Contents

Manual for K-Notes ................................................................................. 2

Diodes ..................................................................................................... 3
Transistor Biasing .................................................................................. 11
Transistor Amplifier .............................................................................. 19
Feedback Amplifiers .............................................................................. 25
Operational Amplifiers (OP-AMP) ......................................................... 29

© 2015 Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved.

1
 Manual for K-Notes

Why K-Notes?

Towards the end of preparation, a student has lost the time to revise all the chapters
from his / her class notes / standard text books. This is the reason why K-Notes is
specifically intended for Quick Revision and should not be considered as comprehensive
study material.

What are K-Notes?

A 40 page or less notebook for each subject which contains all concepts covered in GATE
Curriculum in a concise manner to aid a student in final stages of his/her preparation. It
is highly useful for both the students as well as working professionals who are preparing
for GATE as it comes handy while traveling long distances.

When do I start using K-Notes?

It is highly recommended to use K-Notes in the last 2 months before GATE Exam
(November end onwards).

How do I use K-Notes?

Once you finish the entire K-Notes for a particular subject, you should practice the
respective Subject Test / Mixed Question Bag containing questions from all the Chapters
to make best use of it.

© 2015 Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved.

2
 Diodes
Representation:
A: Anode K : Cathode

 The voltage at which the charged particles start crossing the junction is called as cut – in voltage
or Threshold voltage.
It is represented as VAK  V .

 When VAK  V , depletion region exists and no charge carriers cross the junction, therefore
I 0
D
 When VAK  V , number of charged particles crossing the junction increases & the current
through the diode increase, non – linearly or exponentially.
 Diode in the condition is said to be forward biased.
 VAK 
 VT 
ID  IS e  1
 
 
I = reverse saturation current
S
KT
V = Thermal voltage =
T q
K = Boltzmann constant
T = Temp. in k
q = charge of one e
V = 26mv at room temperature
T
 = intrinsic factor
 When V  0 , diode is said to be in reverse biased condition & no majority carriers cross the
AK
depletion region, hence I  0
D

3
 Characteristics of Diode

Equivalent circuit of diode

 Forward Bias

 Reverse Bias

Diode Resistance

1) State or DC Resistance
V
R  AK
DC I
D

4
 2) Dynamic or AC Resistance
dV V
R  D  T
AC dI I
D D

Diode Applications

Clippers

It is a transmission circuit which transmits a part of i/p voltage either above the reference
voltage or below the reference voltage or b/w the two reference voltages.

 Series Clippers

i) Positive Clippers

V  V sin t : When V  V => V  V

i m i R O R

V V When V  V => V  V
m R i R O i

ii) Negative Clipper

V  V sin t : When V   V => V  V
i m i R o R

V  V When V   V => V  V
m R i R o i

5
 Shunt Clipper
i) Positive Clipper

When V  V , D is ON
i R
V V
o R
When V  V , D is OFF
i R
V V
o i
ii) Negative Clipper

When V  V , D is ON
i R
V  V
o R
When V  V , D is OFF
i R
V V
o i

 Two level Clipper

When V  V , D is OFF & D is ON

i 2 1 2
V V
0 2
When V  V & V  V , D is OFF & D is OFF
i 2 i 1 2 1
V V
o i
When V  V , D is OFF D is ON
i 1 2 l
V V
o 1

6
 CLAMPERS

These circuits are used to shift the signal either up words or down words.

 Negative Clampers

When V  0
R
+ve peak is shifted to 0
-ve peak is shifted to 2V
m
When V  0
R
+ve peak is shifted to V
R
-ve peak is shifted to -2 V  V
m R

 Positive Clampers

7
 When V  0
R
-ve peak is shifted to 0
+ve peak is shifted to 2V
m
When V  0
R
-Ve peak is shifted to V
R
+ve peak is shifted to 2V  V
m R

Rectifier

It converts AC signal into pulsating DC.

