s, its use in most of the industrialized world has been restricted, and its use is
currently limited mostly to aviation gasoline.
Road Octane Number (RdON)

The final type of octane rating, called Observed Road Octane Number (RdON), is derived from
testing gasoline in real world multi-cylinder engines, normally at wide open throttle. The
actual testing was done in cars on the road but as technology developed the testing was
moved to chassis dynamometers with environmental controls to improve consistency.
(ON) characteristics
1. Anti-knock index AKI 3. Performance number PN
AKI = ½ (MON + RON)
2. Fuel sensitivity FS
it shows how sensitive a 4. Fuel mixture ON
fuel knock characteristics
to engine geometry. ON]mix = Σ [(mass % i ) ( ON)i ]
FS = RON – MON
0 ← FS → 10
better ← │ → poorer
performance │ performance
ON extended scale
As stated earlier that “some fuels are more knock-resistant than iso-octane”, and so this
may lead to an extended ON rating for a value higher than 100.
In this case, how can such fuels be compared when they are better than iso-octane in anti-
knock characteristics.
The answer to this problem is through the “ Wiese method “ of extended ON scale by
relating [ON to PN ] as follows :
Where
another method of extended ON rating is by relating ON to anti-knock agent called

tetraethyl lead (TEL) as follows :
Variables effecting ON
1. Combustion chamber
geometry.
2. Gas turbulence
3. Induction swirl
4. Temperature
5. Inert gas addition
6. Flame speed
Improving (ON)
An antiknock agent is a gasoline additive used to reduce engine knocking and increase
the fuel's octane rating.
The fuel mixture (gasoline) , when used in high compression internal combustion
engines, has a tendency to ignite early (pre-ignition or detonation) causing a damaging
"engine knocking" (also called "pinging" or "pinking") noise.
The typical octane booster or antiknock agents in use are: Tetraethyllead (TEL)
* TEL - Tetra-ethyl lead (phased out) it’s chemical formula is
* MMT - Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl [Pb(C2H5)4]
* MTBE – Methyl-tert-butyl ether It is knock inhibitor which
* ETBE – ethyl-tert-butyl ether increases the gasoline fuel
*Ferrocene knock resistance when small
*Iron pentacarbonyl quantity is added to the fuel
*Toluene [(0.5-1.5 ml) per liter gasoline]
*Isooctane It raises the ON > 100
Engine knock
• engine knock, is a sound that is made when the fuel
ignites too early in the compression stroke.
• Severe knock causes severe engine damage, such as
1. broken connecting rods,
2. melted pistons,
3. melted or broken valves and other components.
• The Octane rating is a measure of how likely a
gasoline or liquid petroleum fuel is to self ignite.
• The higher the ON, the less likely an engine is to pre-
ignite and suffer damage.
How knock occurs
• Refer to your text book
• P 140-141
• Figs.
4.3
4.4 – a,b,c,
4.5
***
• Figure 4-3 Self-ignition
characteristics of fuels.
• If the temperature of a fuel
is raised above the self-
ignition temperature (SIT),
the fuel will spontaneously
ignite after a short ignition
delay (ID) time.
• The higher above SIT which
the fuel is heated, the
shorter will be ID.
• Ignition delay is generally
on the order of thousandths
of a second.
***
• Fig.4-4
• Cylinder pressure as a function of
time in a typical SI engine
combustion chamber showing :
a- normal combustion
b- combustion with high knock
c- combustion with heavy knock
***
• Figure 4-5 SI engine combustion
chamber schematically visualized as
long hollow cylinder with the spark
plug located at left end.
• (a) Mass of air-fuel is equally
distributed as spark plug is fired to
start combustion.
• (b) As flame front moves across
chamber, unburned mixture in front
of flame is compressed into smaller
volume.
• (c) Flame front continues to
compress unburned mixture into
smaller volume, which increases its
temperature and pressure.
• If compression raises temperature of
end gas above SIT, self-ignition and
knock can occur.
How knock occurs
In SIE, during normal combustion a flame front is produced by the spark, spreading
uniformly across the combustion chamber with a smooth pressure rise. The heat
released due to combustion increases temperature and pressure of the burned gases.
The burned gases expand compressing the unburned gases, thereby increasing their
(T&P), and thus the flame front proceeds throughout the combustion chamber.
If the temperature of unburned mixture exceeds SIT of the fuel, then spontaneous
ignition or uncontrolled auto-ignition occurs at various location in the combustion
chamber.
This phenomenon is called “knock” or “detonation” in SI engines.
4.1.7 – Diesel fuel
introduction
 Diesel fuel is also known  Two types usually used
as diesel oil or fuel oil. in IC engines :
 It is petroleum fraction 1. Light diesel fuel
that lies between C12H22 of MWt=170
kerosene and lubricating less viscous, easy to
oil. pump, and cost more.
2. Heavy diesel fuel
C14H24 of MWt=200
properties
 In order to burn well, diesel fuel should :
1. Atomize properly
2. Ignite quickly
3. Burns completely
Ignition quality
 Diesel fuel properties that 2. volatility
determines the ignition It is the tendency to
quality are : evaporate under given set of
1. Specific gravity conditions.
this is related to the energy Evaporation and mixing with
content of the fuel and air is essential for good
greatly affects the (specific ignition quality and complete
combustion, as this will
& volumetric) fuel effects the exhaust contents
consumption of a diesel (HCs, NOx, smoke density,
engine. odour).
 It is measured by “distillation
temp. vs % evaporated”
according to ASTM
distillation curve
***
3. Ignition quality  Notes on (ID)
i- smooth spontaneous  Influence the quality of fuel
ignition at low temperature is optimization.
essential for good quality of  Too long (ID) causes rapid
ignition. rate of pressure rise at start of
ii- ignition delay (ID)which ignition which causes diesel
is the time period between knock.
start of injection and start of  Too short provides
combustion. insufficient time for good
mixing which causes
smoking.
 Effected by design
parameters such as “Cr,
injection rate & timing, inlet
air temperature..”
***
4. Cetane number (CN) CN↑ → diesel knock↓
 It is a measure of the fuel exh. emission ↓
ability to auto-ignite noise ↓
quickly when injected into
the hot compressed air. delay period ↓
 It is also a numerical
measure of the influence CN ↑↑ → pre-ignition
the diesel fuel has in occurs
determining the (ID)
Measuring CN
 A special test engine is used for the  Ref. fuel mixture variation
purpose of measuring (CN) of fuel according to test procedure
(x). until ignition start at TDC
 The test procedure :  Accordingly , the mixture blend
i- fuel injection begins at is used to calculate (CN) of fuel
(13 °bTDC) (x) as :
ii- (Cr) to be adjusted for CN]x = % n-cetane + (0.15) %HMN
ignition to start at TDC
 Reference fuel
1- n-cetane [C16H34]
CN = 100
2- heptomethylnonane
HMN [C12H34]
CN = 15
Methods of diesel fuel rating
1. Cetane index (CI)
CI = - 420.34 + 0.016G² + 0.192G(log Tmp )
+ 65.01(log Tmp )² - 0.0001809 T²mp
where
G – API gravity (American Petroleum Institute) {APIg}
G = (141.5/sp.grv) – 131.5
sp.grv – specific gravity
sp.grv = [gravity of fuel/gravity of water] at 15 °C
Tmp - mid point boiling temperature in ( °F) , which is
the temperature at which (50%)of mixture will be
evaporated.
***
2. Diesel index (DI)
DI = 0.01 [ aniline point (°F) x APIg at 60°F]
aniline point – is the lowest temperature at which the
oil is completely miscible with an equal volume of
aniline. [good quality diesel oil → APIg = 70° F]
ON & CN
1. For gasoline , (ON) is a 4. Approximate simple
measure of the resistance to relationship between ON &
spontaneous ignition CN :
2. For diesel fuel, (CN) is a CN = (104 – ON)/2.75
measure of the ease of ON = 104 – 2.75 CN
spontaneous ignition . 5. This means that “a good
3. (ON & CN) are therefore diesel engine fuel is bad
the inverse measurement of gasoline engine fuel”
the same property 6. Increasing (ON) is not
(spontaneous ignition) harmful but a cost waste.
increasing (CN) is harmful
as it might produce pre-
ignition.
CHAPTER FOUR
Thermo-chemistry
4.1.8 – Alternative fuels
Frequently asked questions
1. Why alternative fuels needed
i- crude oil is vanishing sources.
ii-emission problems from HCs
iii-increasing crude oil transport cost
2. Why alternative fuels still out of use
i-engine modification
ii-high cost
iii- service stations construction
Types of alternative fuels
1. Alcohol  Refer to your text book for
2. Methanol ( CH3OH ) more details.
3. Ethanol ( C2H5OH )  Definitions and advantages-
4. Hydrogen disadvantages are required
to be read.
5. Natural gas – methane
6. Propane
7. Reformulated gasoline
8. Coal – water slurry
9. other
Methanol CH3OH
 Methanol is a good alternate fuel for internal combustion
and other engines, either in combination with gasoline or
directly (“pure").
 Mixture of methanol and gasoline is usually designated by
(MX) , for example
M15 → 15% methanol + 85% gasoline
M100 → pure methanol
M0 → pure gasoline
Ethanol C2H5OH
 It is also as methanol a good alternative fuel for automobiles.
 Made much of it from corn and sugar, although the
manufacturing processes are costly.
 Most common mixture used are
1. M85
2. M10
Tutorial
 See examples :
 4.6 / p.154
 4.7 / p.156
Chapter four
combustion
4.2.1 - Introduction
Introduction
• Combustion process
may be defined as a
relatively rapid chemical
reaction between C & H
in fuel and oxygen in
the air, resulting in
liberation of energy in
the form of heat
Combustion requirements
1. Presence of combustible mixture (fuel + air)
2. Means of combustion initiation (spark) or self ignition
3. Stabilization and propagation of flame in the combustion chamber
SIE combustion stages :
1. Ignition and flame development
2. Flame propagation
3. Flame termination.
Types of combustion
1. Controlled combustion which is
initiated by a spark .
2. Uncontrolled combustion which is
initiated by hot spot.
3. Abnormal combustion which is
known as “auto-ignition” and this
will cause engine knock.
Remarks on ignition
• Near end of compression
stroke the cylinder contains a
homogeneous FA mixture.
• Spark is fired and ignites the
FA mixture in the vicinity
forming a thin thread of flame.
• Combustion spread to the
envelope of the mixture
containing the thread.
• Rate of flame propagation
depends on T & P of flame
front and surrounding
envelope.
Combustion in CI Engine
In a CI engine the fuel is sprayed directly into the cylinder and the fuel-air
mixture ignites spontaneously.
These photos are taken in a RCM under CI engine conditions with swirl air flow.
Diesel Combustion Process
• spontaneous combustion (auto ignition) due to

temperature increase of reactants.
• ignition triggered by compression heating of
fuel-air mixture.
• Ignition initiated at random point in combustion
chamber
• Fast combustion process
• Less complete combustion process
Chapter four
Combustion
4.2.2 – Indicator diagram
Indicator diagrams are indicative of the power generated within engines and are a
useful tool for engineers to know how well their engines are performing.
The term indicated power refers to the theoretical power that develops inside the
cylinder of an engine though in actual practice the power available at the outside
(brake power) is lesser but for the time being we will not consider the latter but only
talk about indicated power.
The best way to find out the indicated power is from calculating the area under
indicator diagram.
Actually you will notice that it is the same P-V diagram which we studied previously .
We know that a P-V diagram contains a plot of the pressure and volume variations for
an engine. The significance of this chart lies in the fact that the work done during the
cycle can be gauged from the area enclosed within the loop of the graph.
The direction of the arrows shows the path to follow.
The (+ve A1 , -ve A2) loops are measured by
planimeter. If the length and height of the indicator
diagram are (L & h) respectively, then :
L.h = A1 – A2
Where
A1 - +ve work (power) and A2 -ve work (losses)
L.h = useful work output
the indicated power cannot be measured directly, so it
is evaluated indirectly by measuring the brake power
and engine losses.
However If indicator diagram is available, the indicated
power can be computed by measuring the area of the
diagram with a planimeter or other such means, so
(imep) can be evaluate as : Where
imep – bar ---
Net diagram area – mm² ---
Length of diagram – mm ---
and
Spring constant - bar/mm
A planimeter is a measuring instrument used to
determine the area of an arbitrary two-
dimensional shape.
The linkage of polar arm is fixed at the pole, the

tracer moves around the boundary of the shape.
Tracing around the perimeter of a surface
induces a movement in a measuring wheel that
rolls along the drawing as the operator traces
the contour. When the planimeter's measuring
wheel moves, this movement is recorded. The
area of the shape is proportional to the number
of turns through which the measuring wheel
rotates when the planimeter is traced along the
complete perimeter of the shape.
The electronic type planimeter gives a direct

reading of the measured area.
definition
• The device which
measures the variation
of the pressure in the
cylinder over a part or
full cycle in called
“indicator”.
• The plot of such output
is called “indicator
diagram”
description
1. The indicator diagram is the 4. Provides the required
only intermediate record information for the study of the
available in the account of total losses occurring in the induction
liberated energy before it is and exhaust strokes.
measured at the output shaft. 5. It is used for the study of engine
2. It gives a very good indication of combustion, detonation, tuning
the process of converting heat of inlet and exhaust manifold.
into mechanical work. 6. Indicator diagrams are basically
3. It gives a great insight into of two types:
combustion phenomenon and i- pressure-volume (PV) plot.
the associated factors such: ii- pressure-crank angle (Pθ) plot.
i- rate of pressure rise.
ii- ignition lag or delay period.
Engine indicating system
• Engine indicating device • The main type of engine
consist of : indicators are :
1. Pressure sensing unit. 1. Piston indicator
2. Piston displacement or 2. Balanced diaphragm
piston angular position 3. Electronic indicator
sensor. • The first two types are
3. Display device which can mechanical, now
show both pressure and considered out of date
piston signals on one set and unsuitable
of paper or screen. equipment.
Electronic indicators
• The electronic indicator
system generally of the
following main units :
1. Pressure pick-up
2. Pre-amplifying device
3. Time-base recording
device.
4. Display circuit.
Pressure pick-up
• This is a pressure transducer
that generates electrical
signal proportional to the
pressure to which it is
subjected, also
• Pressure transducer is a
heat resistance piezoelectric
quartz crystal that produce
a charge signal proportional
to the cylinder pressure.
• The signal produced is
usually very small or too
small to be displayed.
Pre-amplifying device
• This device is used to

enlarge the small signal
received from the
pressure transducer so
that it can be displayed
on a display unit such as
oscilloscope or may be
recorded into a special
recorder.
Time-base recording device.
• There are many types of

complicated devices used, but
the simplest is a light sensor
aimed onto a white spot
painted on the flywheel ring,
where each time the white
spot passes the light sensor a
signal is sent to the display
unit.
• The white spot must be
located at a specific position
(TDC or BDC).
• The cycle pressure is then
related accordingly.
Display circuit.
• It can be a cathode-ray
oscilloscope (CRO) on which
the pressure signal is
applied to the vertical plate,
and the time or position
signal to the horizontal
plate, thereby resulting a (P-
V, P-t, P-θ) diagrams
Integrated unit
Chapter four
combustion
4.2.3 – combustion fundamentals
General remarks
• Combustion process • ID = dr/(360N/60)
takes place at a certain • or simply
timing, where piston • t = θ / 6N
and spark are related by
time and position. • So if either combustion
time or combustion
• Combustion period is angle is given for a
therefore related to specific engine speed ,
such parameters (t & θ) then the other variable
as mentioned before, is very simple to
and expressed as: evaluate.
example
• If engine speed (2400) • If combustion time is
rpm, and combustion (3 ms) for the same
span for (25) degrees, engine speed, then
then combustion time combustion angle is
will be • θ=6tN
• t = 25/6x2400 • θ = 6 (3/1000) (2400)
Burn angle
• Combustion period in • If time factor is used, then this
degrees is better known will be called
as “burn angle”, which “burn time”
can be defined as : • In most engine, typical value
of burn angle is about “25
• “burn angle is the angle degrees”
through which the crank • Accordingly, if combustion is
shaft turns during to be completed at (15º aTDC)
combustion process” then ignition should occurs at
• or “is the number of crank about (10º bTDC), and this
would give a total of (25º)
shaft degrees combustion from start of ignition to end of
process occupies” combustion
Start of ignition
1. too early -
pressure increases rapidly to
reach undesirable level before
TDC, and this means that work
will be wasted in compression
stroke.
2. too late –
then max pressure will not occur
early enough, then work will be
lost at start of power stroke.
3. Norma time –
from above, ideal time of
ignition is in the range of (10-
30) degrees bTDC
Best performance will be achieved when the greatest portion of the
combustion takes place near top dead center.
** If the spark is not advanced enough, the piston will already be moving
down when much of the combustion takes place. In this case, we lose the
ability to expand this portion of the gas through the full range, decreasing
performance.
** If ignition is too advanced, too much of the gas will burn while the
piston is still rising. As a result, the work that must be done to compress
this gas will decrease the net work produced.
These competing effects cause a

maximum in the power → → → as a function of spark advance.
1) If ignition timing does not become advance enough, most of the combustion
occurs when the piston is moving down and, in this case, the power and the
thermal efficiency decrease.
2) If ignition timing gets too advance, most of the air-fuel mixture burns before
the piston rises. Additionally, the period of the time of heat loss becomes
larger, then the net work and the thermal efficiency decrease.
3) By raising ignition advance, however, an increase in temperature and pressure
in cylinder happens but the power and the thermal efficiency decrease due to
higher friction loss and other losses in the engine.
4) The performance of an SI engine highly depends on ignition timing, and its
optimum value should be determined for each SI engine. For this engine, the
maximum thermal efficiency and net work are obtained at 31°CA BTDC.
Combustion &Engine speed
• Actual spark timing is 1. Combustion occurs faster at
typically anywhere from higher (N) due to better mixing
and various mixture motion
(10º to 30º) bTDC, but to inside the cylinder
specify exact position 2. Real time for combustion
depends on : process decreases as RPM
1. Type of fuel increases due to good mixing
caused by turbulence flow
2. Engine geometry effects.
3. Engine speed (N) 3. Real time for engine cycle also
• Considering engine speed decreases as RPM increases
factor, it can be said that 4. From (1 &2) above means that
burn angle remains almost the
same, as time factor equalizes
both factors.
examples
• If (θ) is to remain • If (t) is to remain constant in the
previous examples
constant , while varying • t = θ / 6N = constant
engine speed • t1 = t2
θ = 25 • θ1 / 6N1 = θ2 / 6N2
N = 2000 and 3600 rpm • θ2 = θ1 (N2/ N1)
= 25 (3600/2000)
t = θ / 6N = 40 deg.
t2000 = 2.08 ms So in order to keep (t) constant when
engine speed changes from (2000)
t3600 = 1.15 ms to (3600) rpm, the burn angle have
to be increased from (25) to (40)
Real combustion time deg.
decreases as engine This means that spark must occur at
speed increases (30º) bTDC to complete combustion
at (15º) aTDC
Variation in combustion
1. Ideally
Combustion in every cylinder of an engine would be exactly the same, and
no cycle-to-cycle variation in one cylinder, i.e
In all cylinders – no cylinder to cylinder variation
In one cylinder -- no cycle to cycle variation
2. but, actually
This does not happen, where actual conditions differ from ideal conditions,
and this causes variation to take place in all cylinders, and cycle to cycle in
each cylinder.
3. Why ?
The reasons behind such variation in combustion that actually occurs are :
I - variation in intake system
II - variation within the cylinder
III - turbulence within the cylinder causes statistical variation during
combustion
Cycle-to-cycle variation
Causes of variation in
combustion process
• In actual engine operation, 1. Intake system
the assumptions made to
theoretically evaluate 2. Evaporative cooling
engine combustion process 3. Fuel properties
can not hold due to many 4. EGR
reasons and uncontrolled
effects that causes 5. Throttling
variation in combustion 6. Fuel injection
between the cylinders and
also within each cylinder, 7. Indicator diagram
such causes can be 8. Spark discharge
enumerated as follows:
9. Burn time
Home work
• Refer to your text book and other references
of your choice, write short assay on the causes
of combustion variation, taking the factors
mentioned above into consideration plus any
other reasons you think that should be
included.
Engine operating characteristics
&
combustion process
==================================================
Engine operating conditions have substantial effects on
combustion process, as conditions for max power
requirements differ from that when economy is the
target, or during cruising for a long journey.
so, studying the most common operating conditions
that an engine may subjected to will give better
understanding of combustion process.
1 – power operation
maximum power will be required at WOT for

