CHAPTER 8

WAVE FORCE ON SMALL DIAMETER MEMBERS

8.1 The Morison’s equation

A structural member is considered to be of ‘small diameter’ when its diameter is
less that about 0.15 times the wave length; for example, members of Jacket structures and
piled jetties.

Fig.8.1 Definition sketch

When member diameter is small incident waves do not get much scattered by the
obstruction and in that case the equation given by Morison et al. (1950) becomes
applicable.
Morison et al. (1950)’s equation:
It states that the total force, FI, in-line with the wave direction can be obtained by addition
of the drag, FD, and the inertia, FI components, i. e.,
FT = FD + FI (8.1)
The force due to drag is proportional to kinetic head, i. e.,

8-1
 Fig. 8.2 Area projection on a vertical plane

1
FD ∝ ρ Au 2 (8.2)
2
Where ρ =mass density of fluid
A= area of object projected on a plane held normal to flow direction
u = flow velocity
Introducing the constant of proportionality, CD, and assuming a steady, uniform flow in a
viscous fluid, we have
1
FD = CD ρ Au 2 (8.3)
2
where CD is coefficient of drag. Its value depends on body shape, roughness, flow
viscosity and several other parameters.

Fig. 8.3 Particle velocities

8-2
Because the direction of wave induced water particle velocity reverses after every half
cycle, we write,
1
FD = CD ρ Au u (8.4)
2
The force of inertia is proportional to mass times the fluid acceleration:
.
FIαρ v u

FI .α .ρVu&
where V = volume of fluid displaces by the object.
.
u = acceleration of fluid
Hence,
.
FI = Cm ρ v u (8.5)

Where Cm =Coefficient of Inertia. It depends on shape of the body, its surface

roughness and other parameters.
Most of the structural members are circular in cross section. Hence,
1
FD = CD ρ DL ' u u
2
πd2 .
FI = Cm ρ L 'u
4
.
Because u and u vary along L’ and further considering unit pile length i.e. L’=1. Hence,
1 πd2 .
FT = CD ρ Du u + Cm ρ u (8.6)
2 4

where, FT = in-line (horizontal) force per meter length at member axis at given time
at given location.
1
CD ρ Du u = in-line (horizontal) water particle velocity at the same time at the
2
same location.

8-3
 πd2 .
Cm ρ u is in-line (horizontal) water particle acceleration at the same time at
4
the same location.
. .
Note that u = f ( cos θ ) and 0
u = f ( sin θ ) . Hence u and u are out of phase by 90 and

are not maximum at the same time.

Basically C and C are functions of size and shape of the object. If that is fixed
D m
then they depend on Keulegan-Carpenter number, Reynold’s number as well as
roughness factor.

Keulegan-Carpenter number: KC
It is basically a ratio of maximum drag to maximum inertia. We have,
1
( FD ) max 2 D
2
= C ρ Dumax

2 π 2 H 2 cosh 2 k ( d + z )
where, u max = 2 2
cos 2 θ
T sinh kd

πd2 .
( FI ) max
=C ρ
m 4
umax

. 2π 2 H cosh k ( d + z )
where umax = sin θ
T 2 sinh kd
At z=0,

( FD ) max
C H 1 cosh kd C 1 u T
= D = D 2 max (8.7)
( FI ) max
C D π sinh kd C π
m m
D

The ratio of maximum drag to maximum inertia can thus be taken as proportional to
umaxT
= Where umax =Maximum velocity in the wave cycle
D
T= wave period
D= Diameter
The above ratio also stands for (Total horizontal motion of the particle / Diameter).

8-4
If KC < 5 then inertia is dominant,
If KC >15 then drag is dominant and regular eddies are shed at downstream section.

Fig. 8.4 Eddy shedding

Sv
at frequency of fe = where S = Strouhal No. ≈ 0.2.
D
Alternate eddy shedding gives rise to alternate lift forces due to pressure gradient across
the wake.

