Vectors

May 2, 2009

Abstract
Vectors are those mathematical structures that have magnitude and
direction associated with them. To master vectors is to think them as
coordinates in 3D geometry.

1
CONTENTS CONTENTS

Contents
I Theory, Discussion & Formulae 4
1 Vectors & Scalars 4
2 Types of Vectors 4
3 Length of a vector 4
4 Equality of vectors 4
5 Collinear vectors 4
6 Coplanar vectors 5
7 Addition of two vectors 5
8 Linear combination of vectors 5
9 Linear Independence & Dependence. 6
10 Points in Vector space 7
11 Product in Vectors 7
11.1 Scalar Multiplication of a vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
11.2 Scalar Product or Dot product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
11.3 Vector Product or Cross product . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
11.3.1 In cartesian coordinate system . . . . . . . . . . 8
11.3.2 Generalised properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
11.4 Scalar Triple product or Box product . . . . . . . . . . . 9
11.5 Vector Triple product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
11.5.1 How to Derive this? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

12 Projection & Component of Vectors 10

13 Solving Problems-Part I 10
13.1 Solving Vectors Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

14 Useful Formulae 11
15 Area & Volume of geometrical structures 12
16 Vector Geometry 12
16.1 Equation of a line in Vector form . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
16.2 Skew lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
16.3 Equation of angle bisector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
16.4 Vector equation of a plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
16.4.1 Normal form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
16.4.2 Point-two vector form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
16.4.3 Three point form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2
CONTENTS CONTENTS

16.5 Section made by a plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

17 Reciprocal system of Vectors 14

II Problems 15
18 Level I Problems 15
19 Level 2 problems 15

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 5 COLLINEAR VECTORS

Part I
Theory, Discussion & Formulae
1 Vectors & Scalars
A vector is a dened as that mathematical structure that has magnitude and
direction associated with it. Scalars are those mathematical structures that
have only magnitude no direction.

2 Types of Vectors
−−→
Any vector AB is a vector in the direction joining the points A & B in
the vector space, which can be expressed in form of basic vectors called as
position vectors.
Position vectors specify the position of a point with respect to origin.
Any vector joining two points can be written in terms of position vectors
−−→
of those two points. Like AB = b̄ − ā
Notation : I prefer to denote any vector ī + j̄ + k̄ as (1, 1, 1) and assume
to have the i,j & k. It saves lot of time and things are clear with this way of
writing vectors.

3 Length of a vector
Length of a vector or Modulus of a vector say |ā| which is the position vector
−−→ −−→
is distance of the point from origin. Or if for any vector AB , |AB| is distance
between the points A & B.
• Given position vector ā = a1 ī + a2 j̄ + a3 k̄ then |ā| =
p
a21 + a22 + a33
−−→
|AB| = |b̄ − ā|
• Given any vector joining A & B points, p
= (b1 − a1 )2 + (b2 − a2 )2 + (b3 − a3 )2

4 Equality of vectors
Two vectors are equal if have same direction and magnitude.

5 Collinear vectors
Two vectors are collinear if they have the same direction.
If they turn to have the same magnitude as well then they become equal
vectors.

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8 LINEAR COMBINATION OF VECTORS

6 Coplanar vectors
Two vectors are coplanar if they lie in the same plane. Any two vectors are
always coplanar if they have the same starting point.

7 Addition of two vectors

Addition of two vectors is given by Triangle law or Parellogram law.
• Vector addition is associative ā + (b̄ + c̄) = (ā + b̄) + c̄

• Vector addition is Cummutative ā + b̄ = b̄ + ā

8 Linear combination of vectors

If vectors ā & b̄ are two position vectors of A & B points. What will be
c̄ = αā + β b̄?
c̄ above is produced by linear combination of two vectors. Now there are
two cases to this problem
• If ā & b̄ are non-collinear vectors then the linear combination will be
guided by the parellogram law.
• If ā & b̄ are collinear vectors. i.e. they are having the same direction,
then any linear combination is going to give another vector of dierent
length in the same direction.
• This analysis above shows that linear combination has the power to
produce new vectors. If both the vectors are in line means collinear
then the linear combination will produce the new vector in the same
line. But here two vectors are not really required. So
 to produce a new vector in the same line linear combination is αā
 to produce a new vector in the plane containing two vectors. If
these two vectors lie in the same line means are collinear then the
linear combination will produce another vector in the same line.
But we want to produce another vector in the plane. So we need
two non-collinear vectors. Hence αā + β b̄ will produce the new
vector in the plane. And for dierent values of α& β any vector
in that plane containing ā & β̄ can be produced.
 to produce a new vector in the 3D space containing three vectors.
If these three vectors are coplanar then the linear combination will
produce a new vector in the plane containing these three vectors.
Hence αā + β b̄ + γc̄ will produce the new vector in the 3D space
if all three vectors are non-coplanar.