•Fast start up
• accelerating up a hill
•Airplane take-off
to get such power level for above requirement, then

I – rich AF must be supplied to the engine by adjusting fuel injectors or
carburetors.
II – ignition timing must be retard (spark later in the cycle)
This will develop max power at the sacrifice of fuel economy and rough
operation, as a results of this modifications :
a – rich AF burns faster and pressure peak near TDC
b – high engine speed
** reduces heat transfer time
** exhaust gases and valves will be hotter
c – to maximize flame speed further
** no EGR is recycled
** NOx higher formation level
2 - Cruising operation
Cruising operation means

** steady free-way driving
** long distance journey
Under such condition
** less power is needed
** bsfc is important
Therefore, such operating conditions requires :
1 – lean AF mixture must be used
2 – high EGR should be supplied
3 – ignition timing should be advanced.
These requirements will results in :
a – slow flame speed
b – high millage (km/lit)
c – low thermal efficiency
3 – idle & low engine speed
these operating conditions are characterized by :

I – throttle is almost closed
II- high vacuum in the intake manifold
Due to the high vacuum and low engine speed, the following drawbacks will
results :
1 – high residual gases during overlap period
2 – poor combustion
3 – high exhaust emission (HC & CO) due to rich AF and poor
combustion.
4 – misfire and partial combustion in some cylinders
Although effective drawbacks will results in such operating condition,
nevertheless, rich mixture must be supplied to compensate for poor
combustion
4 – closing throttle at high engine speed
Drivers are sometimes faced with road conditions that requires quick deceleration
such as sudden braking action. Under such condition the engine RPM is high and the
throttle is almost closed, which are conflicting situation as :
** high RPM requires high air flow
** closed throttle requires low air flow
these conditions are forced conditions, resulting in:
1 – high intake vacuum
2 – high exhaust residual
3 – rich mixture
4 – poor combustion
5 – mis-fire
6 – high exhaust emission
These results are most noticeable in carburetor engine, however, fuel injector have
better response which can be controlled by shutting-down the fuel flow under such
conditions.
5 – starting cold engine
To start a cold engine, over rich mixture must be supplied (closing the choke)
to ensure that enough fuel vapor will be present to make the least
combustible mixture.
Cold engine reduces the percentage of fuel evaporation as compared to
normal conditions due to:
1 – cold walls of intake system & of cylinders
2 – cold fuel
3 – cold lubricating oil
Cold engine at instance of starting is characterized by
a – due to no-combustion situation, the engine is driven by the starter
motor at a very low rpm
b – compressive heating is lost to cold walls and not to gas mixture
c – cold viscous lub oil resist motion
Therefore to overcome all of these , the need is essential for over-rich
mixture, may be as much as (1:1), so small percentage of fuel will be
vaporized, resulting in :
i- combustible mixture is obtained
ii – ignition start
iii- after few cycles, engine begins to warm up, so in few minutes normal
operation will be reached.
Chapter four
combustion
4.2.4 – combustion in SI engines
fundamentals
• As stated earlier, combustion • The spread of the flame
process is divided into three front is influenced by
broad regions : (increased by) induced
1. Ignition and flame “turbulence-swirl-squish”
development. mixture motion within the
2. Flame propagation. cylinder.
3. Flame termination • The right combination of
• Ideally combustion consist of fuel and operating
“sub-sonic flame” conditions must be
progressing through established such that knock
premixed-homogeneous is to be avoided.
air/fuel mixture
The air and fuel are homogeneously mixed together in the carburetor. This mixture enters
engine cylinder through intake manifold. Mixes with residual gas and compressed.
Combustion is initiated by a spark at the end of compression stroke.
As the piston reaches TDC the fuel is ignited by the spark at the spark plug and the
burning process of the mixture begins. As the gases rapidly expand the piston is forced
down the cylinder on the power stroke.
A turbulent flame develops following ignition, propagating through AF mixture.

The flame front spreads with a certain speed known as “flame velocity”. The speed of
the flame front must not exceed the speed of the power stoke.
indicator diagram is useful in predicting :

i- rate of pressure rise.
ii- ignition lag or delay period.
iii- losses occurring in the induction and exhaust strokes.
iv- study of engine combustion, detonation, tuning of inlet and exhaust manifold.
Therefore it can be concluded that understanding indicator diagram is essential to

understand combustion process.
Generally, such diagram can be presented either as:
i- PV diagram
ii- Pθ diagram
in both theoretical or actual form. :
PV diagram
theoretical actual
Pθ - diagram
theoretical actual
Combustion stages
1. First stage is ignition and
flame development, or
sometimes called ignition
lag. (AB)
2. Second stage is flame
propagation (BC)
3. Third stage is flame
termination and sometime
it may be called “after
burn” (CD)
r revolution
1st stage
ignition lag
• Ignition lag or ignition • Ignition delay period
delay can be defined as (ID) can be calculated as
“it is the time interval follows :
between ignition initiation
and the actual start of
combustion”.
• It is a very small fraction of
a second during which FA
• ID – ignition delay (sec)
mixture is chemically dr – degree of engine rotation
prepared for reaction N - engine speed (rpm)
360 – crank shaft degrees per
revolution
• During this 1st stage, generally about (5% - 10%) of the FA mixture is consumed under
normal operating conditions of a SI engines.
• Events taken place during this period are:

*ignition occurs and initiated by spark from the spark plug.
*combustion process start as AF mixture is ignited in the immediate vicinity of
the spark (close surroundings), forming a small hallow nucleus of flame like a
form of soap bubble sphere.
*combustion reaction starts to spread outwards away from the spark plug and into the
remaining volume of the cylinder.
• at this stage, the rate of combustion is slow which results in:

1- low rate of pressure rise ( about 1% of that in the 2nd stage).
2- low production of useful work.
• the reasons behind such slow progress in combustion process is due to low
turbulence motion in this zone, as well as high heat losses to :
1- relatively cold spark plug material.
2- gas mixture.
• Flame is generally detected at about (6) degrees of crank rotation after spark
plug firing. This means that there is a time interval where combustion start after
ignition occurs, where we called this as “delay period”.
• by the time (5-10 %) of AF mass has been burned, which is the duration of this
1st stage, the combustion process is then well established, and the flame front
starts to move faster. This indicates the start of the 2nd stage.
• but …
where the 1st stage ends and where the 2nd stage start is very difficult to specify
due to so many variables involved, and therefore this can be specified for a
particular engine from indicator diagram study of this particular engine.
• The first two stages of combustion are not entirely distinct, since the nature
and velocity of combustion changes gradually. However, we can assume that the
end point of the first stage is itself the start point of the 2nd stage.
• this point can be specified when a first measurable rise of pressure is seen on
the indicator diagram, i.e, the point where the line of combustion depart from
the line of compression, as shown in the following diagram “
A – point of spark
B – point of measurable pressure rise.
C – point of max pressure.
And therefore :
AB – represent 1st stage
BC – represent 2nd stage
CD – represent 3rd stage
2nd stage
flame propagation
• As the 1st stage ends the • Most of the useful work is
combustion of the mixture produced in this stage.
inside the cylinder becomes • During this stage the gas
more established, where the mixture undergoes motion
rate of pressure rise of “turbulence-swirl-squish”
becomes faster and resulting in a high flame
therefore provides higher front speed.
force to produce work in the • The flame front expands
expansion stroke. spherically from the spark
• Most of the FA mixture is plug and spread through
burned in this stage, about the combustion chamber
(80-90%) of the total FA due to those above motion
mass rate.
***
• As combustion proceeds,
the gas mixture pressure
rises to high values,
however, the temperature
of the burned gases behind
the flame front is higher
then that before flame
front, and therefore density
of burned gases decreases
and thus expands to occupy
a greater volume.
• This volume increase of the burned gases compresses the unburned
gases, and therefore , the unburned gases will be subjected to
compressive heating.
• in addition to that, and due to heat transfer (radiation, conduction,
convection) will further increase the unburned gases temperature as well
as it’s pressure.
• from these conditions of operation, the flame moves through the
combustion chamber and travels through a progressively increasing
temperature and pressure environment, thus improving combustion by :
1- reducing chemical reaction time
2- increasing flame front speed
• when the piston reaches TDC :
1- ⅔ of AF mixture is completely burned.
2- gases (T & P) reaches max values just after TDC (5-10)º aTDC
3- all FA mixture is completely burned at about (15º) aTDC
3rd stage – flame termination
• In this stage (5-10)% of AF mixture is burned
which makes it the final mass of fuel to be
consumed, and a little additional work is
delivered.
• This means that (90-95)% of FA mass rate is
already being burned, and therefore the rate
of pressure rise quickly decreases, thence
combustion ends at about (15-20) degrees
aTDC
Returning to fig. shown :
*the last (5-10)% mass of AF is
compressed into few percent (about
2%) of combustion chamber volume.
*this volume is at the extreme corner
of combustion chamber.
*the piston start to move away from
TDC, the volume increased by about
(10-20)% of clearance volume(Vc),
resulting that AF react in a very
small volume, and therefore
reaction takes place at a very low
rate
Near the wall, the mixture motion is damped out, and the combustion chamber walls
acts as heat sink, which causes :
1. Rate of reaction is further reduced.
2. Flame speed is also reduced.
3. Thus combustion ends by slowly dying away.
Chapter four
combustion
4.2.5 – combustion in CI engines
General remarks
**in SI engines combustion, flame front moves through a homogeneous
mixture, while in CI engines unsteady process occurring simultaneously at
many spots in a very non-homogeneous mixture at a rate controlled by fuel
injection.
**Air intake is un-throttled in CIE giving almost atmospheric intake
pressure, and thus reduces pumping losses and improving thermal
efficiency
**Air only to be compressed during most of the compression stroke while
fuel is injected into the cylinder at the end of this stroke
Injection span for about (20º) starting (15º) bTDC and lasting up to (5º)
aTDC
**Delay period is almost constant in real time, so at higher RPM fuel
injection must start earlier in the cycle.
Air movement (turbulence + swirl) and high injection velocity is needed
spread the fuel droplets through out the cylinder and forces it to mix with
air
**after the engine is provided with fuel air mixture, the combustion
process is set to be started
***
• Air only is admitted into the engine cylinder during the intake
stroke, then compressed during most of the compression
stroke near the end of which fuel injection will start.
• Due to high Cr the FA mixture temperature start to rise ,
reaching a level high enough to make FA self ignited
• This temperature is called “self ignition temperature SIT”
• So the principles of ignition in CIE is that FA mixture is so
compressed to raise it’s temperature up to SIT
Combustion process
• After injection, fuel must undergo series of
events to ensure proper combustion, i.e :
1. Atomization
2. Vaporization
3. Mixing
4. Self ignition
5. Combustion
Refer to your text book for definition of each of these events.
Fuel jet
***
• This figure shows air/fuel

vapor zone, where the liquid
core is surrounded by vapor
zones denoted by :
A – too rich to burn
B – rich combustible
C – stoichiometric
D – lean combustible
E – too lean to burn
Fuel injection
***
A – start of fuel injection
AB – delay period
C – end of fuel injection
AC – total injection span
B – combustion start at a
spot or spots where SIT
is reached
The combustion process proceeds by the following stages:
Ignition delay (ab)-fuel is injected directly into the cylinder towards the end of
the compression stroke. The liquid fuel atomizes into small drops and
penetrates into the combustion chamber. The fuel vaporizes and mixes with
the high-temperature high-pressure air.
Premixed uncontrolled combustion phase (bc)–combustion of the fuel which

has mixed with the air to within the flammability limits (air at high-
temperature and high-pressure) during the ignition delay period occurs
rapidly in a few crank angles.
Mixing controlled combustion phase (cd)–after premixed gas consumed, the

burning rate is controlled by the rate at which mixture becomes available for
burning. The rate of burning is controlled in this phase primarily by the fuel-
air mixing process.
Late combustion phase {after burn} (de)–heat release may proceed at a

lower rate well into the expansion stroke (no additional fuel injected during
this phase).
Combustion of any unburned liquid fuel and soot is responsible for this.
Combustion stages
• Combustion process in CI
engines can also be divided
into stages :
1. AB – ignition delay stage
2. BC – uncontrolled
combustion stage.
3. CD – controlled
combustion stage
4. After burn stage
a - 0.4 ms after ignition . b - 3.2 ms after ignition
c - 3.2 ms after ignition (magnified) d - Late in combustion process
Ignition delay
• ignition delay period of about (0.4- 1. Too early – ignition delay time
increases due to low (T&P)
3.0 ms) will be considered normal
when: 2. Too late – also ignition delay time
increases, and piston moves well
* AF mixture in the combustible ratio past TDC during the uncontrolled
* temperature of the mixture in the combustion stage
SIT range. • Due to many reasons, ignition delay
• Ignition delay decreases when any of period may be
the following parameters increases: 1. Long ID
(temperature – pressure – engine 2. Short ID
speed – compression ratio – high
RPM) 3. Normal ID
• Injection rate has no real effect on
ignition delay, but ignition timing has
a marked effect, as when injection
starts:
CN & ID
1. Low CN – causes ID to be too long, as more fuel will be injected before
combustion, and so when combusted results in:
I – high initial pressure rise
II- large initial force on piston
III- rough engine operation.
2. High CN - ID will be shorter, causing :
I- combustion start too early before TDC
II- resulting in power loss.
3. Normal CN (40 – 60)
Chapter four
Combustion
4.2.6 – Control & Sensors
Control & sensors
• The control system uses • These sensors measures
sensors located at various 1. throttle position
engine locations with 2. Throttle rate of change
programmed electronic 3. Intake manifold pressure
controllers and monitors. 4. Atmospheric pressure
• It is used to adjust combustion 5. Coolant temperature
for 6. Intake temperature
i- optimum power output 7. EGR valve position
ii- fuel economy 8. Crank angle
iii-emission control 9. O2 & CO in exhaust
• Input information from sensors 10. Knock detection
located in appropriate engine, 11. others
intake, and exhaust locations.
***
• Sensors methods of • The controlled variables are
measurement are 1. Ignition timing
1. Mechanical 2. Valve timing
2. Thermal 3. Fuel injection duration
3. Electronic 4. Exhaust air pump
4. Optical 5. Air/fuel
5. Chemical 6. Transmission shifting
6. Combinations of above. 7. Warning light operation
8. Repair diagnostic recording
9. Computer programming
10. Etc.
Chapter four
Ignition
4.3.1 - Ignition system
Fundamentals
Introduction
Ignition
is a process of combustion initiation,
and must add necessary energy for the
starting and sustained burning of the
fuel -till combustion takes place.-
Ignition system
It provides the necessary and timely
energy from external source (spark) to
the fuel charge at the end of
compression stroke.
The high temperature zone created by

the spark propagate through the charge
as flame front.
the combustion process releases
chemical energy according to fuel
calorific value.
Basics
The ignition system of an internal-combustion engine is an important part of the overall
engine system. It provides for the timely burning of the fuel mixture within the engine.
Not all engine types need an ignition system - for example, a diesel engine relies on
compression-ignition, that is, the rise in temperature that accompanies the rise in pressure
within the cylinder is sufficient to ignite the fuel spontaneously. All conventional petrol
(gasoline) engines, by contrast, require an ignition system. The ignition system is usually
switched on/off through a lock switch, operated with a key or code patch.
Engine starting system
Prior to ignition, the engine must be rotated in order to start cranking,

which is an essential activity for the IC engine operation, whereby several
methods to do so are available:
1. Hand cranking.
2. Electric starter motor.
3. Auxiliary gasoline engine
4. Compressed air.
5. Explosive cartridge.
6. Inertia starter.
Electric starter motor is most preferred methods, whilst hand cranking is
still common for small engine as in small home generator.
1 - Hand cranking
although this method were used for old engines, it is however still in use for small
engines usually a single cylinder type of bore less than ( 5 inches). The engine is
provided with
i - a crank which is manually rotated at high speed to start the engine.
ii – a rope winded around crankshaft pulley, by which fast pulling the rope to start the
engine.
2. Electric starter motor is Mostly preferred method, where the motor is connected
to the engine by means of spur gears, these gears coupled to the motor by
flexible coupling. When the starter switch is turned, it closes a circuit between the
battery and the motor, whose armature begins to spin. The spur gears are in a
pinion form meshes with the flywheel. After the flywheel turns, the engine start to
fire. Then the flywheel is disengaged from the pinion and the starter motor.
The current required (500A) to start the motor is supplied by a 12V-battery.
Ignition system components
The components of the ignition system

consist of:
Battery
Ignition coil
Spark plugs
Distributor
Advance mechanism
The ignition system ignites the air/fuel
mixture inside the cylinders, or
combustion chambers. All internal
combustion engines require an ignition
system to work. The entire system
consists of two electrical systems. One is a
low voltage circuit induced by the voltage
supplied by the BATTERY. The other
electrical system is the high voltage
circuit. This circuit provides the necessary
voltage to create a spark at the SPARK
PLUG.
Battery
Ignition Coil
Spark plug
Ignition Wires Distributor cup Battery

