PART-A

1. Laminar Flow: the flow of a fluid when each particle of the fluid follows a smooth path,
paths which never interfere with one another. One result of laminar flow is that the
velocity of the fluid is constant at any point in the fluid.

Turbulent Flow: irregular flow that is characterized by tiny whirlpool regions. The
velocity of this fluid is definitely not constant at every point.
Typical examples of both Laminar and Turbulent flows can be observed in the cigarette
smoke.
2. Suspending solid particles
Blending miscible liquids
Dispersing a gas through the liquid
Dispersing a second liquid to form an emulsion or suspension
Promoting heat transfer
3. At some speed, the drag or force of resistance will equal the gravitational pull on the
object (buoyancy is considered below). At this point the object ceases to accelerate and
continues falling at a constant speed called the terminal velocity (also called settling
velocity).
4. Work index is defined as the energy required per unit mass in kWh/ton to reduce an
infinitely large particles to D80 = 100 µm. In the above equation, unit of D80 is µm, of
W is kWh and of m is ton.

Bonds law is often written in terms of the work index (Wi) as,

5. Convection occurs in fluids due to differences in densities in a particular control volume.

Control volume can be any defined area of investigation (Eg: room, office space,
atmosphere etc).

Due to increase in temperature, a part of the fluid is heated. This means that the external
thermal energy is converted to kinetic energy of the molecules. Due to higher kinetic
energy, the molecules tend to move faster and have larger average molecular distances.
This leads to reduced density and causes the molecules to move up.

Now as the molecules move up, they collide with other cooler molecules to lose a part of
the energy. As the colder molecules move and come in contact / proximity of the heat
source, their temperatures increase. Thus, a convective cycle is set in.
 Such convective cycles can be automatic and without any external impetus. This is what
is observed in the atmosphere.

Alternatively, this can be forced. For example, when we consider fans, they cause a
forced motion of the air and thus cause a convective motion. This is also more commonly
known as forced convection.

6. Economy is the number of kg of water vaporized per kg of steam fed to the unit. Steam
consumption is very important to know, and can be estimated by the ratio of capacity
divided by the economy. That is the steam consumption (in kg/h) is

Steam Consumption = Capacity / Economy

7. Fick's first law relates the diffusive flux to the concentration under the assumption
of steady state. It postulates that the flux goes from regions of high concentration to
regions of low concentration, with a magnitude that is proportional to the concentration
gradient (spatial derivative), or in simplistic terms the concept that a solute will move
from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration across a
concentration gradient. In one (spatial) dimension, the law is:

where

 J is the "diffusion flux," of which the dimension is amount of substance per unit area per
unit time, so it is expressed in such units as mol m−2 s−1. J measures the amount of substance
that will flow through a unit area during a unit time interval.
 D is the diffusion coefficient or diffusivity. Its dimension is area per unit time, so typical
units for expressing it would be m2/s.
 φ (for ideal mixtures) is the concentration, of which the dimension is amount of substance
per unit volume. It might be expressed in units of mol/m3.
 x is position, the dimension of which is length. It might thus be expressed in the unit m.
8. Relative humidity is the ratio of partial pressure of water vapor in air to the vapor
pressure of water at the dry bulb temperature.
Percentage humidity is the ratio of actual absolute humidity to the saturation humidity.
9. Distillation is a method of purifying organic compounds. It takes advantage of the fact that two
different compounds probably have two different boiling points. Suppose two different liquids
are present in a homogeneous mixture (they are completely miscible, or they mix completely
together, like water and alcohol). If they have two different boiling points, one of the compounds
will evaporate before the other one does. The more volatile compound (the one that evaporates
easily) will leave the less volatile compound behind.
10. tb = (No/Coʋ)[ D – (ʋ / kNo) ln (Co/Cb – 1)]
 where tb is the breakpoint time (min); Co the influent/inlet concentration (mg/L); Cb the
concentration at breakthrough (mg/L); No the initial adsorptive capacity of the adsorbent (mg/g);
D the bed depth of column (cm); ʋ the linear flow rate (cm/min); k the rate coefficient (L/g/h).
PART-B
11. (a) i)

(ii)
ASSUMPTIONS:

OR
(b) i) Three main types of impellers for low-to moderate viscosity liquids are

A propeller is an axial-flow, high speed impeller for liquids of low viscosity.  Small
propellers turn at full speed either 1,150 or 1,750 rpm.  Larger propellers turn at 400 to
800 rpm.
The ratio of distance to the propeller diameter is known as pitch of the propeller.  A
propeller with a pitch 1.0 is said to have square pitch.  Propellers rarely exceeds 18 inch
in diameter.
Turbines:
There are 4 types of turbine impeller
 The straight-blade turbine
 Disc turbine
 Concave blade CD-6 disc turbine
 Pitched-blade turbine.
The straight-blade turbine
The simple pushes the liquid radially and tangentially with almost no vertical motion at
the impeller.
 The current it generate travel outward to the vessel wall and then flow either upward or
downward.
 Such impellers sometimes called paddles.
DISC TURBINES:
The disc turbine with multiple straight blades mounded on a horizontal disc.
 Useful for dispersing a gas in a liquid.

 It is also used for gas dispersion.

 Consists of six concave blades
Pitched-blade turbine
Used when good overall circulation important.
 Because it provides some axial flow in addition to the radial flow

HIGH EFFICENCY IMPELLERS

The high efficiency impeller HE-3 has three slanted blades that are crimped to decrease
the blade angle near the tip.
 The A3 1 0 fluid foil impeller uses air foil shaped blades with taper so that they are
narrower at the tip than their edges.
 Used to mix low-or moderateviscosity liquids.
(ii)

Stagnation pressure= 1*104 N/m2

Stagnation pressure head= 1*104 /(1000*9.81)

=1 m
12. (a) i)
 OR
(b)
Clarification:
ii)
13. (a) By increasing the number of effects we can increase the economy of an evaporator system.
The first effect of a multiple effect evaporator is the effect to which the raw steam is fed, vapors
obtained from first effect act as a heating medium for another effect.
Different types of feed arrangement of multiple effect evaporators -:
1)FORWARD FEED ARRANGEMENT : In this arrangement the feed and steam introduced in the
first effect and pressure in the first effect is highest and pressure in last effect is minimum, so
transfer of feed from one effect to another can be done without pump.
2) BACKWARD FEED ARRANGEMENT: In this arrangement feed is introduced in last effect and
steam is introduced in first effect. For transfer of feed, it requires pump since the flow is from
low pressure to higher pressure. Concentrated liquid is obtained in first effect.

3) MIXED FEED ARRANGEMENT: In this arrangement feed is introduced in intermediate effect,

flows in forward feed to the end of the series and is then pumped back to the first effect for
final concentration. This permits the final evaporation to be done at the highest temperature.

Design of multiple effect evaporator without boiling point elevation for forward feed : Equations
are developed for the case where boiling point elevations are negligible ,also the effect of
composition on liquid enthalpy is neglected. The equations so obtained are generalized for the
case where boiling point elevations cannot be neglected. For definiteness, forward feeds are
employed.
Design of multiple effect evaporator with boiling point rise for forward feed: Most solutions that
are concentrated in evaporators are mixtures of water and non-volatile salt. The boiling
temperature of the solution some times depend on the salt concentration. The difference
between the temperature(T) of boiling solution and the temperature of boiling water (pure) at
the same pressure is known as boiling point rise(BPR).thus
T = TW + BPR
BPR is a function of the solute concentration.
A graph called the Dhuring chart is commomnly used to determine BPR.
Calculation procedure: Specifications: F,XF,TF,thick liquid composition(XP),P,saturated steam
pressure(P0),heat capacity(CP), overall heat transfer coefficient(U). To find: Heat transfer
area(A).
Step-1: Corresponding to evaporator temperature find out the boiling point of pure water,TW.
Step-2: From the figures/empirical correlation determine the solution temperature/BPR at
TW,XP. This temperature is also the temperature of the superheated water vapour leaving the
evaporator.
Step-3: A total mass balance and a component material balance are used to calculate the flow
rates. F = V + L XF F = LXP
Step-4: Calculate /determine the enthalpies of three process streams 1) Enthalpy of water
vapour from the superheated steam tables by solution temperature and pressure of the
evaporator. 2) The enthalpy of the solution can be calculated from there heat capacities .
H = CP(T-TR) It can also be calculated by the plots or empirical correlations. 3) Latent heat of
vaporization taken from steam table at corresponding steam pressure.
 Equations for all three effects are-:

14. (a) i) humidity chart

Relative humidity, dry bulb temperatures are presented on a humidity chart.
(ii) Spray chambers:
 OR
(b)
Vacuum Dryers:
For drying of granular solids or slurries, vacuum dryers of various mechanical designs are
available commercially. They are more expensive than atmospheric pressure dryers but are suited
for heat-sensitive materials or when solvent recovery is required or if there are risks of fire and/or
explosion. Single-cone and double-cone mixers can be adapted to drying by heating the vessel
jackets and applying vacuum to remove moisture. The paddle dryer is suited for sludge-like
materials while the vacuum band dryer is good for thin pastes or slurries. The material forms a
film over the heated band; it may boil and form a highly foamy, porous structure of very low bulk
density.

Drum Dryers
In drum dryers, slurries or pasty feedstocks are dried on the surface of a slowly rotating steam-
heated drum. A thin film of the paste is applied on the surface in various ways. The dried film is
doctored off once it is dry and collected as flakes (rather than powder). Figure 13 shows four
types of commonly used drum dryer arrangements, which are self-explanatory. The design of
applicator rolls is important since the drying performance depends on the thickness and evenness
of the film applied. The paste must stick to the surface of the drum for such a drop to be
applicable.

Four key variables influence the drum dryer performance. They are: (a) steam pressure or
heating medium temperature, (b) Speed of rotation, (c) Thickness of film and (d) Feed
 properties, e.g., solids concentration, rheology and temperature. Because it allows good
control of the drying temperature, drum dryers may be used to produce a precise hydrate
of a chemical compound rather than a mixture of hydrates. Vacuum operation of both
single- and double-drum dryers are done commercially to enhance drying rates for heat-
sensitive materials, such as pharmaceutical antibiotics. They are also used when a porous
structure of product is desired.

15. (a) Distillation Columns

Distillation columns are one of the most often used types of separation equipment in
industry.

Distillation is one of the most common liquid-liquid separation processes, and can be
carried out in a continuous or batch system.

Distillation works by the application and removal of heat to exploit differences in relative
volatility. The heat causes components with lower boiling points and higher volatility to
be vaporized, leaving less volatile components as liquids. Mixtures with high relative
volatilities are easier to separate. This makes separations of close-boiling and azeotropic
feeds difficult, so special distillation techniques have to be used to separate these
mixtures.

Distillation can be used to separate binary or multi-component mixtures. Many variables,

such as column pressure, temperature, size, and diameter are determined by the properties
of the feed and the desired products. Some specialized columns perform other functions,
such as reactive distillation columns, which combine reaction and separation of products
into a single unit.

Column Types/Conventional Distillation

Packed Beds

Although packed bed columns are used most often for absorption, they are also used for
the distillation of vapor-liquid mixtures. The packing provides a large surface area for
vapor-liquid contact, which increases the column's effectiveness.

The feed mixture contains components of different volatilities, and enters the column
approximately at the middle. The liquid flows downward through the packing, and the
vapor flows upward through the column.

Differences in concentration cause the less-volatile components to transfer from the

vapor phase to the liquid phase. The packing increases the time of contact, which
increases the separation efficiency. The exiting vapor contains the most volatile
components, while the liquid product stream contains the least volatile components.
After the feed mixture enters the column, liquid flows down the column through the
packing countercurrently and contacts the rising vapor stream. The liquid at the bottom,
enters a reboiler. Two streams exit the reboiler; a vapor stream, which returns to the
column, and a liquid product stream. The vapor stream flows upward through the
packing, picks up the more volatile components, exits the column, and enters a
condenser. After the vapor condenses, the stream enters a reflux drum, where it is split
into an overhead product stream, known as the distillate, and a reflux stream that is
recycled back to the column.