8-5
 1

CD

0
10 100
Kc

Fig. 8.5 Variation of CD and CM against KC

Reynold’s Number, Re:

It is the ratio of the inertia force to the viscous force, i. e., Re:
umax D
= (8.8)
v

1
Cm

0
1 Re X 105

8-6
 1

CD

0 2 5 Re X 105

Fig. 8.6 Variation of CD and CM against Re

Roughness Factor:

Fig. 8.7 Encrustation around cylindrical members

Structural members are in course of time covered by sea weeds, barnacles, shell fish etc.
Due to this, effective diameter changes, effective mass increases, flow pattern, eddy
structure changes . Finally the wave force also changes. Lab studies have shown that
Cm does not change much. CD changes appreciably and can become 2 to 3 times more
than the initial value.

8-7
 1 Rough

Smooth
CD

0
2 5 Re X 105

Cm Smooth
Rough

0
1 Re X 105

Fig. 8.8 Effect of roughness on CD and CM

Scatter in CD , Cm values: Many laboratory and field studies have been made to
assess the effects of all unaccounted factors like eddy shedding , past flow history, initial
turbulence , wave irregularity directionality, local conditions , data reduction techniques.
But experiments are inconclusive.

Experiments to evaluate CD , Cm are performed in the following way.

8-8
 Measure Forces

Get H,T Correlate as in

Measure Compute M. equation Get
wave time . . C D , Cm
histories u , u (or F= cu u +k u
measure)

Fig. 8.9 Flow chart to obtain CD and CM through lab measurement

Almost all experiments suffer from widely scattered values. Major reasons of the scatter
are: (1) use of either steady/ oscillatory / wavy flow, (2) difficulty in achieving high Re
( 107 ), (3) wave theories over predict velocity, (4) definition of Re is arbitrary, (5) waves
∂u du
are irregular, hence CD , Cm are large, (6) use of (not ) overestimate forces, (7) no
∂t dt
accounting for directionality, current, 3-D flow.

Recommendations:
1) For Indian conditions CD =0.7 ; Cm=2 are generally used.

2) DnV : CD =0.7-1.2 ; Cm=2

3) A.P.I. : CD =0.6-1.0 ; Cm=1.5-2

4) Shore Protection Manual: CD -Refer Fig. ; Cm=1.5 if Re>5 x 105

=2 if Re<2.5 x 105
Re
= 2.5 − , otherwise
5 x105
EXAMPLE:

A one m diameter jacket leg is subjected to an attack of waves which are 5m high,
80 m long and 10 seconds in period.
Determine maximum Drag Force , maximum Inertia Force ,Total Force @

8-9
 π
θ= , at a location 10m below SWL . The water depth is 60m.
4
Take CD =1; Cm=2; Use linear theory.

kg
ρ =1030
m3
Solution :
1
FD max = CD ρ D umax umax
2
π H cosh k ( d + z )
u= cos θ
T sinh kd
2π
π (5) cosh ( 50 )
= 80 .1
2π
(10) sinh (60)
80
=0.717 m/s
1
FD max = (1)1030(1) 0.717 0.717
2
=264.76 N/m.

πd2 .
( )
F
I max
=C ρ
m 4
umax

. 2π 2 H cosh k ( d + z )
umax = sin θ
T 2 sinh kd
2π
2π 2 (5) cosh ( 50 )
= 80 .1
2 2π
(10 ) sinh (60)
80
m
=0.45
s2

8-10
 π (12 )
FI max = 2(1030) (0.45)
4
=728 N/m.

π H cosh k ( d + z )
u= cos θ
T sinh kd

π (5)(25.3869) π
= .cos
(10)(55.1544) 4

=0.5067 m/s

. 2π 2 H cosh k ( d + z )
umax = sin θ
T 2 sinh kd

2π 2 (5)(25.3869) π
= 2
.sin
(10 )(55.1544) 4

m
=0.318
s2
1 πd2 .
F = CD ρ Du u + Cm ρ u
2 4
2
1 2 π (1)
= (1)1030 (1)( 0.5067 ) + 2 (1030 ) ( 0.318)
2 4

=646.72 N/m

8-11
8.2 Total Wave Force on the Entire Member Length

SWL X

0
Drag

Z =-z

Inertia
Z=-d

Fig. 8.10 Variation of drag and inertia over a vertical

Consider a vertical located at x=0 as shown above.