Spark plug
A spark plug is an electrical device that fits
into the cylinder head of I.C Engines and
ignites compressed aerosol gasoline by
means of an electric spark.
Spark plugs have an insulated center
electrode which is connected by a heavily
insulated wire to an induction coil circuit on
the outside, forming, with a grounded
terminal on the base of the plug, a spark
gap inside the cylinder.
A spark plug is composed of a shell,
insulator and the conductor. It pierces the
wall of the combustion chamber and
therefore must also seal the combustion
chamber against high pressures and
temperatures, without deteriorating over
long periods of time and extended use.
Spark plug gap The main issues with spark plug gaps are:
narrow-gap risk: spark might be too
•Spark plugs are typically designed to weak/small to ignite fuel;
have a spark gap which can be adjusted narrow-gap benefit: plug always fires on each
by bending the ground electrode slightly cycle;
to bring it closer to or further from the wide-gap risk: plug might not fire, or miss at
central electrode. high speeds;
•Spark plugs in automobiles generally wide-gap benefit: spark is strong for a clean
have a gap between (0.9–1.8 mm). But it burn.
can depend on the engine.
The gap adjustment can be fairly critical,
and if it is maladjusted the engine may
run badly, or not at all.
• A narrow gap may give too small and
weak a spark to effectively ignite the fuel-
air mixture, while a gap that is too wide
might prevent a spark from firing at all.
•Either way, a spark which only
intermittently fails to ignite the fuel-air
mixture may not be noticeable directly,
but will show up as a reduction in the
engine's power and fuel efficiency
Types of ignition systems
Four types of systems have been used in
modern times:
The Breaker Point System
The Electronic System
The Computerized System
The Distributorless System
The way they create the high voltage spark is the
same in all types of systems, the only thing that
differs is the way they are controlled.
All ignition systems have two

circuits :
The Primary Circuit

The primary circuit is the low voltage circuit that controls the
ignition system.
The Secondary Circuit

The secondary circuit is the circuit which converts magnetic
induction into high voltage electricity to jump across the
spark plug gap, firing the mixture at the right time.
The Primary Circuit The Secondary Circuit
The primary circuit consists of: The Secondary Circuit consists of:
Battery - provides the power to run the system. Secondary Coil - the part of the coil that creates the high
Ignition Switch - allows the driver to turn the system on and voltage electricity.
off. Coil Wire - a highly insulated wire, that takes the high
Ballast Resistor - reduces battery voltage from 12 volts to 9 voltage from the coil, to the distributor cap.
volts. Distributor Cap - a plastic cap which goes on top of the
Points - a mechanical switch that acts as the triggering distributor, to hold the high tension wires in the right
mechanism. order.
Condenser - protects the points from burning out. Rotor - spins around on the top of the distributor shaft,
Primary Coil - produces the magnetic field which creates the and distributes the spark to the right spark plug.
high voltage in the secondary coil. Spark Plug Wires - another highly insulated wire that
Wires - join all the components together. takes the high voltage from the cap to the plugs.
Spark Plugs - take the electricity from the wires, and give
it an air gap in the combustion chamber to jump across, to
light the mixture.
How Does The Ignition System Work.
Electrons, supplied by the battery when
the engine is starting, or by the alternator
when the engine is running, are supplied
to the primary circuit at about 12 volts
electrical pressure. When the circuit is
completed by turning on the ignition
switch, and the breaker points are closed,
those electrons flow through the primary
coil, across the points to ground, and back
to the battery again.
When electrons flow through a wire, a
magnetic field is built up around the
wire. Make the wire into a coil, and the
magnetic field increases by the number of
loops in the coil. This magnetic field
takes a relatively long period of time to
build up. It isn't instantaneous. The time
the coil is charging up is called coil
saturation, and is controlled by the
amount of time the breaker points are
closed, or "dwell". the longer the points
are closed for, the longer the dwell, and
the stronger the magnetic field becomes.
Mechanical ignition
Most four-stroke engines have used a mechanical ignition
system. Here, the power source is a lead-acid battery,
kept charged by the car's electrical system, which
generates electricity using a dynamo or alternator. The
engine operates contact breaker points, which interrupt
the current flow to an induction coil (known as the
ignition coil) - a type of autotransformer. This steps-up
the voltage, which is fed via a rotating switch called a
distributor to the spark plugs. This system is not greatly
different from a magneto system, except that more
separate elements are involved. There are also
advantages to this arrangement, for example, the
position of the contact breaker points relative to the
engine angle can be changed a small amount
dynamically, allowing the ignition timing to be
automatically advanced with increasing revolutions per
minute (RPM), giving better efficiency. This system was
used almost universally until the late 1970s, when
electronic ignition systems started to appear.
Electronic ignition
The disadvantage of the mechanical system is that it requires regular adjustment to
compensate for wear, and the opening of the contact breakers, which is responsible for
spark timing, is subject to mechanical variations. In addition, the spark voltage is also
dependent on contact effectiveness, and poor sparking can lead to lower engine efficiency.
Electronic ignition (EI) solves these problems.
In an EI system, the contact breaker points are replaced by an angular sensor of some kind -
either optical, where a vaned rotor breaks a light beam, or more commonly using a Hall
effect sensor, which responds to a rotating magnet mounted on a suitable shaft. The sensor
output is shaped and processed by suitable circuitry, then used to trigger a switching device
such as a thyristor, which switches a large flow of current through the coil. The rest of the
system (distributor and spark plugs) remains as for the mechanical system. The lack of
moving parts compared with the mechanical system leads to greater reliability and longer
service intervals. For older cars, it is usually possible to retrofit an EI system in place of the
mechanical one.
During the 1980s, EI systems were developed alongside other improvements such as fuel
injection systems. After a while it became logical to combine the functions of fuel control
and ignition into one electronic system known as an engine management system.
The Distributorless Ignition system
Newer automobiles have evolved from a mechanical system (distributor) to a completely
solid state electronic system with no moving parts. These systems are completely
controlled by the on-board computer. In place of the distributor, there are multiple coils
that each serve one or two spark plugs. A typical 6 cylinder engine has 3 coils that are
mounted together in a coil "pack". A spark plug wire comes out of each side of the
individual coil and goes to the appropriate spark plug. The coil fires both spark plugs at
the same time. One spark plug fires on the compression stroke igniting the fuel-air
mixture to produce power, while the other spark plug fires on the exhaust stroke and
does nothing. On some vehicles, there is an individual coil for each cylinder mounted
directly on top of the spark plug. This design completely eliminates the high tension
spark plug wires for even better reliability. Most of these systems use spark plugs that are
designed to last over 100,000 miles, which cuts down on maintenance costs.
Ignition timing
In each cylinder a spark should occur at a definite time for best results.
By timing the ignition, the burning of the mixture is allowed to take place at the correct
moment. Also, ignition timing is the method to ensure that firing takes place exactly at
the desired moment.
For complete combustion and for max power developed, ignition should occur before
the piston reaches TDC at the end of compression stroke. Therefore, spark should take
place at sufficient time before TDC
Firing order
This is the sequence in which the power impulse

occurs in an engine, and therefore, the order of
delivering power strokes, and thus to give a well
distributed pattern along the crankshaft is called
“firing order”.
General firing order examples are :
4 cylinder →→→ 1-3-4-2
6 cylinder →→→ 1-5-3-6-2-4
or→→ 1-4-2-6-3-5
8 cylinder →→→ 1-6-2-5-8-3-7-4
or→→ 1-8-2-6-4-5-3-7
Chapter five
induction & exhaust systems
5.1.1 - Introduction
Introduction
• Air and fuel are delivered into engine cylinder
by the engine “induction system”, which is
also known as “intake system” .
• The object of the intake system is to :
1. Deliver the proper amount of “air + fuel”
accurately.
2. Deliver AF equally to all cylinders.
3. Deliver AF at the proper time of the cycle.
Intake system
• To conduct the above requirement in a fair
precision, a well designed induction system
must employed.
• In general, intake systems consists of :
1. Intake manifold
2. Throttle.
3. Intake valves.
4. Carburetor or fuel injector .
***
Fuel delivery
• looking into the details of intake system parts,
requires studying the fuel delivery process to
understand the function of each intake system
part.
• Therefore, the two subjects must be presented in
parallel to make one clear picture of how fluid
flows through a specific part and how this part
functions accordingly.
• This may seems to be technically difficult, so two
separate slides may offer a reasonable choice for
the student.
***
carburetion
• In SI engines, the air/fuel mixture is prepared outside the
engine cylinder. The formation of a homogeneous mixture
of fuel and air is critical to ensure complete combustion of
fuel.
• The purpose of the carburetion process is to provide a
combustible air/fuel mixture in desired quantity and quality
for smooth engine operation at all loads and speed.
• Therefore, carburetion can be defined as
“the process of formation of combustible air/fuel mixture,
by mixing correct amount of fuel and air outside the engine
cylinder in a device called carburetor, after which this
mixture enters the engine cylinder during the induction
stroke.”
***
Fuel injector
• The fuel injection system
controls the air/fuel ratio
around the stoichiometry
under any driving
conditions by injecting a
specific amount of fuel at
appropriate timing, based
on signals from the engine
ECU.
• The engine ECU determines
the amount of fuel injection
based on the amount of air
detected by the air system
and driving conditions.
Chapter five
5.1.2 – fuel delivery
Mixture requirements
• The air/fuel mixture can be defined in three forms :
1. Stoichiometric mixture, which is supplied to
completely burns the fuel.
excess air factor = 1
2. Rich mixture, where the fuel is in excess of what is
required to burn the fuel completely.
excess air factor < 1
3. Lean mixture, here air is in excess of what is required
to completely burn the fuel.
excess air factor > 1
Mixture & engine conditions
1. The mixture for max • Automotive application
power is called “best the actual AF values falls
power AF mixture” in three range:
which is richer than 1. Idling (rich), no load and
stoichiometric value. closed throttle
2. The mixture for min operation.
(bsfc) is called “best 2. Cruising (lean), steady
economy AF mixture” long term operation.
which leaner than 3. High power (rich),
stoichiometric value. desired when high
power demanded from
engine.
General remarks
• In SI engine air flow rate through the intake
manifold is controlled by the location of the
fuel addition into the system
• Fuel addition may take place :
1. Before manifold ( up stream )
2. In the manifold
3. Directly into the engine cylinder.
Early fuel addition
• Early fuel addition (up- 2. Disadvantages:
stream) may in a way be *reduces the volumetric eff. as fuel
advantageous but it may replaces air and occupies
also have some drawbacks, fraction of swept volume .
therefore : *it causes bad “cylinder –to-cylinder”
air/fuel consistency.
1. Advantages : *it causes fuel to flow through the
*provides longer evaporation time. manifold in various pattern that
*gives more time for proper mixing may makes proper AF mixture
with air delivery fairly difficult.
This will improve the quality of the
fuel/air mixture for better and
efficient combustion.
Early fuel addition
flow pattern
• Fuel flow pattern occurs ii-when droplets differ in size,
in three ways : then droplets mass also differ.
iii-due to mass inertia, liquid
1. Fuel vapor it droplets (particles) flow at
mixes with air and flow with different velocity that air, such
it as a perfect fuel air deviation increases as droplets
mixture. size increases.
2. Fuel droplets 3. liquid film
very small liquid fuel droplets thin fuel liquid film flow along
will be carried by air flow, the manifold wall, which is
where these droplets may generated by :
differ in size as :
i-gravity force separates some
i- smaller droplets size flows droplets from flow.
better than larger ones.
ii-droplets strikes manifold
walls at corners.
***
• Flow pattern of fuel • Also in connection to flow
droplets and film (2 & 3) is pattern (1), gasoline
actually disadvantageous to components evaporates at
engine final performance as *different temperatures
it effects proper AF mixture *different rates
delivery, where : This will make vapor
1. Difficult to deliver same AF composition in AF differ
ratio. from that of liquid fuel
2. Liquid film makes it droplets or liquid fuel film.
difficult to have precise
throttle control.
Volumetric efficiency
• Volumetric eff. varies
with engine speed, and
there will be a certain
engine speed at which
max volumetric eff. is
obtained, decreasing at
both higher and lower
speeds.
Operating variables
effecting volumetric eff.
• Operating variables that has • For details of this section, refer
effects on the value of to your text book.
volumetric eff. are:
1. Type of fuel
2. System heat transfer
3. Valve overlap
4. Fluid friction losses
5. Choked flow
6. Closing intake valve
7. Intake tuning
8. Exhaust residuals
9. EGR
10. Crankcase vent
Home work
Study the operating variables effecting
volumetric eff., with the reference of your text
book.
Chapter five
5.1.3 - Induction system
Induction system parts
• Induction of air/fuel into the 1. Intake manifold
engine requires a very complex
system to accomplish the 2. Throttle.
precision required in terms of 3. Intake valves.
quantity, quality , and timing
for the supply of the fuel air
4. Carburetor or fuel
mixture. injector .
• Such complexity depends on
the requirements set for every
specific design .
• However, in general, the major
parts that must be included in
any induction system can
enumerated as :
Intake manifold
• intake manifold or inlet
manifold is the part of an
engine that supplies the
fuel/air mixture to the
cylinders, and therefore it
needs to be designed for
the delivery of air/fuel to
the engine through pipes
to each cylinder.
• The delivery pipes are
called “runners” .
Manifold runners
• Runners, are individual tubes 1. large enough to prevent :
extending to each intake port on *high resistance to flow.
*reduction of ηv
the cylinder head which emanate
2. small enough to assure :
from a central volume beneath *high air velocity
the carburetor. *high air turbulence
• Runners size (diameter & length) *enhance carrying capability
is an important operating and of fuel droplets & increase
design parameter for improved evaporation and mixing of
flow process : air and fuel
3. length & diameter should balanced
• Runner diameter must be in size design to ensure as much as
balanced for better results, as it possible equal amount of air and
fuel delivered to each separate
must be : cylinder
***
• The primary function of the • Improving delivery
intake manifold is to evenly capabilities of the intake
distribute the air to each system is by :
intake port in the cylinder 1. Avoiding sharp bends and
head(s). smoothen interior wall
• Even distribution is surface to minimize flow
important to optimize the resistance.
efficiency and performance 2. Manifold heating to
of the engine. accelerate fuel droplets
• It may also serve as a mount evaporation in AF mixture.
for the carburetor, throttle
body, fuel injectors and
other components of the
engine.
throttle
• A throttle is the mechanism
by which the flow of a fluid
is managed by constriction
or obstruction.
• An engine's power can be
increased or decreased by
the restriction of inlet air by
the use of a throttle.
***
• In a SI engine, the throttle is a valve
that
*directly regulates the amount of air
entering the engine,
*indirectly controlling the charge
(fuel + air) burned on each cycle due
to carburetor maintaining a relatively
constant fuel/air ratio.
• In a motor vehicle the control used
by the driver to regulate power is
sometimes called the throttle pedal
or accelerator.
• When throttle is wide open, the
intake manifold is at ambient
pressure. When the throttle is
partially closed, a manifold vacuum
develops as the intake drops below
ambient pressure.
choke
• When the engine is cold, fuel
vaporizes less readily and tends to • This provides the rich mixture
condense on the walls of the intake required to sustain operation at low
manifold, starving the cylinders of engine temperatures.
fuel and making the engine difficult • In many carbureted cars, the choke is
to start; thus, a richer mixture is controlled by a cable connected to a
required to start the engine. pull-knob on the dashboard operated
• To provide the extra fuel, a choke is by the driver.
typically used; • In some carbureted cars it is
• this is a device that restricts the flow automatically controlled by a
of air at the entrance to the thermostat employing a bimetallic
carburetor, before the venturi. spring, which is exposed to engine
• With this restriction in place, extra heat, or to an electric heating
vacuum is developed in the element.
carburetor barrel, which pulls extra
fuel through the main metering
system to supplement the fuel being
pulled from the idle and off-idle
circuits.
Throttle & Choke
throttle choke
• Butterfly valve • Butterfly valve
• Downstream position • Upstream position
• Control air flow rate, • Needed to start cold
and thus engine speed. engine.
• Manual or automatic • Manual or automatic
opening. closure.
• Restricts air flow, so
provides rich mixture.
Butterfly valve
Intake valve
• Intake valves are usually
of poppet type as
shown in this image,
where it is spring
loaded.
• closing-opening by the
engine camshaft at the
proper time of the
cycle.
Valve seat
• The valve seat in an ICE is the
surface against which an intake or
an exhaust valve rests during the
portion of the engine operating
cycle when that valve is closed.
The valve seat is a critical
component of an engine in that if
it is improperly positioned,
oriented, or formed during
manufacture, valve leakage will
occur which will adversely affect
the engine compression ratio and
therefore the engine efficiency,
performance (horsepower),
exhaust emissions, and engine
life.
Intake valve
flow area
• ℓ - valve lift
• dv – valve diameter
• As general
estimation, valve lift
and valve diameter
are related by :
• ℓmax = dv / 4
• Where (ℓmax ) is the
valve max lift when it
is fully open
***
• Angle of valve surface at
interface with the valve seat
(θ) is generally a design
parameter, to give
minimum flow restriction.
• Valve discharge coefficient
(CDv)
CDv = Aact / Apass
where as shown in fig.
Aact < Apass
Valve & passage area
Flow passage area
Minimum valve intake area

Ai - is the total inlet valve area for one
cylinder, whether the cylinder has (1,2,3)
intake valves.
Where
C – empirical value = 1.3
B – cylinder bore
Up.max - average piston speed at max engine speed
Ci – speed of sound at inlet cond.
Fig. 5-3
Number of valves per cylinder can be of different arrangement