The feed passes through packing to maximize vapor-liquid surface contact for an efficient
separation. Types of packing include dumped, or random, packing and stacked packing.
Dumped packings have either random or geometrically structured shapes and are
composed of bulk inert material, such as clay, porcelain, plastic, ceramic, metal, or
graphite. Individual packings are typically 3 to 75 mm in size, and have several void
spaces that provide a large surface area for liquid-vapor contact. The advantages of
dumped packing include high liquid flow rate capacity, high pressure capacity, and low
cost.

Packed bed columns are often used to recover solvents. The packed bed distillation
columns pictured below to the left are used in petrochemical industry.

Plate or tray column:

The plate, or tray column is the most widely used type of distillation column. The number
of trays, or stages in the column is dependent on the desired purity and difficulty of
separation. The number of stages also determines the height of the column.

The feed enters a plate column towards the middle of the column. Concentration
differences cause the less volatile components to transfer from the vapor stream to the
liquid stream. The vapor exiting the condenser contains the most volatile components,
while the least volatile components exit through the reboiler in the liquid stream.
After the feed mixture enters the column, , liquid flows down the column and across the
trays in either crossflow or countercurrent flow. A reboiler at the bottom separates the
stream into a vapor stream that returns to the column and a liquid product stream; both
streams are exemplified by the yellow arrows. The vapor stream flows upward through
the trays, and contacts the down-flowing liquid stream, allowing the separation to take
place. At the top of the column, the vapor is condensed in a condenser. The condensed
stream which is shown in blue, is split into an overhead product stream, known as the
distillate, and a reflux stream that returns to the top of the column.

The geometry of the trays within the column affects the extent and type of contact
between the vapor and liquid streams. Tray types include sieve, valve, and bubble cap.
Sieve trays, which contain holes for vapor to flow through, are used for high capacity
situations providing high efficiency at a low cost. Although less expensive, valve trays,
containing holes with opening and closing valves, have the tendency to experience
fouling due to accumulation of material. Bubble cap trays contain caps which allow vapor
to flow into and out through tiny openings through the liquid. Bubble cap trays are the
most advanced and expensive of the three trays, and are highly effective in some low
liquid flow rate situations.

Plate columns can also be used to purify solvents of hazardous material, such as the
stripping of hydrogen sulfide from "sour water." Many different inlet temperatures and
feed moisture contents can be used. Plate columns are often used to recover solvents from
process wastes.

Vacuum

To vaporize a liquid, its temperature can be raised or its pressure can be decreased.
During vacuum distillation, the pressure inside the distillation column is maintained at a
vacuum to lower the temperature need to vaporize the liquid. This method of distillation
is applied in situations with heat sensitive products, liquids with low viscosities, and
liquids that tend to foul or foam.

Oil refineries often make use of vacuum distillation. Normal distillation techniques
separate lighter hydrocarbons and impurities from the heavier hydrocarbons. This
bottoms product is further distilled under vacuum distillation. This allows high boiling
point hydrocarbons, such as lubricants and waxes, to be separated at economical
temperatures. Vacuum distillation is also used in the separation of sensitive organic
chemicals and recovery of organic solvents.