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 9 LINEAR INDEPENDENCE & DEPENDENCE.

Linear combination is the method by which we produce new

vectors.

9 Linear Independence & Dependence.

The idea of linearly independent vectors is generalized way of speaking about
collinearity or coplanarity of two or three vectors respectively.
• In 1 dimensional space (i.e. line), how many vectors are sucient to
produce a new vector using linear combination?

 Only one vector is enough to produce any other vector in 1D space

(i.e. line) using linear combination αā

• In 2 dimensional space (i.e. plane), how many vectors are sucient

to produce a new vector using linear combination & what condition
should they satisfy?

 Only two vectors are sucient to produce a new vector in 2D space

provided these two are non-collinear. Since if they are collinear
they will again produce a new vector in 1D space. i.e. line con-
taining both the lines.

• In 3 dimensional space (i.e. space), how many vectors are sucient

to produce a new vector using linear combination & what condition
should they satisfy?

 Only 3 vectors are sucient to produce a new vector in 3D space

provided these vectors are non-coplanar. Since if they are copla-
nar then their linear combination will produce a new vector in the
plane and not in 3D space.

NOTE: Number of vectors under some condition required for producing new
vectors is always equal to the dimension of the space.
Now we come to the point of denining what is linear independence?
Linear-Independence - Given vectors are linearly independent if one can-
not be produced from the other.
Linear-Dependence - Given Vectors are said to be linearly dependent if
one can be produced from the other.
So this denition is nothing but in
• 1 dimensional space (i.e. line) we require only one linearly independent
vector to produce a new vector.

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11 PRODUCT IN VECTORS

• 2 dimensional space (i.e plane) we require two linearly independent vec-

tors to produce a new vector. So two vectors are linearly independent
in 2D space means they are non-collinear
• 3 dimensional space (i.e. space) we require three linearly independent
vectors to produce a new vector. So three vectors are linearly indepen-
dent in 3D space means they are non-coplanar.
So now you should know why the idea of linear independence is constructed
? or why we study that ?
Purely since we want to know what is that condition that is required to
produce new vectors in n-dimensional space! And how we can extend the
idea of non-collinear & non-coplanar into higher dimension. So ultimately is
nothing but non-collinearity & non-coplanarity.

10 Points in Vector space

Any point in vector space can be uniquely represented by its position vector.
1. Three points B,C & D are collinear i
(a) there exists x,y,z not all zero such that
i. xū + yv̄ + z w̄ = 0
ii. x + y + z = 0 ( this is directly evident from section formula)
−−→ −−→
(b) BC = λCD
2. Four points A,B,C & D are coplanar i
(a) there exists x,y,z & w not all zero such that
i. xā + y b̄ + zc̄ + wd¯ = 0
ii. x + y + z + w = 0
−−→ −→ −−→
(b) There exists α, β not both zero such that αAB + β AC = AD is
true.

11 Product in Vectors
11.1 Scalar Multiplication of a vector
Any vector multiplied by a scalar (a real number) is dened as scalar multi-
plied to a vector.
Geometrically, the length of the vector is increased scalar times. i.e.
→
− →
−
a = λ b tells |ā| = |λb̄| and another crucial info of they both pointing in
the same direction. Whenver we have vectors thinking of them in terms of
lines containing those vectors helps. So two vectors are collinear means lines
containing these two vectors is parellel.

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11.2 Scalar Product or Dot product 11 PRODUCT IN VECTORS

11.2 Scalar Product or Dot product

Dened as ā · b̄ = |ā||b̄| cos θ
• So ā · b̄ = 0 ⇔ |ā| = 0 or |b̄| = 0 or cos θ = 0

• ā · b̄ is a scalar quantity

• ā·ā = ā2 = |ā|2 ; this is a very important identity that allows movement
from vectors to real numbers.
• ā · b̄ = b̄ · ā; dot product is commutative

• We cant talk about associativity since three vectors having dot product
doesnt make sense. Why??

