SHREE SANT GAJANAN MAHARAJ COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SHEGAON

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & TELECOMMUNICATION

TEC COMPONENT (2017-18)
SUBJECT: - UHF (UT-1)
NAME: -1) Ashwini Vijayrao Dhore (05)
2) Pooja Suresh Damdhar (17)
3) Rashmi Ganeshrao Jadhao (23)
4) Shital Godhankar (34)

Q 1] (a):- With the help of constructional diagram explain operation of reflex klystron also
derive its expression for Efficiency.
Answer: -The Reflex Klystron is another tube based on velocity modulation, and used to
generate microwave energy. This microwave generator is a Klystron that works on
reflections and oscillations in a single cavity, which has a variable frequency. Reflex
Klystron consists of an electron gun, a cathode filament, an anode cavity, and an electrode at
the cathode potential. It provides low power and has low efficiency.

Operation:-
In the reflex klystron, the electron beam passes through a single resonant cavity. The
electrons are fired into one end of the tube by an electron gun. After passing through the
resonant cavity, they are reflected by a negatively charged reflector electrode for another
pass through the cavity, where they are then collected.
The electron beam is velocity modulated when it first passes through the cavity. The
formation of electron bunches takes place in the drift space between the reflector and the
cavity. The voltage on the reflector must be adjusted so that the bunching is at a maximum as
the electron beam re-enters the resonant cavity, thus ensuring a maximum of energy is
transferred from the electron beam to the RF oscillations in the cavity. The reflector voltage
may be varied slightly from the optimum value, which results in some loss of output power,
but also in a variation in frequency. This effect is used to good advantage for automatic
frequency control in receivers, and in frequency modulation for transmitters.
The level of modulation applied for transmission is small enough that the power output
essentially remains constant. At regions far from the optimum voltage, no oscillations are
obtained at all.
Applications of Reflex Klystron

• Radio receivers
• Portable microwave links
• Parametric amplifiers
• Local oscillators of microwave receivers
Expression For efficiency of Reflex klystron:-
The maximum bunching should occur approximately midway between the catcher grids.
The beam current of a reflex klystron oscillator can be
∞
𝑖2𝑡 = −𝐼𝑜 − ∑𝑛=1 2𝐼𝑜(𝑛𝑥′)𝐶𝑜𝑠[𝑛(𝑤𝑡2 − 𝜃 ′ 0 − 𝜃𝑔)….… (1)

n = any positive integer for cycle number

The fundamental component of the current induced in the cavity by the modulated electron
Beam is given by
i2 = - 𝛽𝑖𝐼2= 2 Io𝛽𝑖 𝑗1(𝑥′) cos (wt2 -𝜃′𝑜)…................... (2)

In which 𝜃𝑔 has been neglected as a small quantity compared with𝜃′𝑜. The magnitude of
the fundamentalcomponent is

I2 = 2Io 𝛽𝑖𝐽1(X ')……………………………………(A)

The dc power supplied by the beam voltage Vo is
𝑃𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜
and the ac power delivered to the load is given by
𝑉1 𝐼2
𝑃𝑎𝑐 = = 𝑉1 𝐼𝑜 𝛽𝑖 𝐽1 (𝑋′)
2

The ratio of V1 over Vo is expressed by

𝑉1 2𝑋 ′
=
𝑉𝑜 𝛽𝑖(2𝜋𝑛 − 𝜋 )
2

2 𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜 𝑋 ′ 𝐽1 (𝑋 ′ )
Yields the power output as 𝑃𝑎𝑐 = 𝜋 …......................(B)
2𝜋𝑛−
2

Therefore, the electronic efficiency of a reflex klystron oscillator is defined as

𝑃𝑎𝑐 2𝑋 ′ 𝐽1𝑋 ′
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = =
𝑃𝑑𝑐 2𝜋𝑛 − 𝜋
2

The factor X 'J1 (X ') reaches a maximum value of 1.25 at X' = 2.408 and J1 (X ') = 0.52.
3
In practice, the mode of n = 2 has the most power output. If n = 2 or 1 mode, the
4
Maximum efficiency becomes,

2 × (2.408) × 𝐽1 × (2.408)
𝐸𝑓𝑓. 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2𝜋(2) − 𝜋/2
 = 22.7%
The maximum theoretical efficiency of a reflex klystron oscillator ranges from 20 to 30%.