1) Half wave rectifier

During positive half wave cycle

 R 
V  V sin t  L 
0 m R  R 
 f L

R = diode resistance
f

During negative half cycle

V 0
0

V
  
V
0 avg
 m


4  RL 
     100%
2  R f  RL 
V
  
V
0 RMS
 m
2
V
 Form Factor = RMS   2
V
avg

 Ripple factor = FF2  1

 PIV  V
m

8
 Bridge full wave rectifier

When +ve half wave cycle

R
V  V t  L
o R  2R
L f

When –ve half wave cycle

R
V  V  t   L
o R  2R
L f

2V
  Vo avg  
m

 
 
8  1 
     100%
2  R
f 
 1  2 
R
 L 
V
  
V
o RMS
 m
2

 FF 
2 2
 PIV  V
m

Zener Diode

 A heavily doped a si diode which has sharp breakdown characteristics is called Zener Diode.
 When Zener Diode is forward biased, it acts as a normal PN junction diode.
 For an ideal zener diode, voltage across diode remains constant in breakdown region.

 If I is not given, then consider I 0

z(min) z(min)

9
Voltage Regulator

Regulators maintains constant output voltage irrespective of input voltage variation.

Zener must operate in breakdown region so V  V

i z

I I I
z L
V
I  z
L R
L
I I I
max z max  L

I I I
min z min L

I I I
z max  max  L

I I I
z min min L

10
 Transistor Biasing
Bipolar Junction Transistor

 Current conduction due to both e- & holes

 It is a current controlled current source.

NPN Transistor

PNP Transistor

Region of Operation

Junctions Region of operations Applications

i) J  RB cut – off Switch

E
J  RB
C
ii) J  FB active amplifier
E
J  RB
C
iii) J  FB saturation Switch
E
J  FB
C
iv) J  RB reverse active Attenuation
E
J  FB
C

11
 Current gain (α) (common base)

I I I
C nc o
I : injected majority carrier current in collector
nc
I
  nc
I
E
I  I I 1
I  B o ; I  B  I
C  1 E 
1   1 o
Current gain β (common emitter)

I  I  1    I
c B o

 
 ; 
1 1   
 These relations are valid for active region of operations.

Characteristics of BJT

 Common Base characteristics

input  V , I
BE E
output  V , I
CB C

Input characteristics
V vs I when V  cons tant
BE E CB

12
 Output characteristics

 Common emitter characteristics


inputs V , I
BE B 

outputs V , I
CE C 

Input characteristics

13
 Output characteristics

Transistor Biasing

1) Fixed Bias method

V I R V 0
cc B B BE
V V
I  cc BE
B R
B
Assuming active region of operation
I  I
c B
V V I R
CE CC C C
Verification

 If V V V  Active Re gion
CE  sat  CE CC
If not ; then saturation region

 For saturation region , V  V

CE CE  sat 
V V
CC CE  sat 
I 
C R
C
I
 In saturation region , I  C
B 
min

14
2) Feedback Resistor Bias Method

By KVL

cc 
c B c B B
V  I I R I R V I R 0
BE E E

 
V  I I R I R V  I I R 0
cc c B c B B BE C B B  
Assuming active region

I  I
c B

V V
I  cc BE ; I  I
B

R  1    R  R
B C E  c B

CE CC C B 
V  V  I  I R R
C E  

3) Voltage divider bias or self-bias

By thevenin’s theorem across R

2
R
V V 2
TH CC R  R
1 2
R R
R  2 1
TH R  R
1 2
Apply KVL
V V I R
TH BE B TH
 I I R
B C E  
Assuming active region I  I
C B
V V
I  TH BE
B R  1    R
TH E
V V I R I R
CE CC C C E E

15
 FET Biasing

JFET

 When V is negative, depletion layer is created between two P – region and that pinches the
GS

channel between drain & source.

 The voltage at which drain current is reduce to zero is called as pinch off voltage.

 Transfer – characteristics of JFET is inverted parabola

2
 
 V 
I I 1 GS
D DSS  
V

 GS  OFF  

When V  0, I  I
GS D DSS

When V V , I 0
GS GS  OFF  D

Pinch of voltage, V  V
p GS  OFF 

 For a N – channel JFET, pinch off voltage is always positive

V 0 & V 0
p GS

16
 JFET Parameters

1) Drain Resistance

V
r  DS
d I
DS

It is very high, of the order of M .

2) Trans conductance

I dI
g  D  D
m V dV
GS GS

2
 V 
I I  1 GS 
D DSS  V 
 GS  OFF  

dI 2I  V 
D g  DSS 1  GS 
dV m V  V 
GS GS  OFF   GS  OFF  

3) Amplification factor

V
 DS  g r
V md
GS

MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semi-conductor FET)

17
 Enhancement Type MOSFET

 No physical channel between source & drain

 To induce a channel Gate – source voltage is applied.