11.3 Vector Product or Cross product

Dened as ā × b̄ = |ā||b̄| sin θ n̂, where n̂: is perpendicular both ā & b̄

11.3.1 In cartesian coordinate system

1. î × ĵ = k̂, î × k̂ = −ĵ Note: if in alphabetic (cyclic) order then positive
else negative.
2. î × î = ĵ × ĵ = k̂ × k̂ = 0
3. When
 ā & b̄  when represented in terms of î, ĵ, k̂ then ā × b̄ =
 î ĵ k̂ 
 
 a1 a2 a3 
 
 b1 b2 b3 

11.3.2 Generalised properties

• ā × b̄ is perpendicular to both ā & b̄

• ā & b̄ are parallel to each other ⇔ā × b̄ = 0

• ā × b̄ = −b̄ × ā

• |ā × b̄|2 + (ā · b̄)2 = |ā|2 |b̄|2 Lagrange's identity. Relation between cross
and dot product.
• Area of a parellogram = |ā × b̄|

• Area of a Triangle = |ā×b̄|

2

8
11 PRODUCT IN VECTORS11.4 Scalar Triple product or Box product

11.4 Scalar Triple product or Box product

Dened as ā · (b̄ × c̄)
• ā · (b̄ × c̄) = ā · b̄ × c̄ - bracket doesn't makes sense since the output is
a scalar (hence called scalar triple product).
 
 a1 a2 a3 
• If ā, b̄, c̄ are represented using î, ĵ, k̂ then ā · b̄ × c̄ =  b1 b2 b3 
 
 c1 c2 c3 

• ā · b̄ × c̄ = ā × b̄ · c̄ -interchange the × & · values remains same.

• [ā b̄ c̄] = ā · b̄ × c̄

• [ā b̄ c̄] = [b̄ c̄ ā] = [c̄ ā b̄] = −[ā c̄ b̄] change them cyclically and they
all have same value, the order is changed and the sign changes.
• Geometrically [ā b̄ c̄] represents volume of a parellopiped with edges
ā, b̄ & c̄

• So 0 = [ā b̄ ā] represents area of a parellopiped with edges which are

complanar making volume zero.
• For any four coplanar points (note this are points and not vectors)
given by position vector ā,b̄, c̄ & d¯ we have [āb̄c̄] = [dā
¯ b̄] + [d¯b̄c̄] + [dc̄ā]
¯
−−→ −→ −−→
(can be proved by the fact that vectors AB, AC, & AD are coplanar.

11.5 Vector Triple product

Dened as ā × (b̄ × c̄) = (ā · c̄)b̄ − (ā · b̄)c̄
Also (ā × b̄) × c̄ = (ā · c̄)b̄ − (b̄ · c̄)ā
Way to remember : ā × (b̄ × c̄) lies in the plane of vectors
in the bracket.
11.5.1 How to Derive this?
Let r̄ = ā × (b̄ × c̄).
⇒ r̄ ⊥ ā & r̄ ⊥ b̄ × c̄
i.e. r̄ lies in the plane of b̄ & c̄
i.e. r̄ = αb̄ + βc̄
i.e. ā · r̄ = 0̄ = α(ā · b̄) + β(ā · c̄)
α
⇒ ā·c̄ β
= −ā· b̄
= k (assume)
⇒ r̄ = k(ā · c̄)b̄ + k(−ā · b̄)c̄ = k((ā · c̄)b̄ − (ā · b̄)c̄)
Value of k can be found out by trying values of ā = î, b̄ = ĵ & c̄ = î
r̄ = ā × (b̄ × c̄) = î × (ĵ × î) = î × (−k̂) = ĵ
r̄ = k((î · î)ĵ − (î · ĵ)î) = k(ĵ − 0) = k ĵ
Equating r̄ we get k = 1

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 13 SOLVING PROBLEMS-PART I

12 Projection & Component of Vectors

We have two vectors ā & b̄, each non-zero then

• Projection of ā along b̄ = ā·b̄

¯
|b|

• Projection of ā ⊥ b̄ = |ā×b̄|
|b̄|

• Component of ā along b̄ = (ā·b̄)b̄

|b̄|2

• Component of ā ⊥ b̄ = b̄×(ā×b̄)
|b̄|2
= ā − (ā·b̄)b̄
|b̄|2

13 Solving Problems-Part I
13.1 Solving Vectors Equations
1. (IITJEE-2009) Angle between √ the vectors ā & b̄ where ā, b̄ and c̄ are
unit vectors satisfying ā + b̄ + 3c̄ = 0̄

Solution : We need to nd the angle between ā & b̄, So we need to

arrange the given info such that we are able to produce just that
and rest others is given to us.
√
ā + b̄ = − 3c̄
√
|ā + b̄| =| − 3c̄|
√
|ā + b̄|2 =| − 3c̄|2
(ā + b̄) · (ā + b̄) =3c̄ · c̄
|ā|2 + |b̄|2 + 2ā · b̄ =3|c̄|2
2 + 2ā · b̄ =3
1
|ā||b̄| cos θ =
2
π
θ=
3