(b):A helix travelling wave tube operates at 5.93 GHz under abeam voltage of 10 KV and
beam current of 500 mAmp. If the helix impedance is 25-ohm and the interaction length
20cm, find the output power gain in dB.
Solution:-

Given data: - 1) f=5.93 GHz 2) Vo=10 KV3) Io=500 mAmp

4) N=20cm 5) Zo= 25Ω
Calculations:-
Gain parameter is given by
1
𝐼𝑜𝑍𝑜 3
𝐶=( )
4𝑉𝑜
1
500 𝑋 10−3 𝑋 25 3
C=( )
4 𝑋10×103

𝐶 = 0.06786

Then output power gain is dB calculated as,

𝐴𝑝= -9.54+47.3 NC
𝐴𝑝 = -9.54 +47.3 ×(20× 0.06786)

𝐴𝑝=54.65 dB
Q.2] (a) :Explain velocity modulation process with respect to two cavity klystron

tube and obtain expression for velocity modulation.

Answer :

Fig(1) Two cavity klystron tube

Fig(2) Bunching process

Velocity modulation process :

When electrons are first accelerated by the high dc voltage V0 before entering

the buncher grids, their velocity is uniform:

2𝑒𝑉0
𝜗𝑜 = √ = 0.593*106 √𝑉0 m/s (1)
𝑚

In eqn (1) it is assumed that electrons leave the cathode with zero velocity. When

a microwave signal is applied to the input terminal, the gap voltage between the

buncher grids appears as

Vs = V1 sin(𝜔t) (2)

Where V1 is the amplitude of the signal and V1≪V0 is assumed.

In order to find modulated velocity in the buncher cavity interms of either the

entering time t0 or the exiting time t1 and the gap transit angle 𝜃𝑔as shown in fig

(1), it is necessary to determine the average microwave voltage in the buncher

gap as indicate

Since V1≪V0, the average transit time through the buncher gap distance d is,

𝑑
𝜏≈ = 𝑡1 − 𝑡0 (3)
𝜗𝑜

The average gap transit angle can be expressed as

𝜔𝑑
𝜃𝑔 = 𝜔𝜏 = 𝜔(𝑡1 − 𝑡0) = (4)
𝜗𝑜
The average microwave voltage in the buncher gap can be found in the following

way:

𝑡1
1
< 𝑉𝑠 > = ∫ 𝑉1𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝜏)𝑑𝑡
𝜏
𝑡0

𝑉1
=− ⌊𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡1) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡0)⌋
𝜔𝜏

𝑉1 𝜔𝑑
= ⌊𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡0) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑡0 + )⌋ (5)
𝜔𝜏 𝜗𝑜

ωd θg
Let, ωt0 + = ωt0 + =A
2ϑo 2

ωd θg
= =B
2ϑo 2

Then using the trigonometric identity that cos(A-B) – cos(A+B) =2sinA

sinB, eqn(5)becomes

sin⌊𝜔𝑑/2𝜗0⌋ 𝜔𝑑
< 𝑉𝑠 > = V1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡0 + )
𝜔𝑑/2𝜗𝑜 2𝜗𝑜

sin⌊𝜃𝑔/2⌋ 𝜃𝑔
= V1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡0 + ) (6)
𝜃𝑔/2 2