Depletion MOSFET

 Physical channel present between source & drain.

Types of MOSFET

Operating characteristics

1. For n – channel MOSFET

 I  0 for V  V
D GS T
cut  off region
 V2 
 I  C
D
W
n ox L  GS 
V  V V  DS 
T DS 2 
 (linear region)
 

V
GS
 V and V
T DS
 V V
GS T 
2
 I  C

W VGS  VT  (saturation region)
D n ox L 2

V
GS
 V and V
T DS
 V V
GS T 

18
2. For p – channel MOSFET

 I  0 for V V (cut – off region)

D GS T
 V2 
 I  C
D
W
n ox L  GS 
V  V V  DS 
T DS 2 
 (linear region)
 
V  V and V V V
GS T DS GS T
2
 I  C

W VGS  VT  (saturation region)
D n ox L 2
V  V and V V V
GS T DS GS T

Transistor Amplifier
Small signal analysis for BJT

 h – parameter model of BJT

V  hI h V
1 i1 r 2
I  h I h V
2 f1 o 2
I
 current gain, A   2
I I
1
h R
A  f L
I 1h R
o L

V
 Input Impedance, Z  1 h h A R
i I i r I L
I

19
 AR
 Voltage gain, A  I L
V Z
i
1
 Output impedance, Z 
o  hh 
h  f r 
 o h R 
 i s 

Common Emitter (CE) Amplifier

Small signal model

V h e
Voltage gain A  o  f R R
v V he c L  
i i

20
 High frequency Analysis of BST

r = base spreading resistance.

bb'
r = input resistance.
b'e
r = feedback resistance.
b'c
r = output resistance.
ce
C = diffraction capacitance.
b' e
C = Transition capacitance.
b'c
g = Transconductance.
m

Hybrid π - parameters

 Ic Q KT
1) g  ; V  ,
m V T q
T

I = dc bias point collector current.

CQ

h
2) r  fe
b'e g
m

21
High Frequency Model

r = open circuited.
b'c

Low Frequency Model

22
 Voltage gain as frequency

Low Frequency Range

 External capacitor C and C are short circuited.

E C
 Internal capacitor C and C are open circuited.
b'c b'e
 Circuit becomes like.

= acts as high pass filter.

23
 High frequency range

 External capacitors C ,C and C are short circuited.

b c E
 C is open circuited.
b'c
 Equivalent circuit behaves as a low pass filter with cut-off frequency fL.

Mid – band range

 All internal and external capacitance are neglected, so gain is independent of frequency.

FET Small Signal parameters

I
Trans conductance, g  D
m V
GS
In non – saturation region
I W
g  D  C .V
m V n ox L DS
GS
In saturation region

g
ms
 C
W
V V
n ox L GS 
T 

Small Signal equivalent circuit

24
 For low frequency

For high frequency

Feedback Amplifiers
Ideal Amplifier
Z 
in
Z 0
o
Positive feedback : V  V  V
i s f
Negative Feedback : V  V  V
i s f
V A
For negative feedback, o 
V 1  A
s
V A
For positive feedback, o 
V 1  A
s

 Positive feedback is used for unstable system like oscillators.

25
 Effects of Negative Feedback

i) Sensitivity

A
Without feedback =
A
A
With feedback = f
A
f
A 1 A
f 
A
f
1  A  A

ii) Input Impedance

Without feedback = Z
i

With feedback = Z
if

Z  Z 1  A 
if i

iii) Output impedance

Without feedback = Z
o
With feedback = Z
of
Z
of
Z
o
1  A 
 Negative feedback also leads to increase in band width
.

Topologies of Negative feedback

Output Input
Voltage Series
Voltage Shunt
Current Series
Current Shunt

26
1) Voltage Series Topologies

V  V
f o

It is called as series shunt feedback or voltage - voltage feedback.

In this case, input impedance increases & output impedance decreases.

2) Voltage shunt topologies

I  V
f o

 = Trans conductance

It is called as shunt-shunt or voltage current feedback.

3) Current series Topologies

V  I
f o

 = resistance

It is called as shunt – shunt or voltage current feedback.

4) Current shunt Topologies

I  I
f o

It is also called as shunt – series or current – current feedback.