( refer to fig.5.3 – p.175 of your text book ).
Chapter five
5.1.4 - Carburetion
carburetor
description
• A carburetor is a device that • Most carbureted engines have a
blends air and fuel for an IC single carburetor and a matching
engine. intake manifold that divides and
• The carburetor works on transports the air fuel mixture to
Bernoulli's principle: the faster air the intake valves.
moves, the lower its static • Under all engine operating
pressure. The throttle conditions, the carburetor must:
(accelerator) linkage does not 1. Measure the airflow of the
directly control the flow of liquid engine
fuel. Instead, it actuates 2. Deliver the correct amount of
carburetor mechanisms which fuel to keep the fuel/air mixture
meter the flow of air being pulled in the proper range .
into the engine. The speed of this
flow, and therefore its pressure, 3. Mix the two finely and evenly.
determines the amount of fuel
drawn into the airstream.
Features of a good carburetor
Carburetor is a mixing device to supply the engine with air/fuel mixture. It atomizes
the fuel and mixes it with air in varying proportions to meet the changing operating
conditions.
It is required to provide the following essential features:
1. To meter and supply the proper quantity and proportion of air and fuel at
correct strength under all conditions of load and speed of the engine:
i-starting easily from cold

ii-provides rich mixture for:
** slow idling
** acceleration
** high speed
** moving up-hill
2. To operate satisfactorily when cold and when hot
3. To operate satisfactorily both on sea-level and up-hills
Operation principles
• A carburetor basically consists of an open
pipe through which the air passes into the
inlet manifold of the engine.
• The pipe is in the form of a venturi: it
narrows in section and then widens again,
causing the airflow to increase in speed in
the narrowest part.
• Below the venturi is a butterfly valve called
the throttle valve — a rotating disc that can
be turned end-on to the airflow, so as to
hardly restrict the flow at all, or can be
rotated so that it (almost) completely blocks
the flow of air.
• This valve controls the flow of air through the
carburetor throat and thus the quantity of
air/fuel mixture the system will deliver,
thereby regulating engine power and speed.
• The throttle is connected, usually through a
cable or a mechanical linkage of rods and
joints , to the accelerator pedal on a car or
the equivalent control on other vehicles or
equipment.
Carburetor components
1. Air cleaner
2. Choke valve
3. Venturi
4. Float valve
5. Float arm
6. Float
7. Float chamber
8. Jet
9. Throttle valve
1. Air cleaner (filter) is very important to prevent mainly solid
objects from entering the cylinder.
2. Choke valve, is a device that restrict the flow of air at the
entrance to the carburetor before the venturi section, thus
creating extra vacuum downstream, and so extra amount of
fuel is forced in, which is necessary for cold strating.
3. Venturi tube, is a decreasing cross section with min area at the
throat, thus accelerating flow causing a pressure drop, so
allowing flow rate control according to Bernoulli theory.
4. Float system, is a mechanism for maintaining adequate
amount of fuel available all the time .
5. This is a type of nozzle for allowing fuel to be sprayed into the
air stream to improve evaporation and mixing.
6. Throttle valve is butterfly valve positioned after venturi
section and governing AF charged into the cylinder
***
examples
Carburetor
Operating principles
• A – venturi tube
• B – throttle at (P2)
• C – fuel input capillary tube
• D – fuel reservior at (P3)
• E – fuel metering valve
• G – idle valve
• H - choke
Operating principles
• During intake stroke, a partial 4. Since reservoir is vented,
vacuum is generated inside then
the cylinder. P3 = P 1 > P 2
• Pressure differential therefore 5. The pressure difference (P3-P2)
between atmospheric air and causes fuel to flow from
cylinder will allow : reservoir to venturi throat.
1. Air to enter from 6. As engine speed increases,
surrounding into the cylinder. pressure differential also
increases in above spot, thus
2. This air accelerate through increasing air and fuel flow to
venturi throat at high the designed (AF-N)
velocity. correlation.
3. By Bernoulli’s principles,
throat pressure(P2) is
reduced below atmospheric
pressure (P1).
***
• Idle speed • Choke (H)
• Positioned upstream of venturi
• Idle speed adjustment (throttle throat.
stop – F) prevent (100%) closure • It is needed to start cold engine.
of throttle to allow low idling • When closed :
speed. 1. Restricts air flow
• Idle valve (G) gives better fuel 2. Create vacuum in entire system
control at idling speed , where : downstream of choke.
1. When throttle closed, it causes 3. This creates large (∆P) across
large pressure difference across both fuel tube (C ) and idle
throttle plate and pressure valve (G).
downstream of throttle (B)
2. ∆P across idle valve (G) causes 4. This, causes large fuel flow rate
fuel to flow from (G) and very rich AF up to (1:1)
downstream (B) 5. Thus ignition takes place and
combustion starts.
Carburetor icing
• Icing usually occurs on the
throttle plate.
• Water vapor in the
incoming air will freeze due
to air being cooled to low
temperature.
• 2 reasons behind such
cooling :
1. Expansion cooling due to
pressure drop through
carburetor.
2. Evaporation cooling due to
just added fuel droplets
evaporated at the throat.
Flow direction
*downdraft – vertical
venturi tube with air
flowing from top to
bottom (gravity
assistance)
*sidedraft – air flowing
horizontally, this is
required when there is
engine compartment
height limitation.
*updraft – needs fairly high
flow velocity to carry fuel
droplets in suspension
against gravity.
Sizing venturi throat
• When air flows through the venturi throat, • From this it can be concluded that
the pressure drops as air accelerat ideally it is desirable :
through the throat, and then the pressure
rise again as air decelerate after the 1. To have larger (Dt) on high
throat. performance engine which usually
• Therefore, there is always a net pressure operates on high speed engine.
loss through a venturi, as downstream 2. To have smaller (Dt) for lower
pressure never equals upstream pressure. engine speed engines.
• Flow rate & throat diameter (Dt) • To avoid such (Dt) compromize, the
correlation for a given flow rate : followings can be used :
1. The smaller (Dt), the greater net
pressure drop, and so results in a 1. Two barrel carburetor
reduced (ηv). 2. Secondary venturi
2. This would suggest larger (Dt).
3. A larger (Dt) means low air velocity and
thus small pressure drop across the fuel
capillary tube. This causes :
*poorer AF control.
*large fuel droplets
*poorer AF mixing.
Secondary venturi
• Throat of a carburetor
with secondary venturi :
1. The smaller secondary
venturi gives a large
pressure drop and
good fuel flow control.
2. The larger primary
throat offers less
resistance to the main
air flow.
Air & Fuel flow in carburetors
• From known ambient conditions & carburetor
specifications, the flow rates of air and fuel
can be calculated, and therefore air/fuel ratio
can be predicted.
Air flow through venturi throat
• Due to the variation of pressure and velocity

of the air entering the carburetor throat, an
account of compressibility may be necessary
when exact and accrete analysis is required,
which is a rather complicated task. However, it
is really useful to consider the air flow through
the venturi under both compressibility and
incompressibility states.
Case I – incompressible air flow
• Neglecting the compressibility of air for
approximate analysis, by applying Bernoulli’s
equation at inlet and throat section of the
carburettor, the air mass rate can be
expressed as follows :
Case II – Compressible air flow
Taking into consideration the compressibility of air into account for exact analysis
Fuel flow through capillary tube
From which fuel rate
can be evaluated
*
Where
Cdc : discharged coefficient of capillary tube
Ac : cross section area of capillary tube.
It is important to note the similarity of this expression with that of

incompressible air flow, as the air where assumed incompressible while the
fuel is liquid and it is normal to consider it as
incompressible.
***
• Also, note that
• ρf . g . h : is known as “hydraulic head” between fuel
reservoir and venturi throat.
• And it is important to know that (h) is always necessary to
avoid fuel leaking (spilling) when engine is not operating.
• Normal values of (h) are between (1 → 2) cm
Air/Fuel ratio
• The AF supplied by the carburetor is :
Maximum air flow rate
• If engine speed increases, air flow through
carburetor also increases.
• Max flow rate will be reached when sonic
velocity occurs and this will happen when:
***
• If
k = 1.4
Pt = 0.5283 Po = 53.4 kPa at standard conditions
• Rearranging and sub. in ( ṁa ) to get :
***
• Where
Co = √k.R.To
ρo = 1.181 kg/m³ air density at standard cond.
k = 1.4
• Then, max air flow rate is
• ṁa.max = 236.5 CDt . At
Idling system
Idling AFi
• AFi = ṁa / ṁfi
ṁfi - remains constant under idling operation where the
throttle is partially closed thus reducing air mass rate (ṁa)
ṁa will be reduced due to low engine speed and partial
-
closure of throttle plate.
• Therefore, since fuel rate remains constant and air rate is
reduced, then
AFi will be reduced accordingly.
• Finally it can be concluded that under idling
operation, the air/fuel mixture is richer.
Chapter five
5.1.5 – fuel injection
Introduction
• Carburetors were the predominant
method used to meter fuel on
gasoline engines before the
widespread use of fuel injection.
• Fuel injection is a system for mixing
fuel with air in an IC engine. It has
become the primary fuel delivery
system used in automotive petrol
engines, having almost completely
replaced carburetors in the late
1980s.
• The fuel injector is only a nozzle and
a valve: the power to inject the fuel
comes from a pump or a pressure
container farther back in the fuel
supply
Carburetor – fuel injector
• The primary difference between 4. it is possible to control the
carburetors and fuel injection is amount and timing of the
that injection to increase combustion
1. fuel injection atomizes the fuel efficiency for better power
by forcibly pumping it through a development, better fuel
small nozzle under high economy plus cleaner exhaust
pressure, emissions.
2. while a carburetor relies on low
pressure created by intake air
rushing through it to add the
fuel to the airstream.
3. FI gives better starting and
better engine response. Its
benefit is that it gives the
engine just the right amount of
fuel regardless of changes in air
temperature
fuel injection system
Advantages of
• Operational benefits to the driver of
a fuel-injected car include :
1. smoother and more dependable
engine response during quick
throttle transitions,
2. easier and more dependable
engine starting,
3. better operation at extremely high
or low ambient temperatures,
4. increased maintenance intervals,
5. and increased fuel efficiency.
6. On a more basic level, fuel injection
does away with the choke which on
carburetor-equipped vehicles must
be operated when starting the
engine from cold and then adjusted
as the engine warms up.
Types of sensors
• In order to provide the correct • Mass airflow sensor - Tells the ECU the mass of
air entering the engine
amount of fuel for every • Oxygen sensor(s) - Monitors the amount of
operating condition, the engine oxygen in the exhaust so the ECU can determine
control unit (ECU) has to monitor how rich or lean the fuel mixture is and make
adjustments accordingly
a huge number of input sensors: • Throttle position sensor - Monitors the throttle
1. Mass air flow sensor valve position (which determines how much air
goes into the engine) so the ECU can respond
2. Oxygen sensor quickly to changes, increasing or decreasing the
fuel rate as necessary
3. Throttle position sensor • Coolant temperature sensor - Allows the ECU to
4. Coolant temperature sensor determine when the engine has reached its
proper operating temperature
5. Voltage sensor • Voltage sensor - Monitors the system voltage in
the car so the ECU can raise the idle speed if
6. Manifold pressure sensor voltage is dropping (which would indicate a high
electrical load)
7. Engine speed sensor • Manifold absolute pressure sensor - Monitors
the pressure of the air in the intake manifold
• Engine speed sensor - Monitors engine speed,
which is one of the factors used to calculate the
pulse width
Sensors locations
1. Battery
2. Relay set - Operates electronic control unit 3 and motor driven fuel pump 17.
3. Electronic control unit - Receives information about oil quantity, coolant temperature and
temperature of cylinder head, position of throttle valve, starting phase as well as engine rpm
and injection point. It processes this information and transmits electric pulses to the
solenoid injector. It is connected with the individual components by means of a multiple
connecting plug and associated connecting cables.
4. Coil - In addition to its normal function, it transmits the number of engine rpm or the
injection point to the control unit.
5. Air measuring instrument - This supplies information to electronic control unit of quantity
of air drawn and activates fuel supply pump.
6. Supplementary air valve - Supplies extra air during engine heating stage, depending on
temperature level.
7. Throttle switch - Signals idle and full load to electronic control unit.
8. Temperature sensor - Signals coolant temperature at the cylinder head outlet.
9. Cold starting solenoid injector - During starting in low temperatures, injects extra fuel
into intake line.
10. Solenoid injectors - Inject fuel in intake port of cylinders.
11. Delay thermal switch - This automatically controls injection of cold starting solenoid
injector.
12. Fuel pressure regulator - Keeps fuel pressure constant in fuel lines.
13. Fuel delivery line
14. Excess fuel exhaust line
15. Ignition switch
16. Fuel filter - Is fitted on fuel supply line for fuel filtering.
17. Motor driven fuel supply pump - Delivers a constant supply of fuel to solenoid
injector.
18. Fuel tank
19. Oxygen sensor (Lambda probe) - Measures the oxygen content of exhaust gases and
transmits any adjustment of air-fuel mixture to control unit.
20. Catalytic converter - Reduces harmful residues contained in exhaust gases to a
minimum.
Fuel injector
classification
• A fuel injector therefore is nothing
but a mechanically -electronically
controlled valve. It is supplied
with pressurized fuel by the fuel
pump , and it is capable of
opening and closing many times
per second.
• Injectors are normally controlled
either :
1. Electronically
2. Mechanically
• Also, injectors are either:
1. Throttle body injection
2. Port injection
Electronic injector
When the injector is energized, an

electromagnet moves a plunger that
opens the valve, allowing the
pressurized fuel to squirt out through
a tiny nozzle. The nozzle is designed
to atomize the fuel -- to make as fine
a mist as possible so that it can burn
easily.
Mechanical injector
it is a cam actuated system.

this diagram shows that the
system comprises of mainly a fuel
filter, injection pump and injector.
There is not one electronic
component in this fuel injection
system.
The fuel comes from fuel tank,
through the low pressure
mechanical feed pump on the
side and then through a fuel filter.
From there, the fuel travels into
the injector pump and high
pressure is created by means of a
camshaft, tappet assembly
plunger and barrel.
The normal pressure used in this
system is between 100-300 bar
(1,450 - 4,300psi)
Throttle body & Port
injection
Throttle body injection Port injection
• Throttle Body systems • Port Injection systems send
usually have two injectors fuel directly to the
mounted in an aluminum individual cylinders. Often
housing, which is then these systems have various
mounted to the intake sensors located throughout
manifold. Often Throttle the engine compartment to
body systems have nearly detect airflow, vacuum,
all the required sensors temperature and exhaust.
located in the same
aluminum housing as the
injectors.
Throttle body injection
Throttle Body systems usually have
two injectors mounted in an
aluminum housing, which is then
mounted to the intake manifold.
Often Throttle body systems have
nearly all the required sensors
located in the same aluminum
housing as the injectors.
Port injection
Port Injection systems send
fuel directly to the individual
cylinders. Often these
systems have various sensors
located throughout the
engine compartment to
detect airflow, vacuum,
temperature and exhaust.
Injection process
• The injectors are
mounted in the intake
manifold so that they
spray fuel directly at the
intake valves.
• A pipe called the fuel
rail supplies pressurized
fuel to all of the
injectors.
***
• A metered amount of fuel
is trapped in the nozzle
end of the injector.
• High pressure is applied
by mechanical
compression process
related to the injector
design..
• at a proper time the
nozzle is opened and fuel
is sprayed into the
surrounding air
examples
Injectors & fuel rail on the bottom
Injectors & fuel rail on the left
FI system
• The components of the
consist of:
• Numerous sensors
• Injectors
• ECU (electronic control
unit)
• Engine check light
• Fuel
examples
Fuel injection system diagram
Automobile system
Intake system for
CI Engines
• CI engines operate un- • Fuel injected directly into
throttled (no carburetor), combustion chamber, where
where speed and power are SIT is reached at this time due
controlled by fuel injection to high compression, and
rate. therefore combustion start
• Improve thermal eff., where before TDC.
no restriction to flow as fuel • Fuel injection continue and
added late in the compression combustion proceeds well into
stroke, so air enters alone into power stroke.
the induction system. • Injection pressure must be
• Fuel normally added at high enough to admit fuel
*start 20 bTDC against the high pressure of
*ends 5 aTDC the compression stroke (200-
2000) atms.
ṁf injected into
one cylinder during one cycle
• ṁf - fuel mass rate
• CD - injector discharge coeff.
• An - nozzle flow area
• ρf - fuel density
• ∆P - pres. dif. Across injector
• ∆θ - crank angle injection duration
• N - engine speed
***
• Pressure differential is almost equal to injector
pressure , where
∆P ≈ Pinj
• also to keep ∆θ constant
Pinj α N²
• Normally injection of fuel
starts @ 20º bTDC and ends @5º aTDC giving :
∆θ = 25º of crank rotation
Chapter five
5.2.1 - FUNDAMENTALS
fluid motion within combustion
chamber
introduction
• The subject title is • These motions are
fluid – motion – combustion chamber important for
• Fluids concerned are : *speed up fuel evaporation
* air *enhance air-fuel mixing
* fuel *increase combustion rate
* exhaust gases *increase combustion eff.
• Motion of the fluids during : • Type of motions
*compression stroke *turbulence
*combustion process *swirl (rotational)
*power stroke
*radial
Combustion chamber
and air movement
• Combustion chamber is a definite closed
space formed by three separate engine parts:
*cylinder head
*cylinder wall
*piston top face
• Such closed space when subjected to pressure
rise and change in volume, forces the gases
within it to move in various kind of motions,
such as mentioned above.
Types of motions
• Efficient operation of an engine depends on the
level of mixing process between air and fuel , and
so to have a good combustible air/fuel mixture
ready to ignite at the proper timing.
• Such mixing process is enhanced by various
motions of both fluids during intake and
compression strokes, and so enhance proper
operation of the engine.
• These motions can be summarized as follows :
1 - Turbulence motion
• This type of motion is
created by piston action,
specifically during • The advantages of
compression stroke. turbulence motion :
• However, due to high
velocities involved, all flows 1. Distribute fuel
into, out of, and within 2. Mix fuel with air
engine cylinders are 3. Assist combustion
turbulence flow.
• During turbulence flow, all 4. Reduce after burn.
flowing particles experience
random motion fluctuation
in all direction .
2 - Swirl motion
• It is a rotational • The advantages of swirl
(circular) motion of motion may be
gases imparted during summarized as :
suction stroke. 1. Enhance mixing of air
and fuel .
* * * *
2. Giving homogeneous
• it can be generated by mixture .
designing intake system 3. Speed up the
components to allow spreading of flame
tangential entry of front.
gases.
Examples of swirl motion
Air entering engine cylinder from Air contoured intake
tangential direction runner
***
Air contoured intake valve Eccentric induction process
Swirl ratio
• Swirl ratio can be 1. Angular gas velocity to
defined as : engine speed ratio :
“it is a dimensionless SR1 = ω / N
parameter relating where
angular gas motion with
SR1 – swirl ratio
engine reciprocating
motion. ω - gas angular
velocity (res/s).
• Mathematically
expressed in two N - engine rotation
different expressions : speed (res/s)
***
2. Tangential gas speed • Ut = 2 πωr
to engine piston 2π – rad/rev
speed. ω -angular velocity rev/s
SR2 = Ut / Up r - cylinder radius = B/2
where • Up = 2SN
SR2 – swirl ratio
Ut - gas tangential speed S – piston stroke
Up - average piston speed N – engine speed
3 - Radial motion
• Radial motions are of 2. Tumble is rotational
three types : motion around a
* squish circumferential axis.
*tumble 3. Crevice motion is a
*crevice flow into the very
small crevices of the
1. Squish is a radial combustion chamber.
motion towards the
center of the cylinder ***
**
3.1 - Squish motion
• Squish and reverse squish
is a radial motion towards
the center line of the
cylinder generated by a
recess located in either
the piston or the cylinder
head.
• Squish motion occurs
during compression
stroke.
• Reverse squish motion
occurs during expansion
stroke.
***
• Due to very small
clearance volume, when
the piston approaches
TDC, radial flow of air
from the periphery to the
recess is produced, this is
squish.
• During expansion, volume
increases, and the
burning gases are forced
outward , this is reverse
squish.
3.2 - Tumble motion
• It is actually a rotational
motion, but it is in fact
generated by squish motion
around circumferential axis.
• So, it is classified as radial
rather then rotational motion
• Therefore, tumble (caused by
squish as piston approaches
TDC), is a motion about a
circumferential axis near the
edge of the clearance volume
in the piston bowl or the
cylinder head.
3.3 -Crevice motion
Crevices are very small volumes such as :
* clearance between piston and cylinder wall.
* gaps in the gaskets between head and block.
* unrounded corners and edges.
Chapter Eight – Exhaust Flow
5.3.1 - introduction
purpose
Exhaust System Basics
An exhaust
system is a
complex Carry engine Reduce or
assembly, exhaust Reduce the Maintain eliminate
which has a gases safely engine engine certain
number of to the rear of sound level performance engine
functions to the vehicle emissions
perform. The
system must:
An incorrectly designed exhaust system could restrict the flow of gases and,
if the restriction is excessive, can:
cut horsepower
reduce gas mileage
reduce performance
and potentially damage the engine.
This restriction is one of the dangers faced when components used are not part of an
exhaust system specifically designed and engineered for a particular application.
1 – carrying exhaust gases
• After combustion and power
stroke, the combustion
products (exhaust gases) have
to be expelled to allow fresh
charge induction for the next
cycle
• Expelling exhaust gases is
known as “the exhaust
process”
• Exhaust process occurs in two
steps :
1. Exhaust blow-down
2. Exhaust stroke
Exhaust
‘blowdown-stroke’
• Exhaust blow down occurs
due to (∆P) between engine
cylinder and exhaust system
when the exhaust valve
opens.
• Exhaust stroke occurs
mainly due to piston
movement from BDC to
TDC, pushing thereby the
exhaust gases out of the
cylinder
Exhaust blow-down
• It occurs when exhaust • Therefore pressure
valve start to open differential of :
towards the end of the ∆P = Pbd – Pexh
power stroke at about Will be high enough to
(60-40)º bBDC. cause rapid flow of
• At this instance : exhaust gases out of the
cylinder.
Pbd = 4-5 atmos
T = 1000 º
• But
• Pexh = about 1 atmo
Max flow
• Due to high velocity, • Where
P1 – upstream
sonic flow will occur •
• P2 – down stream
resulting in a max flow • k - specific heat ratio
rate. • P1/P2 = 2 for most gases
• This means that sonic • So if k=1.35 and P1/P2 = 1.86
flow occurs when the • Then sonic flow will be
following correlation is • Ci = √ kRT