It is defined as

sin⌊𝜔𝑑/2𝜗0⌋ sin⌊𝜃𝑔/2⌋
𝛽𝑖 ≡ = (7)
𝜔𝑑/2𝜗𝑜 𝜃𝑔/2

Note that 𝛽𝑖 is known as the beam-coupling coefficient of the input cavity gap.
 It can be seen that increasing the gap transit angle 𝜃𝑔 decreases the coupling

between the electron beam and the buncher cavity; that is, the velocity

modulation of the beam for a given microwave signal is decreased. Immediately

after velocity modulation, the exit velocity from the buncher gap is given by,

2𝑒 𝜃𝑔
𝜗(𝑡1) = √ [𝑉0 + 𝛽𝑖𝑉𝑖 sin (𝜔𝑡0 + )]
𝑚 2

2𝑒 𝛽𝑖𝑉𝑖 𝜃𝑔
= √ 𝑉0 [1 + sin (𝜔𝑡0 + )] (8)
𝑚 𝑉0 2

𝛽𝑖𝑉1
Where the factor is called the depth of velocity modulation.
𝑉0

Using binomial expansion under the assumption of

𝛽𝑖𝑉𝑖 ≪ 𝑉𝑂 (9)

Eqn (8) becomes

𝛽𝑖𝑉𝑖 𝜃𝑔
𝜗(𝑡1) = 𝜗𝑜 [1 + sin (𝜔𝑡0 + )](10)
2𝑉0 2

Eqn(10) is the eqn of velocity modulation. Alternatively, the eqn of velocity

modulation can be given by

𝛽𝑖𝑉𝑖 𝜃𝑔
𝜗(𝑡1) = 𝜗𝑜 [1 + sin (𝜔𝑡1 − )] (11)
2𝑉0 2
(b) :Explain magnetron and derive an equation for hull cut-off magnetic flux

density and Hull cut-off voltage.

Answer :

The cavity magnetron is a high-powered vaccume tube that generates

microwaves using the interaction of a stream of electrons with a magnetic

field while moving past a series of open metal cavities.

Fig(1) Cavity magnetron

Cylindrical Magnetron :

Fig(2) Cylindrical Magnetron

In cylindrical magnetron, several re-entrant cavities are connected to the

gaps. The dc voltages V0 is applied between the cathode and the anode. The

magnetic flux density B0 is in the positive z direction. When the dc voltages and

the magnetic flux are adjusted properly, the electrons will follow cycloidal paths

in the cathode-anode space under the combined force of both electric and

magnetic fields as shown in fig(2).

Hull cut-off voltage equation:

𝑑2 𝑟 𝑑∅ 2 𝑒 𝑒 𝑑∅
– r( ) = Er - rBz (1)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑚 𝑑𝑡

1 𝑑 𝑑∅ 𝑒 𝑑𝑟
(𝑟 2 )= Bz (2)
𝑟 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑑𝑡

𝑒
Where =1.759*1011 C/Kg is the charge to mass ratio of the electron and B0 =
𝑚

Bz is assumed in positive z direction.

 Rearrangement of eqn (2) result in following form

𝑑 𝑑∅ 𝑒 𝑑𝑟 1 𝑑
(𝑟 2 )= Bzr = 𝜔𝑐 (𝑟 2 ) (3)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

𝑒
Where 𝜔c = Bz is the cyclotron angular frequency. Integration of eqn (3) is
𝑚

𝑑∅
𝑟2 = 12 𝜔c𝑟 2 + constant (4)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑∅
At r=a, where a , where a is the radius of the cathode cylinder, and = 0,
𝑑𝑡

1
constant = - 𝜔c𝑎2 . The angular velocity is expressed by
2

𝑑∅ 1 𝑎2
= 𝜔𝑐 (1 − ) (5)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑟2

Since the magnetic field does no work on the electrons, the kinetic energy of

the electron is given by

1
m𝜗 2 = eV (6)
2

However, the electron velocity has r and ∅ components such as

2𝑒 𝑑𝑟 2 𝑑∅ 2
𝜗2= 𝑉 = 𝜗 2 r + 𝜗 2 ∅ = ( ) +(𝑟 ) (7)
𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