Alternate-Solution √ : Another way to look this problem is by sym-

metry. In ā + b̄ + 3c̄ = 0̄ terms ā & b̄ are very symmetric. Given
|ā| = |b̄| = 1 So the problem is problem of statics. The forces
are all balanced hence √ along one component.
√ Therefore we get,
|ā| cos θ + |b̄| cos θ = 3|c| ⇒ 2 cos θ = 3 ⇒ θ = π6 . Therefore
¯
angle between ā& b̄ is 2θ = π3

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14 USEFUL FORMULAE

14 Useful Formulae
1. |ā × b̄|2 + (ā · b̄)2 = |ā|2 |b̄|2

LHS = |ā×b̄|2 +(ā·b̄)2 = |ā|2 |b̄|2 sin2 θ+|ā|2 |b̄|2 cos2 θ = |ā|2 |b̄|2 =RHS

2. |ā × b̄| ≤ |ā||b̄|

Solution : |ā × b̄| = |ā||b̄| | sin θ||n̂| ≤ |ā||b̄|

3. |ā · b̄| ≤ |ā||b̄|

Solution : |ā · b̄| = |ā||b̄|| cos θ| ≤ |ā||b̄|

¯
 
¯ =  ā · c̄ ā · d
4. (ā × b̄) · (c̄ × d)
 
 b̄ · d¯ b̄ · d¯



Solution :Let n̄ = c̄ × d¯
LHS = ā × b̄ · n̄
= ā · b̄ × n̄
¯
= ā · b̄ × (c̄ × d)
¯ − (b̄ · c̄)d}
= ā · {(b̄ · d)c̄ ¯
¯ · c̄) − (b̄ · c̄)(ā · d)
= (b̄ · d)(ā ¯
= RHS

¯ = [ā b̄ d]c̄
(ā × b̄) × (c̄ × d) ¯ − [ā b̄ c̄]d¯
5. ¯ b̄ − [b̄ c̄ d]ā
¯
= [ā c̄ d]

Solution :Let n̄ = ā × b̄
¯
LHS = n̄ × (c̄ × d)
¯ − (n̄ · c̄)d¯
= (n̄ · d)c̄
¯ − [ā b̄ c̄]d¯
= [ā b̄ d]c̄

6. Let r̄ be any vector & ā, b̄ & c̄ be non-zero, non-coplanar vectors then
[r̄ b̄ c̄] [r̄ c̄ ā] [r̄ ā b̄]
r̄ = [ā b̄ c̄]
ā + [ā b̄ c̄]
b̄ + [ā b̄ c̄]
c̄

(a) Solution: Let r̄ = λ1 ā + λ2 b̄ + λ3 c̄ as ā, b̄ & c̄ are non-coplanar.

Now take dot product with b̄ × c̄ and nd λ1 similarly nd the
other constants by taking dot product with other symmetric cross
products.
7. [ā × b̄ b̄ × c̄ c̄ × ā] = [āb̄c̄]2

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 16 VECTOR GEOMETRY

15 Area & Volume of geometrical structures

• Area of a parellogram
• with adjacent sides given by ā & b̄ = |ā × b̄|

 with diagonals d¯1 & d¯2 = 12 |d¯1 × d¯2 |

• Area of a Triangle :

 ā & b̄ are the edges of the triangle then Area = 12 |a × b|

 If ā, b̄ & c̄ are the position vectors of the vertices A,B & C then
Area = 12 |ā × b̄ + b̄ × c̄ + c̄ × ā|
• Volume of a parellopiped : [ā b̄ c̄]
• Volume of a tetrahedron : 1
6 [ā b̄ c̄]
• Volume of a triangular prism : 1
2 [ā b̄ c̄]

16 Vector Geometry
16.1 Equation of a line in Vector form
• Two point form : Equation of line passing through the points A(ā) & B(b̄)
is derived as
−−→
r̄ = ā + λAB = ā + λ(b̄ − ā) = (1 − λ)ā + λb̄
• Slope point form : Equation of a line passing through the point A(ā)
and parellel to the vector b̄
r̄ = ā + λb̄

16.2 Skew lines

Any two lines which are neither intersecting nor parellel are called skew lines.
This will happen in 3D space.
Note: Two lines that are parallel never intersect and if they are
not parallel then they always intersect- this happens only in a
2D space. If we expand this property to hold true in 3D space it
is not true in form of skew lines. But if u take this analogy to 3D
space you have to increase the property by one dimension. Like
- Two planes if they are parallel then they never interesect and
if they are not parallel then they always intersect in a line.
• So if line L1 : r̄ = ā + λc̄ & L2 : r̄ = b̄ + λd¯. If L1 , L2 are skew lines
¯
then shortest distance between the lines is p = [ā−|c̄× b̄ c̄ d]
¯
d|

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16 VECTOR GEOMETRY 16.3 Equation of angle bisector

16.3 Equation of angle bisector

Equation of angle bisector of angle shown by sides parallel to b̄ & c̄ and
passing through point A(ā)
 
b̄ c̄
r̄ = ā + λ ±
|b̄| |c̄|
± to specify the internal and external bisector of the angle.