• R – gas constant
true :
• T – gas temperature
Blowdown → expansion
• During exhaust blowdown (4→1),
the gases have fairly high
velocity due to the high (∆P)
across the open exhaust valve.
• Blowdown continue until the
pressure differential across the
exhaust valve is finally equalized
(∆P = 0), and therefore at this point
blowdown ends.
• When exhaust blowdown ends,
exhaust stroke starts, whereby,
expelling of exhaust gases out of
the cylinder will be done by piston
movement from BDC to TDC (piston
pushing)
• During blowdown, a sudden and
high pressure reduction, forces
the gases to flow out through
exhaust valve, and this can be
considered as :
“hypothetically similar to
expansion process “
as both blowdown and
expansion causes pressure
reduction
• Therefore, from (4) the
blowdown (4→1) can be
simulated as expansion (4→7)
Exhaust temperature
• Although blowdown-expansion is not
reversible, however, assuming ideal gas
isentropic relationship between pressure
and temperature will provides a good
approximation for theoretical exhaust
temperature prediction.
• Consider the isentropic expansion line (3-
4-7)
Residual gas fraction
• Let : 1. Residual gas fraction
• ṁr = mass of residual gas
• ṁa = mass of air charge
• ṁf = mass of fuel delivered
• Xr = fraction of residual gas
• T7 = as shown in previous fig
• T4 = temp @ end of power stroke 2. Mixture temp at start of
• Texh = exh temp
compression
• Tm = mixture tem @ start of compr
• Cr = compression ratio
• Pa , Ta = ambient conditions
• Tex = T7
• Pex = P7 = Pa
P&T@
exhaust valve open
• When exhaust valve opens, then
pressure and temperature at this
instance as denoted by :
PEVO & TEVO
• And the exhaust system pressure • Although
and temperature 1. exhaust gases are not idea gas
2. Blowdown process is not isentropic
Pex & Tex
• However the above equation gives
• Pressure drop from cylinder to a fair good approximation of gas
exhaust and temperature drop temperature entering exhaust
due to expansion cooling can be system
correlated according to ideal
cycle :
Losses & timing
** Ideally exhaust valve opens at BDC and blowdown occurs instantaneously at
constant volume.
**In real engine
= blowdown does not occur instantaneously but takes finite time.
= pressure in cylinder is reduced at BDC when exhaust stroke starts.
= exhaust valve start to open (60-40)º bBDC, quickly reducing pressure. This
pressure if remains can do additional useful work, so this work is lost.
** timing of valve opening
= if open too early… more work is lost
= if open late… high pressure resists piston motion at start of exhaust stroke,
and increases (-ve) work
** size of exhaust valve – large valve is desirable, or multi-valves :
= increase flow area
= reduces blowdown time
= allow late valve opening
= longer expansion stroke
= less lost work
Exhaust stroke
• After blow-down, piston • Real timing and due to
moves from BDC to TDC cam lobe:
with exhaust valve open * longer time to close valve
where pressure drop across * if valve start to close
exhaust valve is due to valve @20º bTDC
restriction to flow.
then total closure at TDC
• Ideal timing is that at TDC :
* this is unacceptable
* end of exhaust process
* better, valve start to
* all gases removed close near TDC, such that it
* exhaust valve closed complete closure in the
range (8-50)º aTDC
Valve over-lap
1 - The time from start closing till complete closure of exhaust valve is finite period,
and it is a design criteria to ensure best exhaust gas expelling out of the cylinder.
2 – however, induction stroke immediately flow exhaust stroke.
3 - then remark (1) stands for both exhaust and intake valves, i.e
* exhaust valve closes at end of exhaust stroke.
* intake valve opens at start of induction stroke.
4 - accordingly :
* exhaust valve closing span →→ at or near TDC → to → (8-50)º aTDC
* intake valve opening span →→ (10-25)º bTDC → to → BDC
5 - from which there will be a period of about (15-50) degrees of engine rotation,
where both valves are open.
6 - this period is called “ valve overlap “
7 - during valve overlap period :
i – exhaust gases passes into intake system (due to ∆P)
ii – thereafter, this amount will be induced back again to the cylinder with the
fresh charge.
iii - this will increase the actual mass content of exhaust residual within the
fresh charge.
iv - also in addition to that, there is the possibility of fresh charge being lost with
exhaust gases
Exhaust valve
• Aex - is the total inlet
valve area for one
cylinder, whether the
cylinder has (1,2,3)
intake valves.
• Number of valves per
cylinder can be of
different arrangement
• ( refer to fig.5.3 – p.175
of your text book ).
Valve & passage area
Similar to intake valve area , the equation to size exhaust valve:
1 - exhaust valve area 2 - intake valve area
Where
C – empirical value = 1.3
B – cylinder bore Dividing eq.2 by eq.1 to get :
Up.max - average piston speed at
max engine speed
Cex – speed of sound at inlet
cond.
Where α varies between (0.8 – 0.9)
Also to find valve diameter :

A = Ai → dv = dvi A/x = π/4.dv²
A = Aex → dv = dvex x = number of valve (intake or exhaust)
Automobile Exhausting path
Components of exhaust system
• These diagrams show major
components of an exhaust
system in a car.
• Exhaust system components
are designed for a specific
engine.
• The pipe diameter, component
length, catalytic converter size,
muffler size, and exhaust
manifold design are
engineered to provide proper
exhaust flow, silencing, and
emission levels on a particular
engine.
The Exhaust Manifold
The Exhaust Manifold
The exhaust manifold (header) is a pipe

that conducts the exhaust gases from
the combustion chambers to the
exhaust pipe.
Exhaust pollutants
• Three major automotive pollutants are carbon monoxide (CO),
unburned hydrocarbons (HC), and oxides of nitrogen (NOx).
• When air and gasoline are mixed and burned in the combustion
chambers, the by-products of combustion are carbon, carbon
dioxide (CO2), CO, and water vapor.
• Gasoline is a hydrocarbon fuel containing hydrogen and carbon.
Since the combustion process in the cylinders is never 100%
complete, some unburned HC are left over in the exhaust. Some HC
emissions occur from evaporative sources, such as gasoline tanks
and carburetors.
• Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) are caused by high cylinder temperature.
Nitrogen and oxygen are both present in air. If the combustion
chamber temperatures are above 1,371 degrees Celsius, some of
the oxygen and nitrogen combine to form NOx.
• In the presence of sunlight, HC and NOx join to form smog.
Catalytic convertor
• The catalytic converter lowers
emission levels by changing
harmful pollutants into
relatively harmless gases.
• The catalytic converter works
by using heat, combined with
catalyzing agents, to create a
chemical process that changes
hydrocarbons (HC) and carbon
monoxide (CO) into carbon
dioxide and water.
• Some catalytic converters are
designed to reduce an
additional pollutant, oxides of
nitrogen (NOx), by breaking it
down into base components,
nitrogen and oxygen
muffler
• The muffler is the end section of the
exhaust. It is what "muffles" the sound
coming out of the engine. i.e
• function of the muffler is to reduce the
sound of the engine’s out-coming exhaust
gases through the exhaust pipes to a
minimal level.
• The muffler quiets the noise of the
exhaust by "muffling" the sound waves
created by the opening and closing of the
exhaust valves. When an exhaust valve
opens, it discharges the burned gases at
high pressures into the exhaust pipe,
which is at low pressure. This type of
action creates sound waves that travel
through the flowing gas, moving much
faster than the gas itself (up to 625.8m/s),
that the muffler must silence
• It generally does this by converting the
sound wave energy into heat by passing
the exhaust gas and its accompanying
wave pattern, through perforated tubes
and tuning chambers. Passing into
perforations and reflectors within the
chamber forces the sound waves to
dissipate their energy.
resonators
• What are resonators?
• They are similar to a muffler, but they are basically just a
sound chamber. They are used for one of two reasons:
• To increase the volume of the exhaust.
• To decrease the volume of the exhaust.
• Most people use it to soften the volume, and recognize
that there is little to no performance gain to be had.
• Resonators are basically a second muffler, usually "straight
through" type which provides additional exhaust silencing.
• the resonator is either clamped into the tail pipe or fitted
between catalytic convertor and the muffler.
Oxygen sensor
• This is not actually an exhaust components,
but fitted into the exhaust system for means
of AF mixture control.
• The oxygen sensor is an important part of the
vehicle's exhaust system.
• The sensor keeps track of the unburned
oxygen in the exhaust as the exhaust exits
the engine.
• The sensor then controls
1. the fuel mixture,
2. regulating the engine emissions.
• Simply, an oxygen sensor reads the amount
of oxygen in vehicle's exhaust, sends a
signal to vehicle's engine control module
which determines if there is too much or
two little oxygen and makes adjustments in
the amount of air or fuel being injected into
the engine in effort to correct or balance
engine's ignition and emissions.
• If there is too much oxygen then engine is
likely using too little fuel.
• If your oxygen sensors are reading a lack of
oxygen then it's probably due to too much
fuel being pushed in.
Exhaust connecting pipes
• Exhaust components needs to
be connected to each others
individually from one side and
as a whole to the engine from
the other side .
• Such is done using connecting
pipes, and these are generally
of three sections :
1. Front pipe
2. Mid of centre pipe
3. Tail pipe
• All of the components of an
exhaust system requires as
well series of clamps,
hangers, flanges and gaskets.
front pipe
• The pipe connecting
the exhaust manifold to
the catalytic converter.
• It is sometime called
the “exhaust pipe”.
• Oxygen sensor is usually
fitted in this section of
the exhaust system.
Mid pipe
• This is also known as
the centre section
• The exhaust centre
section works with
1. the silencer to reduce
noise and
2. the tail pipe at the
rear carries gases away
from the vehicle.
Tail pipe
• The tail pipe basically carries the
flow of exhaust from the muffler
to the rear of the vehicle.
• Some vehicles have an integral
resonator in the tail pipe.
• Tail pipes have many different
bends to fit around the chassis
and driveline components.
• In general, all exhaust systems
components must be positioned
away from the chassis and
driveline to prevent rattling.
• The tail pipe usually extends
under the rear bumper, and the
end of this pipe is cut or bend at
an angle to deflect the exhaust
downward
CHAPTER Five
Thermo-chemistry
5.3.1 – exhaust gas analysis
Engine exhaust analysis
engine management system (EMS) The analysis of exhaust gases, normally

uses signals from various sensors to using “orsat apparatus”, is to determine
adjust engine parameters for better their constituents .
performance. Orsat apparatus is used for the volumetric
analysis of dry flue gas. A simple schematic
one of these signals is the analysis of
diagram of which is shown below.
exhaust gases.
sample of exhaust gas contains vapor
which condenses during the sampling
and analysis period of time, which
effects the accuracy of the analysis
results.
so, dry analysis can be used by
removing first water vapor from
exhaust gas sample.
Merits of exhaust gas analysis
Exhaust gas is obviously the remains of The results from analyzing exhaust gas
a combustion process, and obtained by Orsat apparatus is inserted
Combustion process is actually a into the chemical reaction equation, and
chemical reaction between air (O2) thereafter balancing such equation will
and fuel, therefore present means of assessing the engine
operation and performance .
Exhaust gas , combustion, air and fuel
are all linked to the original chemical
reaction equation .
Chemical reaction equation is
therefore a very powerful tool for
studying engine behavior and thus
predicting engine performance,
however
Chemical reaction equation however is
useful only when it is balanced
equation.
Chemical reaction equation
Balancing
• Let’s take liquid fuel as an example :
Since matter can not be destroyed nor can be created, then

every element in the reaction side must appear in same quantity at the
product side.
Balancing in this respect is usually done for (C, O2, H2)
Advantages from exhaust gas analysis
• The analysis of exhaust gases, normally using
“orsat apparatus”, is to determine their
constituents, and so to:
1. To identify concentration of pollutants
2. To device control strategies for pollution control.
3. To provide studies concerns human health.
4. To ensure compliance of engine with emission
regulations.
5. To help improving engine design.
Useful predictions
from exhaust gas analysis
• Exhaust gas analysis can be useful to evaluate:
1. % mass of constituents from % volume.
2. Predict the chemical formula of an unknown
fuel.
3. Determine the A/F ratio
Determination of
% mass from % volume
• The table below shows how to convert
volumetric concentration of exhaust gas to
mass concentration, when for example
exhaust gas contain :
C1 = % vol CO
C2 = % vol CO2
O = % vol O2
N = % vol N2
constituent % volume Molecular Proportional Mass of gas
weight mass per kg of flue
gas
CO C1 / 100 28 28 C1 / 100 28 C1 / 100 𝝨x
CO2 C2 / 100 44 44 C2 / 100 44 C2 / 100 𝝨x
N2 N / 100 28 28 N / 100 28 N / 100 𝝨x
O2 O / 100 32 32 O/ 100 32 O / 100 𝝨x
------------------ % mass
𝝨x
Determination of
unknown fuel chemical formula
• This could better understood by taking the
following example :
• An unknown HC fuel (CxHy) was allowed to
react with air. The dry product analysis shows :
CO2 = 12.1 %
O2 = 3.8 %
CO = 0.9 %
Solution
The chemical reaction equation is
N2 balance 3.76 a = 83.2 → a = 22.1

O2 balance (2)(22.1) = (2)(12.1) + (2)(3.8) + 0.9 + b
b = 11.5
Carbon balance x = 12.1 + 0.9
x = 13.0
Hydrogen balance y = 2b = 2 x 13 = 26
Therefore the final balanced chemical reaction equation for this fuel will be
Determination of (AF) from exhaust gas analysis
From the chemical reaction equation
• The factor of each element is it’s number of moles in the balanced

equation
Usually the balanced chemical reaction equation is set for one mole of
fuel (1 CxHy), while the number of moles for air is the sum of
[moles (O2) + moles (N2)]
• since AF ratio is either mass or mass rates of fuel and air, so
•Mass of fuel used (mf) = moles fuel x molecular weight of the fuel
= 1 x[ (12x) +(1y)]
•Mass of air (ma) = [moles O2 + moles N2] x mol.wt of air
= [moles O2 + moles N2] x 29
Therefore
• AF = ma / mf = [moles O2 + moles N2] x [ 29 / mol.Wt fuel ]
Direct prediction of AF ratio
Stoichiometric mass of air Actual mass of air

For 1kg of fuel, the stoichiometric air/fuel For 1kg of fuel, the actual air/fuel ratio
ratio can be evaluated from fuel elements: is determined from exhaust gases
Where Where
C – carbon content in fuel N - %vol of nitrogen in exhaust
H – hydrogen content in fuel C - %mass of carbon in fuel
O – oxygen content in fuel C1 - %vol of (CO) in exhaust
S – sulfur content in fuel C2 - %vol of (CO2) in exhaust
Chapter Six
Emission & Air Pollution
6.1 - Introduction
INTRODUCTION
Air pollution can be defined as an addition
to our atmosphere of any material which will
have a deleterious effect on life upon our
planet.
Beside I.C. Engines, other sources such as
electric power stations, industrial and
domestic fuel consumers also contributes to
air pollution.
There has been great concern, in recent
years, that the Internal Combustion Engines
is responsible for too much atmospheric
pollution, which is detrimental to human
health and the environment. Thus concerted
efforts are being made to reduce the
responsible pollutants emitted from the
exhaust system without sacrificing power
and fuel economy.
The internal combustion engine has been
developed into a powerful, reliable and
compact power unit. These engines work by
burning fuel in cylinders and expansion of this
burning fuel pushes a piston down. The piston
in turn pushes a crankshaft around. The rotary
motion of the crankshaft is then used to power
for example the transmission that allows a
vehicle to be driven at different speeds.
The big disadvantage of these engines is the
combination of impurities in the fuel and the
process of burning it produces pollutants.
Pollution from cars comes from
1. by-products of the combustion process
(tailpipe exhaust) and from
2. the evaporation of fuel during the
refueling process and from
3. the vehicle fuel system
I -The Combustion Process
Most vehicle fuels (gasoline, diesel, natural gas, ethanol, etc.) are mixtures of hydrocarbons,
compounds that contain hydrogen and carbon atoms.
In a “perfect” engine, oxygen in the air would convert all of the hydrogen in fuel to water
and all of the carbon in the fuel to carbon dioxide (carbon mixed with oxygen). Nitrogen in
the air would remain unaffected.
In reality, the combustion process is not “perfect,” and automotive engines emit several
types of pollutants:
a. “Perfect” Combustion Process:
FUEL (hydrocarbons) + AIR (oxygen and nitrogen) = CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) + Water (H2O) +
Nitrogen
b. Typical Real-World Engine Combustion Process:
FUEL (hydrocarbons) + AIR (oxygen and nitrogen) = UNBURNED or PARTIALLY BURNED
HYDROCARBONS (VOCs) + NITROGEN OXIDES (NOx) + CARBON MONOXIDE (CO) + CARBON
DIOXIDE (CO2) + Water (H2O)
VOCs : Volatile Organic Compounds