At r=b, where b is the radius from the center of the cathode to the edge of the

anode, V=V0, and dr/dt=0, when the electrons just graze the anode, eqn (5) and

(7) become

𝑑∅ 1 𝑎2
= 𝜔𝑐 (1 − ) (8)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑏2
 𝑑∅ 2 2𝑒
𝑏2 ( ) = 𝑉0 (9)
𝑑𝑡 𝑚

Substitution of eqn (8) into eqn (9) results in

2
1 𝑎2 2𝑒
𝑏2 [ 𝜔𝑐 (1 − 2 )] = 𝑉0 (10)
2 𝑟 𝑚

The electron will acquire a tangential as well as a radial velocity. Whether the

electron will just graze the anode and return towords the cathode depends on the

relative magnitudes of V0 and B0. The Hull cutoff magnetic equation is obtained

from eqn (10) as

1
𝑚
(8𝑉0 𝑒 )2
Boc = 𝑎2
(11)
𝑏(1− 2 )
𝑏

This means that if Bo>Boc for a given Vo,the electrons will not reach the anode.

Conversely, the cutoff voltage is given by

2
𝑒 2 2 𝑎2
V0c = 𝐵0 𝑏 (1 − ) (12)
8𝑚 𝑏2

This means that if V0<V0c for a given Bo, the electrons will not reach the anode.

Eqn (12) is often called the Hull cutoff voltage eqn.

Question 3 a):Explain two-valley model theory related to Gunn diode?

Solution: A few years before the Gunn effect was discovered, Kroemer proposed
a negative mass microwave amplifier in 1985 and 1959. According to the energy
band theory of the n-type GaAs, a high mobility lower valley is separated by an
energy of 0.36ev from a low-mobility upper valley as shown in fig.1

Figure 1: Two valley model of electron energy versus wave number for n-
type GaAs

Table 1 lists the data for the two valleys in the n-type GaAs and Table 2 shows
the data for two valley semiconductor.

Table 1 Data for two valley in GaAs

Valley Effective Mass Mobility Seperation
Me µ ΔE
Lower Mel=0.068 µl=8000cm²/v- ΔE=0.36eV
sec
Upper Meu=1.2 µu=180cm²/v- ΔE=0.36eV
sec

Table 2 Data for two valley semiconductor

Semiconductor Gap energy Seperation Threshold Peak

(at 300ºK) energy Field velocity
Eg(eV) between Eth(KV/cm) νp(10)
two valleys
ΔE(eV)
Ge 0.80 0.18 2.3 1.4
GaAs 1.43 0.36 3.2 2.2
InP 1.33 0.60 10.5 2.5
CdTe 1.44 0.51 13.0 1.5
InAs 0.33 1.28 1.60 3.6

Electron densities in lower and upper valleys remains the same under an
equilibrium condition. When the applied electric field is lower than the electric
field of the lower valley (E<Ei),no electrons will transfer to the upper valley as
shown in fig.2(a). When the applied electric field is higher than that of the lower
valley and lower than that of upper valley (El<E<Eu), electrons will begin to
transfer to the upper valley as shown in fig.2(b). And when the applied electric
field is higher than that of the upper valley (Eu<E),all electrons will transfer to
the upper valley as shown in fig.2(c).