27
 Circuit Topologies

1) Voltage series

2) Voltage shunt

3) Current – series

28
4) Current – shunt

Operational Amplifiers (OP-AMP)

+  Non – inverting terminal
-  inverting terminal

Parameters of OP–AMP

1) Input offset voltage

Voltage applied between input terminals of OP – AMP to null or zero the output.

2) Input offset current

Difference between current into inverting and non – inverting terminals of OP – AMP.

3) Input Bias Current

Average of current entering the input terminals of OP – AMP.

4) Common mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

Defined as ratio of differential voltage gain A to common mode gain A

d 
cm
. 
A
CMRR  d
A
cm

29
5) Slew Rate

Maximum rate of change of output voltage per unit time under large signal conditions.

dV
SR  o V s
dt max

Concept of Virtual ground

In an OP – AMP with negative feedback, the potential at non – inserting terminals is same as the
potential at inverting terminal.

Applications of OP –AMP

1) Inverting Amplifier

R
V  f V
o R in
1

2) Inverting Summer

V V V 
V  R  a  b  c 
o f R R R 
 a b c 

3) Non – inverting Amplifier

 R 
V  1  f V 
o  R in 
 1 

30
4) Non – inverting summer

If R  R  R  R
a b c

V R2
V  a
 
V R2
 b
 
V R2
 c
 
1 R R R R2 R R2
2

V 
 Va  Vb  Vc 
1 3

 R  V  V  V 
V  1  f   a b c
o  R  3 
 1  

5) Differential Amplifier

By Super position

 R  R 
V  1  f  3 V
ob  R R  R  b
 1  2 3

R
V  f V
oa R a
1

V V V
o oa ob

6) Integrator

1 t
o RC o in
V  V dc

31
7) Differentiator

dV
V  RC in
o dt

8) Voltage to current converter

V
I  in
L R

9) Current to voltage Converter

V  R I
out p IN

32
10) Butter – worth Low Pass Filter

 R  V
V  1  f  in
o  R  1  j2fRC 
 1 

V A
o  f
V  f 
in 1  j
f 
 H

 R  1
A  1  f R  ; f 
f  1 H 2RC

11) Butter – worth High Pass Filter

V  R   j2fRc 
o  1  f  
V  R   1  j2fRC 
in  1 

   
 j f f  
L 
 A  
f  f 
1  j  
 f 
 L  

R
A 1 f
f R
1

1
f 
L 2RC

33
12) Active Half – wave rectifier

In this circuit, diode voltage drop between

V
input & output is not V but rather D ,
D A
where A = open loop gain of OP – AMP.
V  V
in o

13) Active Full – wave Rectifier

 
This circuit provides full wave rectification with a gain of  R R 
 1

R
V  V
m R m
1

34
14) Active Clipper

V  V , Diode conducts and V  V

IN R o

And when V  V Diode is OFF

IN R

V  V
o IN

15) Active Clamper

V V V
o IN p

V = peak value of V
p IN

35
16) Comparators

36
17) Schmitt Trigger

Inverting Schmitt Trigger

 When output is  V , then V  V

sat ref sat
 When output is V , then V  V
sat ref sat
R
When   2
R R
1 2

 Upper triggering point utp   V

sat
Lower triggering point Ltp   V
sat

 Hystersis voltage = UTP  LTP  2V

sat

R1
UTP  V  V
sat R1  R 2 R

R1
LTP   V  V
sat R1  R 2 R

37
 Non – Inverting Schmitt Trigger

R R R
 Upper trigger Point UTP   2 V , Lower triggering point LTP   2 V ,  2
R sat R sat R
1 1 1
 Hysteric voltage = UTP  LTP  2V
sat

18) Relaxation Oscillator

38
  R 
 2 
R R 
 1 2 

1  
T  2RCln  
1 

1 1
f 
T 1  
2RCln  
1 

555 Timer

Pin Diagram

39
 Bistable multi vibrator acts as a FF.
 Monostable Multi vibrator produces pulse output.
 Bistable Multi vibrator acts as free running oscillator.

A stable Multi vibrator

c 
T  0.69 R  R c
1 2 
T  0.69R c
d 2

c d 1
T  T  T  0.69 R  2R C
2 
1 1
f 

T 0.69 R  2R C
1 2 

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