II - Evaporative Emissions
•HYDROCARBONS: Hydrocarbons also escape into the air through fuel evaporation.
With today’s efficient exhaust emission controls and today’s clean burning gasoline
formulations, evaporative losses can account for a majority of the total hydrocarbon
pollution from current model cars on hot days when ozone levels are highest.
Evaporative emissions occur from fuel vapors escaping from the fuel system or while
the vehicle is being refueled.
In general, combustion products will eventually expelled through the exhaust

system, and pollutants that are produced and expelled with the exhaust gases are
nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, benzene, particulates and hydrocarbons.
The problems associated with these different pollutants are given below: :
1. HYDROCARBONS (HC): Hydrocarbon emissions result when fuel molecules in the
engine do not burn or burn only partially. Hydrocarbons react in the presence of
nitrogen oxides and sunlight to form ground-level ozone, a major component of
smog. Ozone can irritate the eyes, damage lungs, and aggravate respiratory
problems. It is our most widespread urban air pollution problem. Some kinds of
exhaust hydrocarbons are also toxic, with the potential to cause cancer.
Hydrocarbons (Ozone): Irritates the mucous membrane of the respiratory system,
causing coughing, choking and impaired lung function, particularly in people who
exercise respiratory difficulties. Other symptoms include headaches, “eye-nose-
throat” irritation and chest pain on deep breathing. Can make airways more
sensitive to allergens such as pollen. Can also impair defenses against bacteria and
viruses.
2. NITROGEN OXIDES (NOx): Under the high pressure and high temperature
conditions in an engine, nitrogen and oxygen atoms in the air we breathe react to
form various nitrogen oxides, collectively known as NOx. Nitrogen oxides, like
hydrocarbons, are precursors to the formation of ozone. They also contribute to
the formation of acid rain.
Nitrogen dioxide: May aggravate asthma symptoms. Can cause a tightening of the
chest and reduced lung function. Can make airways more sensitive to allergens
such as house dust mite. By disrupting the body's natural cleansing mechanisms
nitrogen dioxide may increase the body's susceptibility to viral infections.
The mechanism of (NO) formation is as follows at high temperature and behind
the flame:
N2 + O2 = 2NO
N2 + 2H2O = 2NO + 2H2
such reaction rate, will fairly high when surplus oxygen is available in a high
temperature environment. Therefore it cab said the NO formation will be less in
rich mixture than in lean mixture.
3. CARBON OXIDES
i – Carbon monxides(CO): Carbon monoxide is a product of incomplete

combustion and occurs when carbon in the fuel is partially oxidized rather than
fully oxidized to carbon dioxide. Carbon monoxide reduces the flow of oxygen in
the bloodstream and is particularly dangerous to persons with heart disease.
Carbon monoxide: Slows reflexes, impairs thinking and causes drowsiness by
reducing the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood. Can increase the likelihood of
exercise- related pain in people with coronary heart disease.
ii - CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2): Carbon dioxide does not directly impair human health,
but it is considered a “greenhouse gas”. In other words, as it accumulates in the
atmosphere, it is believed to trap the earth’s heat and contribute to the potential
for climate change.
4. Particulates
the carbon particles (soot or smoke) is the main constituent of
particulates. This has adverse effects on health and environment, where there is
consistent correlation between particle levels and death rates.
High levels of particles have also been linked with increased hospital admissions
and asthma attacks. Smaller particles can carry carcinogenic particles into the
lungs.
Smoke – is an indication of incomplete combustion, and it is actually black

carbon particles known commonly as “soot”
smoke density measurement is made by two types of smoke meters :
1 – Bosch smoke meter : it is a filter darkening type, where a measured volume
of exhaust gas is drawn through a white filter paper which is then blackened
to various degree depending on the carbon present. The density of the soot
is measured by timing out amount of light reflected from the sooted paper.
Smoke number – is another way of measuring smoke intensity by comparing
smoke color to a standard “black to light” spectrum.
2 – Hatridge smoke meter : exhaust sample is passed through tubes of about
(0.46 m) which has ligh source at one end and photocell or solar cell at the
other end. The amount of light passed through this smoke column is used as
indication of smoke level.
The Hatridge meter is used for continuous measurement, while the Bosch meter is used
only under steady state conditions.
5 - Smog
Smog is a combination of the words
smoke and fog. It is a form of air
pollution, which looks like a foggy cloud,
is formed from the emissions from
combustion reacting with sunlight to
produce secondary pollutants. Smog
often comes from vehicles and utility
factories, and it's most prominent in
warmer months because the warmth in
the atmosphere reacts with the
pollutants in the ozone.
Other sources of particle pollution include exhaust from transportation, burning of wood,
construction exhaust and activity and pollutants set off by the agriculture industry. These
pollutants can cause smog to occur at any point during the day, since they mix with the
ground-level ozone layer.
6. OTHERS
i - Benzene: A known carcinogen (something that causes cancer) that can cause
leukemia.
ii – sulfur oxides ( SOx): CI. engine fuel may contain small amount of sulfur which
when exhausted contributes to the acid rain problem. It is irritant gas and effect
the mucous membrane when inhaled
iii – lead: It is the major additives (TEL) to improve the gasoline octane number
lead compounds discharged from vehicles using leaded gasoline can cause a
variety of human health disorder.
iv – phosphorus: This may be found in small amount in some fuel blends and
lub. oil which is considered as air pollutant.
v – odour: it is the products of partial oxidation (diesel) is the main cause of
odour in diesel exhaust.
vi – carbon dioxide: it is a major greenhouse gas that contribute to global
warming by creating thermal radiation shield, and thus reduces the amount of
thermal radiation energy allowed to escape from the earth.
vii – noise: this can be defined as undesirable sound when at high level can
possibly be a health hazard. Noise generated by engines has therefore been
considered as pollution.
Emission standards
are requirements that set specific limits to the amount of pollutants that can be released
into the environment.
Many emissions standards focus on regulating pollutants released:
1. by automobiles (motor cars) and other powered vehicles
2. from industry, power plants, small equipment such as lawn mowers and diesel
generators.
Frequent policy alternatives to emissions standards are technology standards (which
mandate Standards generally regulate the emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides,
particulate matter (PM) or soot, carbon monoxide (CO), or volatile hydrocarbons (see
carbon dioxide equivalent).
Emission Standards for Gasoline Vehicles (GVW ≤ 3,500 kg), g/km

Year Reference CO HC HC+NOx
1991 - 14.3-27.1 2.0-2.9 -
1996 - 8.68-12.4 - 3.00-4.36
1998* - 4.34-6.20 - 1.50-2.18
2000 Euro 1 2.72-6.90 - 0.97-1.70
2005† Euro 2 2.2-5.0 - 0.5-0.7
These time improved standards throughout the years, forced vehicles & engines
designers & manufacturers to reduce the amount of emissions emitted during the
engine or vehicle lifetime. For example:
*** A new 1965 car produced about a ton of smog-forming hydrocarbons during
100,000 miles of driving.
*** Standards in the 1990's reduced new car emissions to about 20 kgs of
hydrocarbons.
*** By 2010, new cars will emit only about 4 kgs of hydrocarbons in 100,000 miles.
Chapter Six
Emission & Air Pollution
6.2 – Emission control
Several methods are used to control and reduce engine emission such as:
1. Improve engine and fuel technology to get better combustion.
2. Exhaust gas after-treatment, by using thermal and catalytic convertor that
promote chemical reaction in the exhaust to convert harmful emission to
acceptable CO2, H2O and N2
3. EGR- exhaust gas recirculation, to control NOx formation
4. After-burner: the exhaust gases is further burnt by supplying air and means of
ignition
5. Exhaust manifold reactor
The most effective after-treatment

system for reducing engine
emissions is the catalytic convertor.
Catalytic convertors are mostly
associated with automobile, where
it is located in the engine exhaust
pipe as near as possible to engine
exhaust manifold.
CATALYTIC CONVERTERS
What Is a Catalytic Converter?

The catalytic converter is a device located in the exhaust system of all modern motor
vehicles. It is an important device in the exhaust gas de-pollution process, which reduces
harmful environmental exhaust emissions of motor vehicle’s combustion cycle by-
products. Its function is to chemically change harmful pollutants that the engine has
combusted in the process of its various starting, driving, power and idle conditions to
harmless gases.
What Are The Pollutants?

These pollutants include carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrous oxides, etc. A catalytic
converter chemically changes these into harmless substances like carbon dioxide, nitrogen
and water vapor.
How Are Harmful Exhaust Pollutants Eliminated?

The catalytic converter uses an inside structure called a substrate. This is a ceramic or
stainless steel monolith block that is covered with precious metals such as platinum,
palladium and rhodium. The monolithic block consists of many fine channels, which are
covered by a coarse wash coat above which the catalytically effective precious metal layer
is placed. It is these elements, which cause the chemical change.
The catalytic converter works by using heat, combined with catalyzing agents, to create a
chemical process that changes hydrocarbons (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO) into carbon
dioxide and water. Some catalytic converters are designed to reduce an additional
pollutant, oxides of nitrogen (NOx), by breaking it down into base components, nitrogen
and oxygen
A catalytic convertor reduces pollutants like Catalytic convertor should have the following
(HC, CO) by oxidizing catalysts, and (NOx) by desirable properties:
reducing catalyst. 1. Low volumetric heat capacity to reach the
Catalytic convertors usually contains a mesh operating temperature.
coated with noble metals like: 2. Quick light off to reach operating
1 - platinum and palladium promotes the temperature quickly.
oxidation of (CO & HC), 3. Good chemical stability to prevent any
2 – rhodium promotes the reaction of NOx . deterioration in performance.
These metals are the catalysts which 4. Physical durability with attrition
accelerate the oxidation and reaction of: resistance.
CO →→ CO2 5. Robust design.
HC →→ CO2 & H2O 6. High surface area of noble metal
NOx →→ N2 for better reactions.
The catalysts themselves do not participate 7. Minimum pressure drop during exhaust
in the reaction, but helps to accelerate gas flow through it to prevent engine
reaction. back pressure.
8. lower loading of noble metal for
reduced cost.
Catalytic convertors are stainless
steel container mounted
somewhere along the exhaust pipe
of the engine.
Inside the container is a porous
ceramic structure through which
the gas flows.
1 - In most convertors the
ceramic is a single
honeycomb structure with
many flow passage.
2 – some convertors use loose
granular ceramic with the gas
passing between the packed
spheres.
The surface of the ceramic passage
contains small embedded particles
of catalytic material (catalysts) that
promote the oxidation reaction and
the reduction process to remove
pollutants in the exhaust gas as it
passes through.
Types of catalytic convertors
1. Two-way catalytic convertor 2. Three-way catalytic convertor

the exhaust line has two catalytic consist of both reduction and
convertor: oxidation parts for the removal
i – a reduction catalyst which is of the three main pollutants
required to reduce NOx (HC, CO, NOx)
ii – an oxidation catalyst to convert
the excess HC and CO
EGR system
The EGR system (Exhaust Gas Recirculation
system) is designed to reduce emissions. To be
precise, it lowers the amount of nitrogen
oxides (NOx) in the exhaust emissions.
Nitrogen oxides are formed at very high
combustion temperatures.
What the EGR system actually does is direct
part of the exhaust gases back into the intake
manifold, which in turn helps reduce the
combustion temperature and consequently
lower the amount of NOx in the exhaust gases.
The EGR flow is controlled by the engine computer which opens or closes the EGR valve
depending on the operating conditions. One of the most common problems with an EGR
system is that the EGR passages or the EGR valve itself getting clogged with carbon
deposits causing restrictions to the EGR gas flow. This turns the "check engine" light on
and sets the code, for example, P0401, which means "Insufficient EGR flow" . This
problem happens mostly if a car is driven for only short trips so it can't warm up fully, or
when the oil is not changed regularly.
EGR gas flow rate is controlled by the EMS, and the mass percentage of EGR to the
total mass flow into the cylinder is:
After EGR combines with the exhaust residual left from previous cycle, the total
fraction of exhaust in the cylinder during compression stroke is:
Xex - fraction of exhaust gas

Xres - fraction of residual gas
Example:
Isooctane (C8H18)with (120%) theoretical air in a small 3-cylinder automobile engine have
(AF=18.16), and equivalence ratio of (φ=0.833). The reaction temperature at the end of
compression stroke is (427 °C), and the adiabatic flame temperature is (2146 °C). If the
balanced chemical reaction equation is:
To reduce formation of NOx it is desired to reduce the maximum cycle temperature. This
is done by exhaust gas recycling (EGR). Calculate the amount of EGR needed to reduce
maximum combustion temperature to (2200K). Exhaust gas which consists mostly of (N2,
CO2 and H2O) will be approximated as all nitrogen at temperature (1000 K).
SOLUTION
An unknown number of moles of EGR (x moles of N2 at 1000K) is added to the reactants
Solving for (x) gives

x = 16.28 moles
Recalling (N = m / MWt) →→ m = N.MWt
Therefore
x = (16.28 kg mole)(28 kg/kg mole)
= 455.8 kg
Mass of air in is
mass of fuel vapor in is
Total mass in is
Therefore the percentage of EGR is

Advantages Disadvantages
1. Reduces NOx formation by holding 1. Reduces engine thermal efficiency.
combustion chamber temperature 2. Slows combustion and lower the overall
down combustion efficiency.
3. The soot present in the exhaust gas acts
as an abrasive and breaks down the
lubricant, thus resulting in greater wear
on the piston rings and valve train
After-burner
It is a separate box located very near to exhaust manifold, where air is
supplied to the exhaust gases and thus is burnt with the help of
ignition system. This process will burn the unburned HC, and oxidize
(CO) to (CO2)
This is further modified into exhaust manifold reactor, to provide
sufficient time for mixing of exhaust and secondary air
CHAPTER seven
ENGINE HEAT TRANSFER
Engine cooling system
About 35% of the total chemical energy that
enters the engine in the fuel is converted to
useful crankshaft work.
30% of the fuel energy is carried away from
the engine in the exhaust flow.
This leaves about one third of the total energy
that must be dissipated to the surroundings by
some mode heat transfer.
Therefore , engine cooling is very important to
prevent excessive heat build-up, and thus
avoid material damage and engine failure.
There are generally two methods of engine cooling :
1 – water cooled : cylinder block water jacket is filled with coolant

circulated through the engine by the water pump.
2 – air cooled : engine with fins to increase heat transfer surface

area, over-which air flow is directed.
1 – heat lost to coolant
• Heat to coolant can be evaluated as follows :
Where
Qcl : heat transferred to coolant (kJ/s = kW)
ṁw : cooling water mass rate (kg/s)
Cpw : water specific heat (kJ/kg.K)
to : cooling water outlet temperature (deg.K)
ti : cooling water inlet temperature (deg.K)
2 – heat lost to exhaust
• Heat to coolant can be evaluated as follows :
Where
Qex : heat transferred to exhaust (kJ/s = kW)
ṁex : exhaust gas mass rate (kg/s) = ṁf + ṁa
Cpw : exhaust gas specific heat (kJ/kg.K)
tex : exhaust gas temperature (deg.K)
tamb : ambient temperature (deg.K)
What is a Cooling System?
A typical 4 cylinder vehicle cruising along the highway at around 50 miles per hour, will produce 4000
controlled explosions per minute inside the engine as the spark plugs ignite the fuel in each cylinder
to propel the vehicle down the road. Obviously, these explosions produce an enormous amount of
heat and, if not controlled, will destroy an engine in a matter of minutes. Controlling these high
temperatures is the job of the cooling system.
Today's cooling system must maintain the engine at a constant temperature whether the outside air
temperature is 110 degrees Fahrenheit or 10 below zero.
** If the engine temperature is too low, fuel economy will suffer and emissions will rise.
** If the temperature is allowed to get too hot for too long, the engine will self destruct.
The Components of a Cooling System
1 - The Radiator
The radiator core is usually made of flattened aluminum tubes with aluminum strips that zigzag
between the tubes. These fins transfer the heat in the tubes into the air stream to be carried away
from the vehicle. On each end of the radiator core is a tank, usually made of plastic that covers the
ends of the radiator,
On most modern radiators, the tubes run horizontally with the plastic tank on either side. On other
cars, the tubes run vertically with the tank on the top and bottom. On older vehicles, the core was
made of copper and the tanks were brass. The tanks, whether plastic or brass, each have a large hose
connection, one mounted towards the top of the radiator to let the coolant in, the other mounted at
the bottom of the radiator on the other tank to let the coolant back out. On the top of the radiator is
an additional opening that is capped off by the radiator cap.
Another component in the
radiator for vehicles with an
automatic transmission is a
separate tank mounted inside
one of the tanks. Fittings connect
this inner tank through steel
tubes to the automatic
transmission. Transmission fluid
is piped through this tank inside a
tank to be cooled by the coolant
flowing past it before returning
the the transmission.
Pressure cap and reserve tank
As coolant gets hot, it expands. Since the cooling system is sealed,
this expansion causes an increase in pressure in the cooling system,
which is normal and part of the design. When coolant is under
pressure, the temperature where the liquid begins to boil is
considerably higher. This pressure, coupled with the higher boiling
point of ethylene glycol, allows the coolant to safely reach
temperatures in excess of 250 degrees.
The radiator pressure cap is a simple device that will maintain
pressure in the cooling system up to a certain point. If the pressure
builds up higher than the set pressure point, there is a spring loaded
valve, calibrated to the correct Pounds per Square Inch (psi), to
release the pressure.
When the cooling system pressure reaches the point where

the cap needs to release this excess pressure, a small
amount of coolant is bled off. It could happen during stop
and go traffic on an extremely hot day, or if the cooling
system is malfunctioning. If it does release pressure under
these conditions, there is a system in place to capture the
released coolant and store it in a plastic tank that is usually
not pressurized. Since there is now less coolant in the
system, as the engine cools down a partial vacuum is
formed.
Water Pump
A water pump is usually mounted on the front of the
engine and turns whenever the engine is
running. The water pump is driven by the engine
through a fan belt that will also be responsible for driving an
additional component like an alternator or power steering
pump .
The water pump is made up of a housing, an impeller, a
spinning shaft and a pulley attached to the shaft on the
outside of the pump body. A seal keeps fluid from
leaking out of the pump housing past the spinning
shaft.
The impeller uses centrifugal force to draw the coolant
in from the lower radiator hose and send it under
pressure into the engine block. There is a gasket to
seal the water pump to the engine block and prevent
the flowing coolant from leaking out where the pump is
attached to the block.
Thermostat
The thermostat is simply a valve that measures the temperature of
the coolant and, if it is hot enough, opens to allow the coolant to
flow through the radiator. If the coolant is not hot enough, the flow
to the radiator is blocked and fluid is directed to a bypass system that
allows the coolant to return directly back to the engine. The bypass
system allows the coolant to keep moving through the engine to
balance the temperature and avoid hot spots. Because flow to the
radiator is blocked, the engine will reach operating temperature
sooner and, on a cold day, will allow the heater to begin supplying
hot air to the interior more quickly.
The heart of a thermostat is a sealed copper cup that contains wax and a metal pellet. As the
thermostat heats up, the hot wax expands, pushing a piston against spring pressure to open the
valve and allow coolant to circulate.
Hoses
There are several rubber hoses that make up the plumbing
to connect the components of the cooling system. The
main hoses are called the upper and lower radiator
hoses. These two hoses are approximately 2 inches in
diameter and direct coolant between the engine and the
radiator. Two additional hoses, called heater hoses, supply
hot coolant from the engine to the heater core. These
hoses are approximately 1 inch in diameter. One of these
hoses may have a heater control valve mounted in-line to
block the hot coolant from entering the heater core when
the air conditioner is set to max-cool. A fifth hose, called
the bypass hose, is used to circulate the coolant through
the engine, bypassing the radiator, when the thermostat is
closed. Some engines do not use a rubber hose. Instead,
they might use a metal tube or have a built-in passage in
the front housing.
Bypass System / a passage allows the coolant to bypass the radiator and return directly back to the engine.
Freeze Plugs /
a special sand is molded to the shape of the coolant passages
in the engine block.
Head Gaskets and Intake Manifold Gaskets
Heater Core
The hot coolant is also used to provide heat to the
interior of the vehicle when needed.
How Does a Cooling System Work?
A cooling system works by