OR
(b) i) Adsorption is defined in many ways, some of the standard definitions of
adsorptions are: Adsorption is the adhesion of atoms, ions, biomolecules or molecules of
gas, liquid, or dissolved solids to a surface The process by which molecules of a
substance, such as a gas or a liquid, collect on the surface of another substance
Adsorption is the process through which a substance, originally present in one phase, is
removed from that phase by accumulation at the interface between that phase and a
separate (solid) phase.
Applications: Some of the standard applications of adsorption are:
Heterogeneous Catalysis- This is probably the most important application relevant to
chemical engineering. The reaction mechanism of how a reactant reacts on a catalyst
surface revolves around adsorption. Therefore designing catalyst, reactors and studying
them requires knowledge of adsorption
Separation- Adsorption is used as a separation process in many chemical as well as bio
chemical industries to separate gaseous or liquid mixtures. Designing adsorption
equipment like fixed bed adsorbers, gas drying, pressure swing adsorption etc. ,
chromatography requires knowledge of adsorption. Many experiments in the lab use
adsorption as a process to calculate various parameters like surface concentration,
porosity, change in surface energies, pore surface area etc.
It occurs due to the imbalance of forces at the surface of a material. This lead to
formation of bonds (Covalent, ionic, Van der Waals, Hydrogen bonds etc.) between the
surface molecules (adsorbents) and the molecules in the fluid phase (adsorbate).
Physisorption
Adsorption in which the forces involved are intermolecular (i.e., van der Waals, hydrogen
bonding) of the same kind as those responsible for the non-ideality of real gases and the
condensation of vapours etc. , and which do not involve a significant change in the
electronic orbital patterns of the species involved is called physisorption.
Chemisorption
A chemical process in which a reacting molecule forms a definite chemical bond with an
unsaturated atom, or a group of atoms (an active centre) on a catalyst surface, and
electron transfer is involved is known as chemisorption.
In practice no absolutely sharp distinction can be made between chemisorption and
physisorption, although generalities apply. Energetics The potential energy diagram of a
general adsorption process can be modeled on the basis of summation of attractive and
repulsive forces between the adsorbate and adsorbent and thus gives rise to a Lennard-
Jones like Potential Energy Diagram as follows. On the horizontal axis, is the distance
between the two molecules. As the adsorbate molecule is brought close to the surface the
corresponding potential energy is plotted in vertical axis. First the interaction is attractive
and the particle falls in an energy well, afterwards the interaction is highly repulsive.

(ii) ADSORPTION EQUIPMENT

The scale and complexity of an adsorption unit varies from a laboratory chromatographic
column a few millimeters in diameter, as used for analysis, to a fluidised bed several
metres in diameter, used for the recovery of solvent vapours, from a simple container in
which an adsorbent and a liquid to be clarified are mixed, to a highly-automated moving-
bed of solids in plug-flow. All such units have one feature in common in that in all cases
the adsorbent becomes saturated as the operation proceeds. For continuous operation, the
spent adsorbent must be removed and replaced periodically and, since it is usually an
expensive commodity, it must be regenerated, and restored as far as possible to its
original condition. In most systems, regeneration is carried out by heating the spent
adsorbent in a suitable atmosphere. For some applications, regeneration at a reduced
pressure without increasing the temperature is becoming increasingly common. The
precise way in which adsorption and regeneration are achieved depends on the phases
involved and the type of fluid–solid contacting employed.
It is convenient to distinguish three types of contacting:
(a) Those in which the adsorbent and containing vessel are fixed whilst the inlet and
outlet positions for process and regenerating streams are moved when the adsorbent
becomes saturated. The fixed bed adsorber is an example of this arrangement. If
continuous operation is required, the unit must consist of at least two beds, one of which
is on-line whilst the other is being regenerated.
(b) Those in which the containing vessel is fixed, though the adsorbent moves with
respect to it. Fresh adsorbent is fed in and spent adsorbent removed for regeneration at
such a rate as to confine the adsorption within the vessel. This type of arrangement
includes fluidised beds and moving beds with solids in plug flow.
(c) Those in which the adsorbent is fixed relative to the containing vessel which moves
relative to fixed inlet and outlet positions for process and regenerating fluids. The rotary-
bed adsorber is an example of such a unit.
Fixed or packed beds
When used as part of a commercial operation with gas or liquid mixtures, the single
pellets discussed in the context of rate processes are consolidated in the form of packed
beds. Usually the beds are stationary and the feed is switched to a second bed when the
first becomes saturated. Whilst there are applications for moving-beds, as discussed later,
only fixed-bed equipment will be considered, here as this is the most widely used type.
Figure 17.16a depicts the way in which adsorbate is distributed along a bed, during an
adsorption cycle. At the inlet end of the bed, the adsorbent has become saturated and is in
equilibrium with the adsorbate in the inlet fluid. At the exit end, the adsorbate content of
the adsorbent is still at its initial value. In between, there is a reasonably well-defined
mass-transfer zone in which the adsorbate concentration drops from the inlet to the exit
value. This zone progresses through the bed as the run proceeds. At t1 the zone is fully
formed, t2 is some intermediate time, and t3 is the breakpoint time tb at which the zone
begins to leave the column. For efficient operation the run must be stopped just before the
breakpoint. If the run extends for too long, the breakpoint is exceeded and the effluent
concentration rises sharply, as is shown in the breakthrough curve