If electron densities in the lower and upper valley are nl and nu, the
conductivity of the n-type GaAs is,

σ = e(µl nl +µu nu)

where e = the electron charge

µ = the electron mobility

n = nl + nu is the electron densities

Figure 2: Transfer of electron densities

Question 3 b): What do you mean by avalanche transit time device.?An IMPATT
diode hast drift length of 2um.determine the operating frequency of the
IMPATT diode if the drift velocity for si is 107 cm/sec

Solution:

Semiconductor device with negative resistance that arises because of phase

shift between current and voltage at the terminals of the device as a result of
the inertial properties of the avalanche multiplication of the charge carriers and
the finite time of their transit in the region of the pn junction. The avalanche
multiplication in the pn junction is caused by collision ionization of atoms by the
charge carriers.
In contrast to other devices in this class (tunnel diodes, thyristors, and Gunndio
des), the negative resistance of time diodes appears only at super high
frequencies. The process of having a delay between voltage and current, in
avalanche together with transit time, through the material is said to be Negative
resistance. The device that helps to make a diode exhibit this property are
called as Avalanche transit time devices. The instances of the devices that come
below this category are IMPATT, TRAPATT and BARITT diodes.

Given :

L=2um

Vd = 107cm/sec

Operating frequency will be,

f = Vd / 2L

f = 107 / 2*2*106

f= 2.5GHZ
Q.4 a)A negative resistance par amp has a signal frequency fs of 2 GHz ,pump
frequency fp of 12 GHz ,output resistance of signal generator of Ri=16Ω and on
type resistance of a signal generator of Rs=1kΩ . Determine i) Power gain in dB
ii)Power gain if it is PUC.

ANS= Given: Fp =12*109

Fs= 2*109

1. Power gain in dB = 10log10{(fp-fs)/fs}

= 10log10{(12*109-2*109)/2*109}

= 10log10(5)

= 6.98dB

2. Power gain in PUC = 10log10{(fp+fs)/fs}

= 10log10{(12*109-2*109)/2*109}

=10log10(7)

=8.75w
Q.4 b) With the help of neat diagram and waveforms explain IMPATT diode.

ANS=

Fig: IMPATT diode construction and waveform

IMPATT diode abbreviated as Impact Avalanche and Transit Time

diode. This diode exhibits negative resistance which can be obtained by a
junction diode of any doping profile. An n type epitaxial layer is formed over the
n+ substrate. On top of this is the diffused p+ layer. A metallised cathode and
plated heat sink as anode are also included. The IMPATT diode is operated
under reverse bias conditions. These are set so that avalanche breakdown
occurs. This occurs in the region very close to the P+ (i.e. heavily doped P
region). The electric field at the p-n junction is very high because the voltage
appears across a very narrow gap creating a high potential gradient. Under
these circumstances any carriers are accelerated very quickly.As a result they
collide with the crystal lattice and free other carriers. These newly freed carriers
are similarly accelerated and collide with the crystal lattice freeing more
carriers. This process gives rise to what is termed avalanche breakdown as the
number of carriers multiplies very quickly. For this type of breakdown only
occurs when a certain voltage is applied to the junction. Below this the potential
does not accelerate the carriers sufficiently.

IMPATT diode operation

Once the carriers have been generated the device relies on negative resistance
to generate and sustain an oscillation. The effect does not occur in the device at
DC, but instead, here it is an AC effect that is brought about by phase
differences that are seen at the frequency of operation. When an AC signal is
applied the current peaks are found to be 180° out of phase with the voltage.
This results from two delays which occur in the device: injection delay, and a
transit time delay as the current carriers migrate or drift across the device.

The voltage applied to the IMPATT diode has a mean value where it is on the
verge of avalanche breakdown. The voltage varies as a sine wave, but the
generation of carriers does not occur in unison with the voltage variations. It
might be expected that it would occur at the peak voltage. This arises because
the generation of carriers is not only a function of the electric field but also the
number of carriers already in existence.

As the electric field increases so does the number of carriers. Then even after
the field has reached its peak the number of carriers still continues to grow as a
result of the number of carriers already in existence. This continues until the
field falls to below a critical value when the number of carriers starts to fall. As a
result of this effect there is a phase lag so that the current is about 90° behind
the voltage. This is known as the injection phase delay. When the electrons
move across the N+ region an external current is seen, and this occurs in peaks,
resulting in a repetitive waveform.