1-sending a liquid coolant through
passages in the engine block and heads.
2- As the coolant flows through these
passages, it picks up heat from the engine.
3-The heated fluid then makes its way
through a rubber hose to the radiator in
the front of the car.
4- As it flows through the thin tubes in the
radiator, the hot liquid is cooled by the air
stream entering the engine compartment
from the grill in front of the car.
5-Once the fluid is cooled, it returns to the
engine to absorb more heat.
6-The water pump has the job of keeping
the fluid moving through this system of
plumbing and hidden passages.
A thermostat is placed between the engine and the radiator to
make sure that the coolant stays above a certain preset
temperature. If the coolant temperature falls below this
temperature, the thermostat blocks the coolant flow to the
radiator, forcing the fluid instead through a bypass directly back to
the engine. The coolant will continue to circulate like this until it
reaches the design temperature, at which point, the thermostat will
open a valve and allow the coolant back through the radiator.
Pressure Regulation
In order to prevent the coolant from boiling, the cooling system is designed to be pressurized. Under
pressure, the boiling point of the coolant is raised considerably. However, too much pressure will
cause hoses and other parts to burst, so a system is needed to relieve pressure if it exceeds a certain
point. The job of maintaining the pressure in the cooling system belongs to the radiator cap.
The cap is designed to release pressure if it reaches the specified upper limit that the system was
designed to handle.
Prior to the '70s, the cap would release this extra pressure to the pavement. Since then, a system was
added to capture any released fluid and store it temporarily in a reserve tank. This fluid would then
return to the cooling system after the engine cooled down. This is what is called a closed cooling
system.
Antifreeze
The coolant that circulates through the engine and associated plumbing
1 - must be able to withstand temperatures well below zero without freezing.
2 -It must also be able to handle engine temperatures in excess of 250 degrees
without boiling.
3 - The fluid must also contain rust inhibiters and
4 - a lubricant.
The coolant in today's vehicles is a mixture of ethylene glycol (antifreeze) and
water. The recommended ratio is fifty-fifty. In other words, one part antifreeze
and one part water. This is the minimum recommended for use in automobile
engines. Less antifreeze and the boiling point would be too low. In certain
climates where the temperatures can go well below zero, it is permissible to have
as much as 75% antifreeze and 25% water, but no more than that. Pure antifreeze
will not work properly and can cause a boil over.
Chapter 11 –
friction & lubrication
11.1 - Introduction
What is friction
What is lubrication
Why friction & lubrication
In almost all machines, moving parts have relative motion and rub against each other
. Such rubbing will create a resistance against such relative motion, and this resistance
is “friction”. Lubrication therefore is required to reduce this rubbing action, and to
increase the service life of the machine parts.
Therefore
Friction refers to the forces acting between surfaces in relative motion
And
Lubrication is the admittance of viscous fluid between two surfaces in relative motion.
When two surfaces are in contact, they will touch
each other at a roughness high spot of the surface, as
shown magnified in this figure, where fig. :
a – represent dry non-lubricated surface,
friction is created by high-spot that resist
motion.
b - represent lubricated surface showing reduction of
friction by hydraulic floating.
Reducing resistance of surface-to-surface motion,

lubricating oil is added to the space between the
surfaces. Lub oil adheres to the solid surfaces, and
when one surface moves relative to the other, oil is
dragged along with the surface, and thus keeps them
apart, thereby, one surface hydraulically floats on the
other
Friction resistance to motion is almost inevitable, as it is
impossible to totally remove all friction effects (losses), but
it however be reduced greatly by using lubrication between
the parts which have relative motion with each other.
Increase in friction is ultimately dissipated as heat to the

cooling water and it further increases the pump and fan
power requirements also.
The frictional resistance between two moving parts have relative

motion is mostly dependent on the following factors :
1. Lub oil properties
2. Surface condition
3. Material of the surfaces
4. Rate of relative motion
5. Nature of relative motion
6. Quantity of lub oil
Chapter 11
Friction & lubrication
11.2 - Friction
Friction
• Friction refers to :
i- the forces acting between mechanical components due to their relative
motion and to
ii - forces on and by fluids when they move through the engine
• A percentage of power generated within the engine cylinders are lost to

friction, that cause some reduction in the resulting brake power obtained off
the crankshaft.
• Engine’s accessories that cause some reduction in crankshaft power are also
classified as part of engine friction load.
Therefore friction can be defined as
FRICTION is the resistance to motion which takes place when one body is moved upon
another. Friction is generally defined as "that force which acts between two bodies at
their surface of contact, so as to resist their sliding on each other".
Engine friction (FP)
This can be defined as

“”the difference between the indicated power (IP), which is the power developed
inside the cylinder, and the brake power (BP), which is the power available at the
crank-shaft””. i.e
FP = IP - BP
Total engine friction
The difference between IP & BP is known as “total engine friction”. This includes the
following losses:
1. direct frictional losses
2. Pumping losses
3. Blow-by losses
4. Valve throttling loses
5. Combustion chamber pump losses
6. Power loss to drive the auxiliaries
losses
Engine losses can be characterized as follows:

1- friction losses •
these are mechanical losses due to
friction between all sliding surfaces;
“ con rod bearings; crankshaft bearing;
camshaft bearings … etc “
2- parasitic losses •
these are the losses due to loads required
to operate engine auxiliaries such;
“ air conditioner; oil pump; water pump; alternator;
supercharger; and all other auxiliaries.”
Engine Friction
(mep) concepts can be expanded to include all work and power inputs & outputs of an
engine. Various (mep) terms and the work they corresponds to include:
Engine Friction
The constants A, B and C must be determined

for the operating conditions of a given engine.
1. The first term (A=constant) is sometimes called “boundary

friction”, and it occurs between components of the engine
where there is no enough lubricant to hydraulically separate
totally the motion of one surface from another. This is also
related to hydraulic shear force (τ). (see next slide)
2. The second term (BN) is proportional to engine speed and
relates to the hydraulic shear between many lubricated engine
parts.
3. The third term (CN²) is proportional to square engine speed
(N²).
hydraulic shear force (τ).
Shear force per unit surface area is given as:
In practice these terms can actually means the followings :

τ – shear force
∆U – instantaneous speed
∆y – clearance between two surfaces
Example :
If (A = contact area )
Then the friction force is [Ff = τ . A ]
See ex. 11-1 / p.359

Text book
Friction mep can also be related to average
piston speed by the empirical equation:
The components that contribute a major
part of total friction are the pistons and
piston rings as shown in the figure below.
The contribution of the friction forces are
classified as:
1 - Piston assemblies –contribute about
half of the total friction and can be as
much as 75% at light load.
2 –Piston rings –contribute about 20% of
the total friction.
3 - Valve train –contributes about 25% of
the total friction.
4 - Crankshaft bearing –contributes about
10% of the total load.
5 -Accessories –contribute about 15% of
the total load.
Forces on piston
Force that act on a piston are shown in figure.

The positive direction of the diagram x-axis
and y-axis are as shown. The resultant forces in
both x-axis & y-axis are :
Where :
P – gas pressure in comb. chamber
Ft – slide thrust force
Ff – friction force
Fr – con rod force
θ – crank angle
φ - angle con rod and centerline
B – cylinder bore
m – mass of piston The sign of the friction force (Ff) term depends
dUp/dt – acceleration of piston on the crank angle
Fx – resultant force in x-direction
Fy – resultant force in y-direction
Since
From which we can obtain that
[See hand-out for derivation]
(Ft) is very important to be specified in a single equation, because this is the force
exerted sideway between piston skirt and cylinder wall and causes friction force to
resists the piston reciprocating motion.
(Ft) is not constant, but changes with:

1. Piston position (angle φ)
2. Piston acceleration (dUp/dt)
3. Gas pressure
4. Friction force (Ff)
These terms are all varying during engine cycle. See ex. 11.2 / p.363
How To Reduce Engine Friction
To reduce engine friction:

1 - Using piston with
a – less mass –lowers the piston inertia and reduce acceleration.
b – shorter skirt.
2 - Shorter piston skirts reduce rubbing friction because of the smaller surface
contact area.
3 - Shorter skirts require closer tolerance between the piston and cylinder wall to
keep piston from cocking in the cylinder.
4 - Using fewer and thinner piston rings but require closer tolerances.
5 - Using offset wrist pin from the center towards the minor thrust side of the
piston. To reduce the side thrust force and resulting wear on the major thrust
side.
6 - Using the shorter stroke. This, for a given displacement requires a larger bore
which results in
a – greater heat losses due to larger cylinder surface area,
b – greater knock tendency due to longer flame travelling distance.
Friction power measurement
The friction power of an engine can be determined by

the following methods :
1. Willan’s line method (for CI engines only)
2. Motoring test
3. Difference between “IP & BP”
4. Morse test
1 - Willan’s line method
At constant engine speed, a graph is

drawn of fuel consumption against brake
power for different engine load.
This graph line is extrapolated back to
cut the brake power axis at the negative
side at (L), as shown in the figure, giving
thereby the flowing graphical values
means :
I - OL : power loss at this speed
II - OM: fuel consumption at zero brake
power
Therefore the power lost due to friction
is read from the graph and it is equal to
the amount (OL) .
2 - Motoring test 3 - Difference between “IP & BP”
Run the engine until it reaches steady FP = IP - BP
operation. This methods of finding
The power of the engine during this period the friction power is by
is absorbed by electric dynamometer. the difference between:
The fuel supply is then cut off by a suitable 1. IP as obtained from the indicator
electrical switching device, whereby the diagram, and
dynamometer is converted to run as motor 2. BP as obtained by a dynamometer
to drive the engine at the same speed. Which is considered as a very accurate
The power supplied to the motor is method if an accurate indicator diagram
measured , which is a measure of the can be provided.
friction power of the engine.
4 - The Morse method
An engine connected to a absorption-type dynamometer with load weighing gear and
tachometer will enable the indicated power (Pi) to be calculated providing care is taken to
maintain the exact rev/min and particular attention is paid to the torque arm setting and
the reading of the load figures.
The test consists of measuring the total brake power (Pb) with all engine cylinders working
normally under full throttle, and then cutting out each cylinder in turn.
1. With spark ignition engines , is to short circuit the spark plug of each cylinder in turn.
2. With oil engines, disconnecting the fuel injector will cut off the fuel supply to that
cylinder .
When a cylinder has been cut out, the remaining working cylinders have to overcome the
frictional and pumping loses of the cut-out cylinder.
Chapter 11 –
friction & lubrication
11.3 - Lubrication
LUBRICATION SYSTEM
Mechanical Friction and Lubrication
•When two solid surfaces are in contact, they will
touch each other at the roughness high spots of the
surfaces.
•Points of contact will become hot, sometimes to the
point of trying to weld together.
•To reduce resistance of surface-to-surface motion,
lubricating oil is added to the space between the
surfaces.
•Lubricating oil holds the surface apart and one
surface hydro-dynamically floats on the others
surface.
•The resistance to relative motion is the shearing of
fluid layers between the surfaces, which is less than
that of dry surface motion.
Dry or non lubricating surface showing lubricating surface showing reduction
friction caused by high spots of friction by hydraulic floating
Characteristics of Lubricating
Fluid
Three important characteristics

of a lubricating fluid: Lubricating Oil functions
1. it must adhere to solid
surface. The oil used in an engine
2. It must resist being must serve as
squeezed out from between 1. a lubricant,
the surfaces, even under the 2. a coolant, and
extreme forces. 3. an impurity &
3. It should not require
contaminants removal.
excessive force to shear
adjacent liquid layers. 4. seals
4. Viscosity that should satisfy
the conflicts of (1) & (3)
above.
Therefore the required properties for the
lubricating oil used in an engine are:
1. Stability over a large temperature
range and must operate over an
extreme temperature range. 7. Should have high film
2. must lubricate properly from the strength to assure on metal-
starting temperature to beyond the to-metal contact even under
extreme steady-state temperatures extreme loads.
that occur within the engine 8. Should be non-toxic and non-
cylinders. explosive.
3. It must reduce friction and wear 9. Should have Long life span
within the engine. It improves engine 10.Should be of low cost
efficiency by reducing friction forces
between moving parts.
4. Enhancement of ring seal and
reduction of blow-by
5. must not oxidize on the combustion
chamber walls or at other hot spots.
6. should adhere to surfaces so that
they always lubricate and provide a
protective covering against
corrosion.
Purpose of Lubrication System
•1 - Lubricate
Reduces Friction by creating a thin film(Clearance)
between moving parts (Bearings and journals)
2 - Seals
The oil helps form a gastight

seal between piston rings
and cylinder walls
(Reduces Blow-By)
Internal oil leak (blow-by) will

result in BLUE SMOKE at the
tale pipe.
3 – Cleans
As it circulates through the engine, the oil picks up metal

particles and carbon, and brings them back down to the pan.
4 - Cools
Picks up heat when moving through the engine and then

drops into the cooler oil pan, giving up some of this heat.
*
•5 - Absorbs shock
When heavy loads are imposed on the bearings, the oil
helps to cushion the load.
•6 - Absorbs Contaminants
The additives in oil helps in absorbing the contaminants
that enter the lubrication system.
VISCOSITY
Viscosity is a measure of oil’s resistance to flow, or may

be oil thickness..
•A low viscosity oil is thin and flows

easily
•A high viscosity oil is thick and

flows slowly.
VISCOSITY
•If the oil is too thin(has very low viscosity) it will be forced
out from between the moving parts, resulting in rapid wear.
•If the oil is too thick(has very high viscosity) it will flow very
slowly to engine parts, especially when the engine and the oil
are cold, resulting in rapid wear.
•Single viscosity oils SAE 5W, SAE 10W (Winter) and
SAE 20, SAE30 … (Summer)
•Multiple viscosity oils SAE 10W-30.
This means that the oil is same as SAE 10W when cold
and SAE30 when hot.
Lubricating Oil Additives
For maximum performance and life span
of the engine, following additives are
required:
•Antifoam agents
•Oxidation inhibitors
•Pour-point depressant
•Antirust agents
•Detergents
•Anti-wear agents
•Friction reducers
•Viscosity index improvers
Parts & components
1. Oil pan
2. Oil pump
3. Pressure relief valve
4. Oil galleries
5. Oil pressure indicators
6. Oil filter
7. Oil cooler
Oil Pan
Stores the oil and helps in cooling the oil

Pan gasket splits if over tightened.
Oil Pumps
Driven by camshaft, crankshaft (Rarely
rebuild by an auto technician)
•Rotor Pump(Two star shaped rotors

pumps the oil)
•Gear oil Pump

Pressure Relief Valve
to prevent the buildup of high Pressure
(Causes the oil filter to bulge, but not a common
problem).
Good oil pressure is

40-60 psi
Oil Pressure Indicator
•Light or a Gauge
The light turns on or gauge reads low when
the pressure drops below 10psi.
•Good oil pressure is 40-60 psi.
Common causes of low oil pressure are:

•Low oil level
•Worn out pump
Low oil pressure Safety system will shuts down the car by
cutting the ignition System(Spark).
Oil Filter
Oil Galleries
These are passage-ways

For oil through out engine.
Deliver the oil to top
end and returning it
To the oil pan.
Positive Crankcase ventilation
Valve
•Pollution prevention
•Blow-by back into the intake
•Prevent sludge in the engine.
Oil Pressure sending unit
electrically sends the
signal to the Light or Gauge mounted on the dash.
If the wires get shorted the light will come on or

the gauge will read high.
Temperature Regulator
(Oil Cooler)
 An oil temperature regulator is designed
to maintain the temperature of the oil
for an operating engine at the correct
level
 These regulators are often called oil
coolers since cooling of engine oil is one
of their main functions
OIL CHANGE
•Every 5000Km
•3 months
Ignoring regular oil change intervals will shorten

engine life and performance.
Good Luck
Chapter nine
9.1 - Introductiom
Introduction
An ordinary four-stroke engine dedicates one stroke to the process of
air intake. There are three steps in this process:
1.The piston moves down from TDC towards BDC
2.This creates a vacuum.
3.Air at atmospheric pressure is sucked into the combustion chamber.
Once air is drawn into the engine, it must be combined with fuel to
form the charge, ignition initiation is essential for the combustion to
takes place. As the fuel undergoes oxidation, a great deal of energy is
released. The force of this explosion, concentrated above the
cylinder head, drives the piston down and creates a reciprocating
motion that is eventually transferred to the output shaft.
Getting more fuel into the charge would make for a more
powerful explosion.
But you can't simply pump more fuel into the engine
because an exact amount of oxygen is required to burn a
given amount of fuel. This chemically correct mixture -- 14
parts air to one part fuel -- is essential for an engine to
operate efficiently.
The bottom line:
→→ To put in more fuel →→ you have to put in more air.
That is engine boosting

Engine boosting therefore is the process of increasing the inlet charge, i.e
increasing the mass of air induced into the cylinder, facilitating thereby the
possibility of increasing the fuel charge , when burned will produce extra
power output for the same engine size.
Engine boosting can be achieved by two common well established methods:

1 – super-charging
2 - turbo-charging
super-charging
turbo-charging
Superchargers and turbochargers are compressors mounted in the intake
system, and used to raise the pressure of the incoming air. This results in more
air and fuel entering each cylinder during each cycle. This added air and fuel
creates more power output during combustion, and the net power output of the
engine is increased
As stated earlier, Superchargers increase intake by compressing air above atmospheric
pressure, without creating a vacuum. This forces more air into the engine, providing a
"boost." With the additional air in the boost, more fuel can be added to the charge, and
the power of the engine is increased. Supercharging adds an average of 46 percent more
horsepower and 31 percent more torque.
Chapter nine
9.2 - supercharging
As stated earlier, Superchargers increase intake by compressing air above atmospheric
pressure, without creating a vacuum. This forces more air into the engine, providing a
"boost." With the additional air in the boost, more fuel can be added to the charge, and
the power of the engine is increased. Supercharging adds an average of 46 percent more
horsepower and 31 percent more torque.
Superchargers
Superchargers are mechanically driven
directly off the engine, i.e they draws their
power directly from the crankshaft driven by
an accessory belt, which wraps around a
pulley that is connected to a drive gear.
The drive gear, in turn, rotates the
compressor gear. The rotor of the
compressor can come in various designs, but
its job is to draw air in, squeeze it into a
smaller space and discharge it into the
intake manifold.
In this respect the power to drive the compressor is a parasitic load on the engine output,
and this is considered as one of the disadvantages of superchargers.
The ideal power needed to drive the supercharger is evaluated as
Isentropic efficiency (ideal) means no losses are considered, but in actual practice there
is always losses encountered in any mechanical system. Therefore the actual efficiency
of the supercharger compressor is less than (100%). This means that the actual power
needed will be greater than ideal.
If (Tin and Pin) are known, and design output pressure is set. Then the ideal gas
isentropic correlation is:
If ( ) is known, then ( ) can be calculated when ( k = 1.4) is taken for air

From the above the actual power needed to drive the supercharger can be
derived as follows :
Since
and
and
Sub the second into the first to give