Consider Linear Theory
H 2π t
η= cos as x=0
2 T
π H cosh k ( d + z )  2π t 
u= cos  
T sinh kd  T 

 ∂u  . 2π H cosh k ( d + z )  2π t 
2

 ≈u = sin  − 
 ∂t  T 2 sinh kd  T 

1 1 π 2 H 2 cosh 2 k (d + z )
FD = C D ρDu u = C D ρD 2 2
cos 2Tπ t cos 2Tπ t
2 2 T sinh hd
When t=0, FD → (FD )max

8-12
 πd 2 . πd 2 2π 2 H cosh k (d + z )
FI = Cm ρ u = Cm ρ sin (− 2Tπ t )
4 4 T2 sinh hd
When t=0, FI → (FI )max
But
π
(FI )max When sin (− 2Tπ t ) =1 or when − 2Tπ t =
2
T
Or when t= −
4
 π
At this time cos 2Tπ t = cos −  =0 Hence FD =0
 2

Note: When (FD )max occurs FI =0

When (FI )max occurs FD =0

T
(FD )max occurs after time when (FI )max occurs.
4
H 2πt
If η is small, η =0 , if η is not small , η = cos
2 T
η η
FT = ∫ FD dz + ∫ FI dz
−d −d

η η
M = ∫ FD (d + z )dz + ∫ FI (d + z )dz
−d −d

Hence total horizontal force on entire member length at any time ‘t’ : FT = FTD + FTI

η η
1 π 2 H 2 cosh 2 k ( d + z )  2π t   2π t 
FTD = ∫ FD dz = ∫ CD ρ D 2 2
cos   cos   dz
−d −d
2 T sinh kd  T   T 

1 π 2 H 2 cos ω t cos (ω t ) η
= CD ρ D
2 2
T sinh kd2 ∫
−d
cosh 2 k ( d + z ) dz

8-13
 η
1 π 2 H 2 cos ω t cos (ω t )  k ( d + z ) sinh 2k ( d + z ) 
= CD ρ D  + 
2 T 2 sinh 2 kd  2k 4k −d
x sinh 2 x
∫ cosh
2
[Using x= + ]
2 4
η
1 π 2 H 2 cos ω t cos (ω t )  1 
= CD ρ D 2 2  {2k ( d + z ) + sinh 2k ( d + z )}
2 T sinh kd  4k  −d

η
1 ω 2 H 2 1  {2k ( d + z ) + sinh 2k ( d + z )} 
= CD ρ D   cos ω t cos (ω t )
2 4 4k  sinh 2 kd  − d

CD ρ D 2  {2 k ( d + z ) + sinh 2k ( d + z )} 
FTD = (ω H )   cos ω t cos (ω t )
32k  sinh 2 kd  z =η

(8.9)

π d 2  2π H cosh k ( d + z ) 
η η 2

FTI = ∫ F dz = ∫ C
I m ρ 
4  2
T sinh kd
sin ( −ω t )  dz
−d −d 
η
π d 2  2π 2 H sin (ω t )   sinh k ( d + z ) 
= −C m ρ   
4  4 sinh kd   k  −d

πd2 2  1 sinh k ( d + z ) 
Hence FTI = −Cm ρ (ω H )   sin (ω t )
4  2 k sinh kd  z =η
(8.10)
Similarly, M T = M DT + M IT
2
CD ρ D (ω H )
M DT =
64k 2 sinh 2 kd
{ 2
}
2k ( d + z ) sinh 2k ( d + z ) − cosh 2k ( d + z ) + 2  k ( d + z )  + 1 cos ω t cos (ω t )

2
−Cm ρ π d 2 (ω H )  k ( d + z ) sinh k ( d + z ) − cosh k ( d + z ) + 1 
M IT =   sin (ω t )
2k 2 4 sinh kd  sinh kd 
(8.11)

8-14
EXAMLPE:
Obtain variation of total horizontal force and moment at the sea bed with time for a
circular vertical pile of diameter 1.22 m extending into a water depth of 22.9 m. The
wave height is 10.67m and the wavelength is 114.3m. Take CD =1 and Cm =2 .

KN
γ =10.06 .
m3
What are the maximum force and moment values?
Use Linear Theory.
Consider two cases (a) Integration up to SWL.
(b) Integration up to Free surface.