16.4 Vector equation of a plane

16.4.1 Normal form1
Vector equation of a plane at a distance of p units from origin and n̂ being
normal to it is given as

r̄ · n̂ = p

16.4.2 Point-two vector form

Equation of plane passing through point A(ā) and containing b̄ & c̄ on it is

(r̄ − ā) · b̄ × c̄ = 0

or
[r̄ b̄ c̄] = [ā b̄ c̄]

16.4.3 Three point form

Equation of a plane containing 3 points A(ā), B(b̄) & C(c̄) is

[r̄āb̄] + [r̄b̄c̄] + [r̄c̄ā] = [āb̄c̄]

or

r̄ · (ā × b̄ + b̄ × c̄ + c̄ × ā) = ā · b̄ × c̄
1
Any equation of the form r̄ · n̄ = p (Note here p is not the distance between the
plane from origin since n̄ is not the unit normal) can be converted to have unit normal by
p
dividing by on both sides to get the vector equation. So |n̄| represent the distance of
|n̄|
this plane from origin.

13
16.5 Section made by a plane17 RECIPROCAL SYSTEM OF VECTORS

16.5 Section made by a plane

Let A(ā) & B(b̄) are two points outside a plane r̄ · n̂ = p. We will use basic
proportionality theorem used in schools to nd the ratio in which plane
divides line joining AB.
Plane parallel to r̄ · n̂ = p and passing through point A & B are given
by r̄ · n̂ = ā · n̂ & r̄ · n̂ = b̄ · n̂. Let us see the transverse section of
these three planes passing through the point of section and points A & B.

So here the section made by the plane r̄ · n̂ = p is ZB .

AZ
Using school
geometry we know using basic proportionality theorem,
AZ AY p1 − p0 ā · n̂ − p0
= = =
ZB AX p0 − p2 b̄ · n̂ − p0

17 Reciprocal system of Vectors

p̄, q̄ & r̄ are reciprocal system of three non-coplanar vectors ā, b̄ & c̄ if

b̄ × c̄ c̄ × ā ā × b̄
p̄ = , q̄ = & r̄ =
[āb̄c̄] [āb̄c̄] [āb̄c̄]

Properties we get out of these system are

• p̄ · ā = q̄ · b̄ = r̄ · c̄ = 1

• p̄ · b̄ = p̄ · c̄ = q̄ · ā = q̄ · c̄ = r̄ · ā = r̄ · b̄ = 0

• p̄ · ā + q̄ · b̄ + r̄ · c̄ = 3

• [āb̄c̄][p̄q̄r̄] = 1

• Any vector v̄ = (v̄ · ā)p̄ + (v̄ · b̄)q̄ + (v̄ · c̄)r̄ = (v̄ · p̄)ā + (v̄ · q̄)b̄ + (v̄ · r̄)c̄

14
19 LEVEL 2 PROBLEMS

Part II
Problems
18 Level I Problems
1. Which of the following makes sense?
(a) ¯ × b̄) · c̄
(a
(b) ā × b̄ · c̄
(c) ā × (b̄ · c̄)
(d) (ā × b̄)c̄
(e) (ā · b̄)c̄
(f) ¯ · ē
(ā × b̄) × (c̄ × d)

2. Given r̄ = ā × b̄ which of the statements makes sense

(a) r̄ ⊥ ā & r̄ ⊥ b̄
(b) r̄ ⊥ ā or r̄ ⊥ b̄
(c) r̄ & ā × b̄ are collinear vectors
(d) none of these
3. Maximum value of [ā b̄ c̄] where ā, b̄, c̄ are non-coplanar vectors is
(a) 1
(b) abc
(c) 0
(d) none of these

19 Level 2 problems
1. Derive following in triangles using vectors
(a) a cos B + b cos A = c
(b) a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A
(c) sina A = sinb B = sinc C
(d) ∆ = 12 bc sin A
2. Prove pythogoras theorem
(a) i.e. prove if angle A is π2 then b2 + c2 = a2
(b) and also prove the converse of the theorem.

15