THE NITROGEN CYCLE

Nitrogen Fixation
Nitrogen gas (N2) makes up nearly 80% of the Earth's atmosphere, yet nitrogen is often
the nutrient that limits primary production in many ecosystems because plants and animals are not
able to use nitrogen gas in that form. The process of converting N2 into biologically available
nitrogen is called nitrogen fixation. N2 gas is a very stable compound due to the strength of the
triple bond between the nitrogen atoms, and it requires a large amount of energy to break this bond.
As a result, only a select group of prokaryotes are able to carry out this energetically demanding
process.
Nitrification
Nitrification is the process that converts ammonia to nitrite and then to nitrate and is
another important step in the global nitrogen cycle. Most nitrification occurs aerobically and is
carried out exclusively by prokaryotes. There are two distinct steps of nitrification that are carried
out by distinct types of microorganisms. The first step is the oxidation of ammonia to nitrite, which
is carried out by microbes known as ammonia-oxidizers. Aerobic ammonia oxidizers convert
ammonia to nitrite via the intermediate hydroxylamine, a process that requires two different
enzymes, ammonia monooxygenase and hydroxylamine oxidoreductase. The process generates a
very small amount of energy relative to many other types of metabolism; as a result, nitrosofiers
are notoriously very slow growers.
The second step in nitrification is the oxidation of nitrite (NO2-) to nitrate (NO3-). This
step is carried out by a completely separate group of prokaryotes, known as nitrite-oxidizing
Bacteria. Some of the genera involved in nitrite oxidation include Nitrospira, Nitrobacter,
Nitrococcus, and Nitrospina. Similar to ammonia oxidizers, the energy generated from the
oxidation of nitrite to nitrate is very small, and thus growth yields are very low. In fact, ammonia-
and nitrite-oxidizers must oxidize many molecules of ammonia or nitrite in order to fix a single
molecule of CO2. For complete nitrification, both ammonia oxidation and nitrite oxidation must
occur.
Anammox
Anammox (anaerobic ammonia oxidation) is carried out by prokaryotes belonging to the
Planctomycetes phylum of Bacteria. Anammox bacteria oxidize ammonia by using nitrite as the
electron acceptor to produce gaseous nitrogen. The anammox process is considered to be
responsible for a significant loss of nitrogen (Kuypers et al. 2005). However, Ward et al. (2009)
argue that denitrification rather than anammox is responsible for most nitrogen loss in other areas.
Whether anammox or denitrification is responsible for most nitrogen loss in the ocean, it is clear
that anammox represents an important process in the global nitrogen cycle.
Denitrification
Denitrification is the process that converts nitrate to nitrogen gas, thus removing
bioavailable nitrogen and returning it to the atmosphere. Dinitrogen gas (N2) is the ultimate end
product of denitrification, but other intermediate gaseous forms of nitrogen exist. Denitrification
is an anaerobic process, occurring mostly in soils and sediments and anoxic zones in lakes and
oceans. Denitrification is an anaerobic process, occurring mostly in soils and sediments and anoxic
zones in lakes and oceans.
Ammonification
When an organism excretes waste or dies, the nitrogen in its tissues is in the form of organic
nitrogen (e.g. amino acids, DNA). Various fungi and prokaryotes then decompose the tissue and
release inorganic nitrogen back into the ecosystem as ammonia in the process known as
ammonification.

THE SULFUR CYCLE

 On land, sulfur is deposited in four major ways: precipitation, direct fallout from the
atmosphere, rock weathering, and geothermal vents. Atmospheric sulfur is found in the form of
sulfur dioxide (SO2), and as rain falls through the atmosphere, sulfur is dissolved in the form of
weak sulfuric acid (H2SO4). Sulfur can also fall directly from the atmosphere in a process called
fallout. Also, the weathering of sulfur-containing rocks releases sulfur into the soil. These rocks
originate from ocean sediments that are moved to land by the geologic uplifting of ocean
sediments. Terrestrial ecosystems can then make use of these soil sulfates (SO4−), and upon the
death and decomposition of these organisms, release the sulfur back into the atmosphere as
hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas.
Sulfur enters the ocean via runoff from land, from atmospheric fallout, and from
underwater geothermal vents. Some ecosystems rely on chemoautotrophs using sulfur as a
biological energy source. This sulfur then supports marine ecosystems in the form of sulfate.

THE PHOSPHORUS CYCLE

The phosphorus cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that describes the movement of
phosphorus through the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Unlike many other
biogeochemical cycles, the atmosphere does not play a significant role in the movement of
phosphorus, because phosphorus and phosphorus-based compounds are usually solids at the
typical ranges of temperature and pressure found on Earth. The production of phosphine gas occurs
in only specialized, local conditions.
Phosphates move quickly through plants and animals; however, the processes that move
them through the soil or ocean are very slow, making the phosphorus cycle overall one of the
slowest biogeochemical cycles. Initially, phosphate weathers from rocks and minerals, the most
common mineral being apatite. Overall small losses occur in terrestrial environments by leaching
and erosion, through the action of rain. In soil, phosphate is adsorbed on iron oxides, aluminium
hydroxides, clay surfaces, and organic matter particles, and becomes incorporated (immobilized
or fixed). Unlike other cycles, P is not normally found in the air as a gas; it only occurs under
highly reducing conditions as the gas phosphine PH3.

THE CARBON CYCLE

The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the
biosphere, pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the Earth. Carbon is the main
component of biological compounds as well as a major component of many minerals such as
limestone.
In Atmosphere
Carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere primarily through photosynthesis and
enters the terrestrial and oceanic biospheres. Carbon dioxide also dissolves directly from the
atmosphere into bodies of water (ocean, lakes, etc.), as well as dissolving in precipitation as
raindrops fall through the atmosphere. When dissolved in water, carbon dioxide reacts with water
molecules and forms carbonic acid, which contributes to ocean acidity. It can then be absorbed by
rocks through weathering. It also can acidify other surfaces it touches or be washed into the ocean.
In Ocean
Carbon enters the ocean mainly through the dissolution of atmospheric carbon dioxide, a
small fraction of which is converted into carbonate. It can also enter the ocean through rivers as
dissolved organic carbon. It is converted by organisms into organic carbon through photosynthesis
and can either be exchanged throughout the food chain or precipitated into the ocean's deeper,
more carbon rich layers as dead soft tissue or in shells as calcium carbonate. It circulates in this
layer for long periods of time before either being deposited as sediment or, eventually, returned to
the surface waters through thermohaline circulation.[4]

Oceanic absorption of CO2 is one of the most important forms of carbon sequestering limiting the
human-caused rise of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. However, this process is limited by a
number of factors. CO2 absorption makes water more acidic, which affects ocean biosystems. The
projected rate of increasing oceanic acidity could slow the biological precipitation of calcium
carbonates, thus decreasing the ocean's capacity to absorb carbon dioxide.[14][15]