SOLUTION:
2π 2π
K= = =0.05497cycles/m
L 114.3
1 1
ω = { gk tanh kd } = {9.81(0.05497) tanh  0.05497 ( 22.9 ) } =0.6773 rad/s
2 2

CD ρ D 2  {2 k ( d + z ) + sinh 2k ( d + z )} 
FTD = (ω H )   cos ω t cos (ω t )
32k  sinh 2 kd  z =η

CD ρ D 2  {2k ( d ) + sinh 2k ( d )} 
= (ω H )  2  cos ω t cos (ω t )
32k  sinh kd 

1(10.06)1.22 2  {2(0.05497)(22.9) + sinh 2(0.05497) ( 22.9 )} 

=
32(9.81)(0.05497)
( 0.6773 (10.67 ) ) 
sinh 2 (0.05497) ( 22.9 )
 cos ω t cos (ω t )
 

=123.022 cos ω t cos (ω t ) KN

πd2 2  1 sinh k ( d + z ) 
FTI = −Cm ρ (ω H )   sin (ω t )
4  2k sinh kd  z =η

πd2 2  1 sinh k ( d ) 
= −C m ρ (ω H )   sin (ω t )
4  2k sinh kd 

8-15
 2
 10.06  π (1.33) 2 1 
= −2   (10.67 ( 0.6773) )   sin (ω t )
 9.81  4  2 ( 0.05497 ) 
=-106.74 sin (ω t ) KN

Hence
FT =123.022 cos ω t cos (ω t ) -106.74 sin (ω t )

Vary t=0, T
2π t 2π
=0, .T
T T
ω t=0, 2π
=0, 6.284
=0, 1,2, …,7

ωt FTD (KN) FTI (KN) FT (KN)

0 123.02 0 123.02
1 35.01 -89.82 -53.91
2 -21.31 -97.06 -118.37
3 -120.57 -15.06 -135.64
4 -52.56 80.78 28.22
5 9.9 102.86 112.26
6 113.42 29.83 143.24
7 69.92 -70.13 -0.21

8-16
 200

150

100

50
Ft

0 Series1
0 2 4 6 8
-50

-100

-150

-200
wt

We can express: F = C cos θ cos θ + K sin θ . For maximum conditions this equation

∂F K
can be worked out using θ as: = 0 ⇒ θ = sin −1 .
∂θ 2c

8.3 Wave Forces Using Stokes (V) Theory

Water particle kinematics are calculated at every m length of the vertical

structural member (at its center along the immersed length of the member axis) using the
Stokes Fifth Order theory. Corresponding forces are worked out using the Morrison’s
equation at every such segment and then they are added up to cover the full member
length. For a typical case of wave attack shown below, the results are further indicated in
the following figure:

8-17
 4’

35’
SWL

375’

75’

Force

Fig. 8.11 Calculation of total wave force

CD =1 and Cm =2

8.4 Calculation Of Wave Forces Using Dean’s Theory

For circular vertical piles, based on Dean’s theory and Morison’s equation, it is possible
to express approximately the total maximum force within the wave cycle as:
Fm = Φ m ρ gCD H 2 D (8.12)

Where, Φ m = Coefficient to be read from curves plotted for various values of

Cm D
W= (8.13)
CD H
Similarly the total maximum moment at the base is:
M m = α m ρ gCD H 2 Dd (8.14)

Where α m =Coefficient to be read from curves

8-18
LIFT FORCES:
For high drag ( K c > 15 ) there is regular and alternate eddy shedding on the
downstream side on both sides of cylinder at a frequency.
sv
f eddyshedding = (8.15)
D
where s = Strouhal No. ≈ 0.2, ν = kinematic viscosity of sea water, D = diameter.
This gives rise to lift force given by:
1
FL = CL ρ Du u (8.16)
2
Where CL is Lift coefficient = f ( K c )

≈ CD If K c >20

≈ If K c <3

If the frequency of eddy shedding goes close to the natural frequency of the structural
member then resonance occurs and high structural vibrations result.