The isentropic efficiency is
But mechanical efficiency of the supercharger is
where
Additional requirement
1. After-cooler : due to compressive heating of air by the supercharger, a cooler
after the supercharger is used to cool down air temperature back to normal,
and thus to improve overall cycle efficiency. Such after cooler may be :
i – engine water cooling (air-to-liquid heat exchanger)
ii – air cooling (air-to-air heat exchanger)
In C.I engines, after coolers are not generally needed, as there will be no
concern about higher cycle temperature ( why ? ).
after cooler efficiency is known as “ cooler effectiveness ” which can be
expressed as :
2. Multistage compression supercharger with more compressors to improve

air/fuel delivery.
Chapter nine
9.3 - turbocharging
Turbochargers
The compressor of the turbocharger is powered by a turbine mounted in the exhaust
flow of the engine.
the advantage of this is that
none of the engine shaft output
is used to drive the compressor,
and only waste energy in the
exhaust is used.
In order to achieve engine
boosting, the turbocharger uses
the exhaust flow from the
engine to spin a turbine, which
in turn spins a compressor (air
pump).
The turbocharger is bolted to
the exhaust manifold of the
engine.
The turbocharger has three main
components:
1. A turbine, which is almost always a
radial inflow turbine
2. A compressor, which is almost
always a centrifugal compressor
3. The center housing/hub rotating
assembly (CHRA).
For turbo-charger, in the apposite of supercharger, where the actual power needed from
the engine is greater than ideal (isentropic) due losses considerations. Therefore the
isentropic efficiencies for the compressor and the turbine are as follows :
i – compressor
ii - turbine
→→→
The mechanical efficiency between turbine and compressor is
the overall turbocharger efficiency is
Notes
See example 5.3 / p. 194/195
Turbo lag
All turbocharger applications can be roughly divided into 2 categories, those requiring
rapid throttle response and those that do not. While important to varying degrees, turbo
lag is most problematic when rapid changes in engine performance are required.
Turbo lag is the time required to change speed and function
effectively in response to a throttle change.
For example, this is noticed as a hesitation in throttle response when accelerating from idle
as compared to a naturally aspirated engine. Throttle lag may be noticeable under any
driving condition, yet becomes a significant issue under acceleration.
This is symptomatic of the time needed for the exhaust system working in concert with the
turbine to generate enough extra power to accelerate rapidly. A combination of inertia,
friction, and compressor load are the primary contributors to turbo lag. By eliminating the
turbine, the directly driven compressor in a supercharger does not suffer from this
problem.
Boost threshold
The boost threshold of a turbo system describes the lower bound of the region within which the
compressor will operate. Below a certain rate of flow at any given pressure multiplier, a given
compressor will not produce significant boost. This has the effect of limiting boost at particular rpm
regardless of exhaust gas pressure. Turbochargers start producing boost only above a certain exhaust
mass flow rate.
Electrical boosting ("E-boosting") uses a high-speed electrical motor to drive the turbocharger to speed
before exhaust gases are available. A similar system utilizing a hydraulic drive system and over-speed
clutch arrangement to accelerate the turbocharger.
The boost threshold is determined by the engine displacement, engine rpm, throttle opening, and the
size of the turbo. Without adequate exhaust gas flow to spin the turbine blades, the turbo cannot
produce the necessary force needed to compress the air going into the engine.
The point at full throttle in which the mass flow in the exhaust is
strong enough to force air into the engine is known as the boost
threshold rpm.
Engineers have, in some cases, been able to reduce the boost threshold rpm to idle speed to allow for
instant response.
The boost threshold is not to be confused with turbo lag .
Turbocharging versus supercharging
1 - In contrast to turbochargers, superchargers are not powered by exhaust gases but are
connected directly or indirectly to an engine. Belts, chains, shafts, and gears are only a few
of the ways this is performed.
2 - A supercharger uses mechanical energy from the engine to drive the compressor.
Example
** on a single-stage single-speed supercharged Rolls Royce Merlin engine, the supercharger
uses up about (110 kW).
** Yet the benefits outweigh the costs: For that (110 kW), the engine generates an
additional power and delivers (750 kW) when it would otherwise deliver (560 kW).
** a net gain of (190 kW).
3 - In comparison, a turbocharger does not place a direct mechanical load on the engine. It
is more efficient because it converts the waste heat of the exhaust gas into horsepower
used to drive the compressor. In contrast to supercharging, the principal disadvantages of
turbo-charging are the back-pressuring (exhaust throttling) of the engine and the
inefficiencies of the turbine versus direct-drive.
A combination of an exhaust-driven turbocharger and an engine-driven supercharger can mitigate the
weaknesses of the other. This technique is called twin-charging . Some two-stroke diesel engines even
used a triple system.
CAUTIONS
In all engine boosting applications, boost pressure is limited to keep
the entire engine system, including the turbo, inside its thermal and
mechanical design operating range.
Over-boosting an engine frequently causes damage to the engine in
a variety of ways including pre-ignition, overheating, and over-
stressing the engine's internal hardware.
For example, to avoid engine knocking ( pre-ignition or detonation)
and the related physical damage to the engine, the intake manifold
pressure must not get too high, thus the pressure at the intake
manifold of the engine must be controlled by some means. Opening
the waste-gate allows the energy for the turbine to bypass it and
pass directly to the exhaust pipe. The turbocharger is forced to slow
as the turbine is starved of its source of power, the exhaust gas.
Slowing the turbine/compressor rotor begets less compressor
pressure.
Chapter 14
ENGINE TESTING
14.1 - Introduction
Introductory notes
The basic task of the development engineer is to :
1. Reduce cost For the

2. Improve power
output engine
3. Improve
reliability
To achieve these goals he has to try various design concepts, and thereafter to
find the effects on engine performance of a particular design concept he has to
conduct a wide variety of engine test.
The type of tests to be carried depends upon great number of factors such as :
1. Degree of development of a particular design

2. Level of accuracy required
3. Funds available
4. Status of manufacturing company
5. Company design strategy
6. Product application
In general, testing is used in evaluating engine performance,

whereby certain basic parameters are chosen to study :
I. Effects of various operating conditions

II. Design concept
III. Necessary modifications
It should be noted that testing is actually measuring, and so the basic measurement
which usually should be undertaken to evaluate engine performance on almost all tests
are :
1. Engine speed
2. Fuel consumption
3. Air consumption
4. Smoke density
5. Brake, indicated and friction power
6. Heat lost to coolant
7. Heat lost to exhaust
8. Exhaust gas analysis
1 – Engine Speed
• Measurement of engine speed can be done by
any of the methods below which ever suitable
to the conducted test :
1. Revolution counter
2. Mechanical tachometer
3. Electrical tachometer
2 – Fuel Consumption
• Fuel consumption by an engine can be
measured by any of these methods:
1. Fuel flow method
2. Gravimetric method
3. Continuous flow meter
3 – Air Consumption
• Air consumption rate can be measured by any
of the followings :
1. Air box method
2. Viscous flow air meter
4 – Smoke Density
Smoke is an indication of incomplete combustion, and therefore it limits the engine

output if air pollution regulation is enforced.
Exhaust emission have become a matter of great concern, as with the enforcement of
legislation on air pollution in many countries, thereby such subject has become necessary
to consider it as performance parameter.
Exhaust smoke can be measured by any of the following smoke meters :
1. Bosch smoke meter
2. Hatridge smoke meter
3. PHS smoke meter
These three devices are basically soot (carbon) density measuring equipments (gm/m³),
that is the meter readings are a function of the mass of carbon in a given volume of
exhaust gas.
5 – Engine Power
• Recalling previous lectures, Power has being
defined as the rate at which work is done. The
more power a thing generates, the more work
it can do in a given space of time
• There is in fact no way of directly measuring
power - all types of devices ‘dynamometer’
measure torque and then power is calculated
from formulas we’ve seen in earlier sections
(see chapter – 2).
5.1 -Measurement of brake power
This done by the use of dynamometer which can be broadly classified as :

1. Absorption dynamometer
2. Transmission dynamometer
3. Fan dynamometer
4. Chassis dynamometer
The absorption type is the most widely used. They measure and absorb the power
output of the engine to which they are coupled. The power absorbed is usually
dissipated as heat by some means. Examples of such dynamometers are :
1. Prony brake (mechanical friction brake)
2. Rope brake
3. Hydraulic dynamometer
4. Eddy current dynamometer (electromagnetic brake)
5. Swinging field D.C dynamometer
Dynamometer principles
The basic principle of a dynamometer can be
summarized as follows :
1. An “electrical, hydraulic, or magnetic” rotor
driven by the engine under test at one side is
coupled to a stator at the other side.
2. For every revolution of engine shaft the rotor
periphery moves a distance of (2πR) against
the coupling force (F) Hence the work done
per revolution is W = (2πR) (F)
4. The dynamometer external moment (torque)
Td , and the engine turning moment (torque)
Te are respectively expressed as follows :
Td = S.L S(scale reading), L(device arm)
Te = R.F R(rotor radius), F(couple force)
5. Under steady and balanced operation
Te = Td →→→ RF=SL
6. The work done therefore
W = 2πR.F = 2πS.L
7. The work done /min = 2πS.L.N
8. The power = 2πS.L.N / 60,000 kW
S=Newton , L=meter, N=rpm
Prony brake
One of the simplest methods of measuring brake
power is to attempt to stop the engine by means
of a brake on the flywheel and measure the
weight which an arm attached to the brake will
support, as it tries to rotate with the flywheel
The prony brake shown in the figure works on the
principle of converting power into heat by dry
friction. It consists of wooden blocks mounted on
a flexible rope or band the wooden blocks when
pressed into contact with the rotating drum takes
the engine torque and the power dissipated in
frictional resistance. Spring loaded are provided
to tighten the wooden block and hence increases
friction. The whole of the power absorbed is
converted into heat and hence this type of
dynamometer must be cooled. The brake power
is given by :
BP = 2πNT
where T=W.l
W : weight applied at radius (l)
Rope brake
The rope brake as shown in the figure is another
simple device for measuring brake power. It
consists of a number of turns of rope wound
around the rotating drum attached to the output
shaft. One side of the rope is connected to a spring
balance and the other to a loading device. The
power is absorbed in friction between the
rope and the drum. The drum therefore requires
cooling. The brake power is given by:
BP = πDN(W-S)
Where
D – brake drum diameter
W – the weight in Newton
S – the spring scale reading
It,s important to note that some times the brake
drum diameter may considered as the some of the
drum and rope diameters , i.e
D = Db + dr
Eddy current type absorber
EC dynamometers are currently the most common absorbers used in modern chassis dynos. The EC absorbers provide the
quick load change rate for rapid load settling. Most are air cooled, but some are designed to require external water cooling
systems.
Eddy current dynamometers require an electrically conductive core, shaft or disc, moving across a magnetic field to produce
resistance to movement. Iron is a common material, but copper, aluminum and other conductive materials are usable.
In current (2009) applications, most EC brakes use cast iron discs, similar to vehicle disc brake rotors, and use variable
electromagnets to change the magnetic field strength to control the amount of braking.
The electromagnet voltage is usually controlled by a computer, using changes in the magnetic field to match the power
output being applied.
5.2 – Indicated power
The engine indicated power is usually determined by the use of PV diagram taken with the
help of indicator system.
If the indicated power cannot be measured directly, then it is possible to evaluate it
indirectly by measuring the brake power and engine losses.
If indicator diagram is available, the indicated power can be computed by measuring the
area of the diagram with a planimeter or other such means, to evaluate the (imep) as :
Where
imep – bar ---Net diagram area – mm² ---Length of diagram – mm --- and
Spring constant - bar/mm
In general, several methods are commonly available for the purpose of evaluating the
indicated power, and these are :
1. Indicator diagram
2. Morse test
3. Calculation of IP ( see section 2.03 …… IP = ṁf . CV . ηth.i )
1 - Indicator diagram ( refer to 7.02)
there are many types of engine indicators, but the most suitable modern type is the
electronic indicator, which consist of the following main parts :
1. Pressure pick-up (transducer)
2. Pre-amplifying device
3. Time-base recording system
4. Display system
2 - The Morse method
An engine connected to a absorption-type dynamometer with load weighing gear and tachometer will
enable the indicated power (Pi) to be calculated providing care is taken to maintain the exact rev/min
and particular attention is paid to the torque arm setting and the reading of the load figures.
The test consists of measuring the total brake power (Pb) with all engine cylinders working normally
under full throttle, and the cutting out each cylinder in turn.
1. With spark ignition engines , is to short circuit the spark plug of each cylinder in turn.
2. With oil engines, disconnecting the fuel injector will cut off the fuel supply to that cylinder .
When a cylinder has been cut out, the remaining working cylinders have to overcome the frictional
and pumping loses of the cut-out cylinder.
Consider 4- cylinder 4-stroke engine where (Pi = indicated , Pb = brake, and Pf = friction ) power :
Let A = Pb = 4 Pi - 4 Pf of 4 cylinders
And B = Pb = 3 Pi - 4 Pf of 3 cylinders
Thus case A - case B = 1 Pi is the (Pi )of the cut-out cylinder.
When each cylinder’s indicated power is known and added together, the result gives the total
indicated power for the engine under those speed and load conditions.
5.3 – Friction power
The total engine friction can be divided into five main components as follows :
1. Crankcase mechanical friction
this is subdivided into :
i- bearing friction (includes main & con rod bearings)
ii- valve gear friction
iii- miscellaneous friction
2. Blow-by losses
these are pumping losses during compression and expansion process, during which,
leakage of combustion products occurs past the piston and piston rings from the
cylinder to the crankcase.
3. Exhaust and inlet system throttling losses
due to restriction in flow area during valve movement from closed to full open
positions
4. Combustion chamber pumping losses
these are the losses due pumping work required to pump gases into and out of the
combustion chamber during mainly exhaust strokes.
5. Piston mechanical friction
this can be subdivided into :
i- viscous friction – which depends on the lub oil viscosity and the temperature of
the various parts of the piston.
ii-non-viscous friction – and these are (a)due to ring tension (b)gas pressure force
behind the ring
The friction power of an engine can be determined by the following methods :
1. Willan’s line method (for CI engines only)
2. Motoring test
3. Difference between “IP & BP”
4. Morse test
Willan’s line method

At constant engine speed, a graph is
drawn of fuel consumption against brake
power for different engine load.
This graph line is extrapolated back to
cut the brake power axis at the negative
side at (L), as shown in the figure, giving
thereby the flowing graphical values
I - OL : power loss at this speed
II - OM: fuel consumption at zero brake
means : power
Therefore the power lost due to friction
is read from the graph and it is equal to
the amount (OL) .
Motoring test Difference between “IP & BP”
Run the engine until it reaches steady FP = IP - BP
operation. This methods of finding
The power of the engine during this period the friction power is by
is absorbed by electric dynamometer. the difference between:
The fuel supply is then cut off by a suitable 1. IP as obtained from the indicator
electrical switching device, whereby the diagram, and
dynamometer is converted to run as motor 2. BP as obtained by a dynamometer
to drive the engine at the same speed. Which is considered as a very accurate
The power supplied to the motor is method if an accurate indicator diagram
measured , which is a measure of the can be provided.
friction power of the engine.
Morse test
As discussed earlier in the measurement
of the engine indicated power
6 – Heat Losses
The performance of an engine is generally given by heat balance method.
To obtain such heat balance, the engine must run under constant specific operating
conditions, i.e, constant load, constant speed, and the followings are to be considered:
1. Heat supplied by the fuel
2. Heat absorbed to produce engine power
3. Heat taken away by cooling system
4. Heat taken away by exhaust gas
For petrol and diesel engine, heat supplied by the fuel (Qf) is theoretically evaluated as
follows:
The engine power is evaluated as mentioned above

6.1 – Heat lost to coolant
• Heat to coolant can be evaluated as
mentioned in chapter (10), may be recalled
here :
6.2 – Heat lost to exhaust
• Heat to coolant can be evaluated as
mentioned in chapter (10), may be recalled
here :
7 – Exhaust Gas Analysis
• Substances which are emitted to the atmosphere
from any opening down stream of the exhaust
part of the engine are termed as “exhaust
emissions”.
• Some of the more commonly used instruments
for measuring exhaust components are :
1. Flame ionization detector
2. Spectroscopic analyzers
3. Gas chromatograph

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Internal Combustion Engines

1. 1st report – is descriptive 2. 2nd report – is analysis report, where

Open Book Exam

Disobedience of any of the above and academic

• Tutorial class will be more productive, better objective, wider educative, if it

2. Student should study as much as it is required to understand the

Class weekly hours

2 Internal Combustion Engines chapter one

3 Internal Combustion Engines chapter one

4 Internal Combustion Engines chapter one

5 Internal Combustion Engines chapter one

It is important to know that the

6 Internal Combustion Engines chapter one

7 Internal Combustion Engines chapter one

1. Chemical energy of fuel is converted to thermal energy by oxidation

8 Internal Combustion Engines chapter one

9 Internal Combustion Engines chapter one

10 Internal Combustion Engines chapter one

11 Internal Combustion Engines chapter one

15 Internal Combustion Engines chapter one

16 Internal Combustion Engines chapter one

17 Internal Combustion Engines chapter one

18 Internal Combustion Engines chapter one

19 Internal Combustion Engines chapter one

21 Internal Combustion Engines chapter one

22 Internal Combustion Engines chapter one

23 Internal Combustion Engines chapter one

25 Internal Combustion Engines chapter one

26 Internal Combustion Engines chapter one

27 Internal Combustion Engines chapter one

28 Internal Combustion Engines chapter one

31 Internal Combustion Engines chapter one

1 - Power or expansion stroke

35 Internal Combustion Engines chapter one

36 Internal Combustion Engines chapter one

37 Internal Combustion Engines chapter one

Class weekly hours

1.02 – Engine Classifications

• a- valve in block (L)

1. Low speed engine ( 95 – 250 rpm )

• Several or all of these classification terms can

v - Engine losses can be characterized as follows:

S=4B for very large engines

2. Con rod (r) & crank offset(a)

Up ≤ 15 m/s engine high performance automobile

5 ≤ Up m/s large diesel engine

1.Clearance volume (Vc) .� 3.Total volume (Vt)

volume swept by the piston Vt = VBDC

2.03 - Derivation of slider – crank

From which (Vc) can be expressed as :

1 - Piston travel x = f (θ)

2 - at BDC →→→ (θ = 180) →→→ cos 180 = -1 and sin 180 = 0

Up = ω a sin θ + {[ ω a² sin θ cos θ ] /[√r² - a² sin²θ]}

Taking (ω . a) as common factor, we get

Up = ω a {sin θ + {[ a sin θ cos θ ] /[√r² - a² sin²θ]}

Up = ω a {sin θ + {[ a sin θ cos θ ] /a[√r²/ a² - sin²θ]}

Up = ω a {sin θ + {[ sin θ cos θ ] /[√R² - sin²θ]}

• Acceleration will be max when θ = 0

• Acw = π.B.S/2 (1 + R – (cos θ +√R² - sin² θ))

• Total surface area A t

• A t = 2 ((π/4) B² )+ π.B.S/2 (1 + R – (cos θ +√R² - sin² θ))

1. Piston travel distance x = f(θ)

4. Piston acceleration ap = f(θ)

• Vθ/Vc = 1 +½(Cr –1) { (1+R ) – [ cos θ +√R² - sin² θ] }

• Since [(ƥc c) 1/(RT)c][(ƥd d) 1/(RT)d ]