8.5 WAVE FORCE ON INCLINED MEMBERS

Let Vn, an = normal components of total particle velocity and accelerations, respectively.
Then the normal (to member axis) wave force at any time ‘t’ is given by:

Fn

Fig. 8.12 Normal to axis force

8-19
 Fn = C Vn Vn + Kan (8.17)

D
Where C = CD ρ
2
πd2
K = Cm ρ
4
Where Vn and an are normal components of total velocity (V’) and acceleration (a’)

z y

x Plane normal to cylinder

axis at ‘0’

V’
c

0 Vn

Plane containing
cylinder axis and total
velocity vector V’

Fig. 8.13 Normal to axis force

Vn (or an ) lies along the line of intersection of the two planes

( )
Vn = cx V 'xc

an = cx ( a 'xc )

If c is unit vector along axis and cx , c y , cz are its direction cosines and if,

Vn = Vnx i + Vny j + Vnz k

8-20
 an = anx i + any j + anz k

c = c x i + c y j + cz k

then evaluating the products,

Vnx  1 − cx −cx c y −cx cz  Vx 

2

   2  
Vny  =  −cx c y 1 − c y −c y cz  Vy 
V   −c c 2  
 nz   x z −c y cz 1 − cz  Vz 
1
2 2
{
and Vn = Vnx + Vny + Vnz = Vx + Vy + Vz − cx cx + c y c y + cz cz 
2 2 2 2
}
2 2

Thus we get,
 Fx  Vnx   anx 
     
 Fy  = c Vn Vny  + K any  (8.18)
F  V  a 
 z  nz   nz 

 anx  1 − cx −cx c y −cx cz   ax 

2

   2  
Where any  =  −cx c y 1 − c y −c y cz  a y 
 a   −c c 2  
 nz   x z −c y cz 1 − cz   az 

Note: If wave theory is used then Vy = a y = 0 .

z
y

Fig. 8.14 Special case of a pipeline

Further for a horizontal member, cx = cz = 0 and c y = 1

8-21
Note on calculation of direction cosines,

z
c c =1
y

cz = cos φ
φ
0 Vn

c y = sin φ sin θ
x
c = sin φ cos θ
x

Fig. 8.15 Direction cosines

c = c i + c j + c k ; where,
x y z
cx = sin φ cos θ
c y = sin φ cos θ
cz = cos φ

A note on flexible cylinders

The previous discussion was based on the assumption that the cylinder on which the
force was exerted was rigidly held at its bottom. On the contrary if it is free to move
appreciably with waves, not only the exact volume of water displaced by the cylinder
contributes to the inertia force but also some volume surrounding it behaves as one with
the cylinder and contributes to the force due to inertia. This volume is some fraction of
the displaced volume V. The resulting inertia force is thus:

8-22
 Fig. 8.16 Added mass effect

.
FI = (CF + Ca ) ρV u (8.19)

Where CF = Froude-Crylov coefficient and

Ca = Coefficient of added mass =1 (theoretically)

Hence Total FI = Froude-Crylov Force + Added mass force

The Froude-Crylov Force is the force required to accelerate the fluid particles within the
volume of cylinder in its absence, whereas, the added mass force is the force due to
acceleration of water surrounding the cylinder and oscillating with it.

8-23
8.6 Wave Slam:

Fig. 8.17 Wave attack on a Jacket

When wave surface rises, it slams underneath horizontal members near the SWL and then
passes by them. The resulting slamming force (nearly vertical) due to sudden buoyancy
application is given as follows
1
Fz = Cs ρ Duz2 (8.20)
2
Where Cs ≈ π (theoretically for circular cylinder)

The American Petroleum Institute (API) suggests that it should be taken into
consideration to calculate total individual member loads and not to get the global
horizontal base shear and overturning moments. Impulsive nature of this force however
can excite natural frequency of the members creating resonant condition and large
dynamic stresses.

8.7 Limitations of the Morrison’s Equation:

1) Physics of wave phenomenon is not well represented in it.

8-24
2) The drag force formula and the inertia force formula involve opposite
assumptions. The former assume that the flow is steady while the latter implies
that the flow is unsteady
3) Real sea effects like ‘transverse forces’, ‘energy spreading (directionality)’ are
unaccounted for.
4) There is a high amount of scattering in values of CD and Cm .
5) Inaccuracies in the wave theory based values of water particle kinematics get
reflected in the resulting force estimates.

8-25