Coaching Behaviors Instances

(n)
Class I - Reactive behaviors 135
Responses to desirable performances 45
Reinforcement
A positive, rewarding reaction (verbal or nonverbal) 34
to a good play or good effort
Non-reinforcement 11
No response to a good performance
Responses to mistakes 81
Mistake-contingent encouragement 4
Encouragement after a mistake
Mistake-contingent technical instruction 48
Instruction or demonstration on how to correct a mistake the player has made
Punishment 18
A negative reaction (verbal or nonverbal) after a mistake
Punitive technical instruction 8
Technical instruction given in a punitive or hostile manner after a mistake
Ignoring mistakes 3
No response after a player mistake
Response to misbehavior 9
Keeping control 9
Reactions intended to restore or to maintain order among team members
Class II - Spontaneous Behaviors 47
Game related 30
General technical instruction
Spontaneous instruction in the techniques and strategies of the sport not following a 22
mistake
General encouragement 5
Spontaneous encouragement not following a mistake
Organization
Administrative behavior that sets stage for play by assigning duties and 3
responsibilities
Game irrelevant 17
General communication
17
Interactions with players unrelated to the game
Transitioning to Youth Coaching: Creating an Age-Appropriate Motivation Climate in Sport

Ron Johnson

KIN 855 - Michigan State University

Proficiency: Adequate
Abstract

The purpose of this study was to examine whether an experienced, educated collegiate baseball coach

could effectively create a strong, age-appropriate motivational climate for youth baseball players aged 11

and under by utilizing the CBAS instrument and analyzing 12 different types of reactive and spontaneous

coaching behaviors while conducting practice. Data was collected and yielded results that indicated

principles of self-determination theory were incorporated throughout, including creating autonomous

situations for the players and relationship-building supporting the concept of relatedness. Additionally,

some findings such as the use of punishment behaviors and a general lack of encouragement were spotted

leading to a need for further study to determine whether these are consistent coaching behavioral themes.

Specific limitations of this study included the lack of familiarity between coaches and players and a small

sample size requiring additional fieldwork to be completed to be able to determine an accurate

intervention strategy to improve effectiveness.

Intro

The rationale behind observing coaches is based on research that has shown a direct correlation

between coaching behaviors and athlete experience. Specifically, control groups related to the Coach

Effectiveness Training (CET) program were formed to assess to determine whether coaches trained in

psychosocial methods to support not only player interest and participation in sport, but also positive

personality development. During that study, trained coaches made an impact in several key areas,

including anxiety reduction, increase in self-esteem and a greater overall enjoyment of sport. Further,

these same studies provided data that revealed a consistent dropout rate (26%) amongst children who

played for non-trained coaches whereas “in contrast, only 5% of the children who had played for the

CET-trained coaches failed to return to the sport program the next season”. (Smoll, 2002) It is clear from

this study that careful observation of coaches and, when applicable, training intervention should occur to

promote player benefits, specifically as it pertains to sport participation and overall positive psychological

development of players.

When observing coaches, there are multiple research approaches one could use to determine

behavioral tendencies leading to effectiveness of player development. One such method is the use of Case

Study, an approach using a narrative methodology “to focus the case study, select the participants, gather

data (from multiple sources), and direct the data analysis”. (Hodge, 2014) This method has been used to

study motivational climates, including the case study on how a world-class climate was developed over an

8-year span for a championship rugby team. In that study, interviews of coaches to develop a greater

understanding of climate issues plaguing the team were held and themes emerged that became critical

turning points for team success towards its objectives, including the embarking of a paradigm shift to

promote greater autonomy of all players through increased ownership and a shift to a more democratic

style of team management.

 Another method to study coaches is using the Coaching Behavior Assessment System (CBAS), a

tool allowing the researcher to observe and score 12 specific reactive and spontaneous coaching

behaviors. This approach has been used in the past to collect aggregate data and draw corollaries to

determine which behaviors, and frequency of these items, had a significant impact on players

participating in youth sport. Specifically, a study in the late 70’s looked at coaching behaviors and their

impact on youth baseball players noting some significant results, including the finding that “although only

about 3% of the coded behaviors were punitive and critical in nature, they correlated more strongly (and

negatively) than any other behavior with children’s attitudes.” (Smoll, 2002) While it is clear from this

type of study is that specific behaviors can be looked at and implemented in a training program to

improve a coach’s impact on young players development.

Considering the subject/situation I intend to pursue is an attempt to determine whether the new

coach of an 11U travel baseball team is building the appropriate environment to develop young players

long-term I deemed the latter method of utilizing the CBAS most appropriate to conduct the observation.

To further clarify my objective, the following purpose statement is applicable:

Given that the subject is an experienced coach operating on the collegiate level taking over a youth travel

team, the purpose of this study is to examine whether this subject can successfully emphasize the

appropriate behaviors to facilitate a strong motivational climate promoting long-term skill development

and continued sport participation for young players.

Methods

Participants

1. Pete: Baseball coach

Current college coach for a local junior college who specializes in hitting instruction. Pete played

professional baseball and possesses a Master’s degree in Education. He recently started his own

travel baseball academy specializing in long-term development.

2. Players: 12 players, 11 years and younger

The travel team practicing on this day is a group of 12 players ranging from 10-11 years of age.

These players were recruited from the local Cal Ripken league; the majority of the team

competed on the league All-Star team and possess an above-average skill level for their age

group. The group includes many different personality types and levels of competitive spirit, with

some being task-oriented and others ego-oriented. The program is an 11U travel baseball

academy.

3. Location: Ciaverella Field, Sacramento, CA

The observational facility is Ciaverella Field, an outdoor baseball facility located in Sacramento,

California. The field is one of the most prestigious, well-regarded fields in the area known for its

charm and uniqueness amongst a growing industry of corporate, generic baseball complexes

designed primarily for access to amenities and to turn profits.

4. Community: River Park

River Park is a suburban community in East Sacramento, currently one of the more expensive

areas to reside in the surrounding area. The crime rate is low as community involvement is high,

as is pride of home ownership. This community hosts many events and possesses a significant

amount of resources. Considering the nature and cost of travel baseball, this is an ideal

community due to the high socioeconomic status of many of the families in the area.
 After thoroughly researching the 12 CBAS coaching behaviors metrics, they are divided into reactive

and spontaneous behaviors, reactive behaviors being “responses to immediately preceding athlete or team

behaviors, whereas spontaneous behaviors are initiated by the coach and are not a response to a

discernible preceding event.” (Smoll, 2002) considering my subject’s background, my intuition dictated

the following behaviors would be demonstrated this weekend during my observation as “most common”:

1. Reinforcement - A positive, rewarding reaction (verbal or nonverbal) to a good play or effort

The reasoning behind selecting this behavior was based on the experience and educational level

of the subject. This was assumed when considering the coach’s background, not only in years of

coaching baseball and an understanding he possessed a Master’s Degree in Education. The

combination of these attributes led to an assumed confidence in my subject understanding basic

psychology principles and that those principles would be demonstrated effectively towards the

young athletes.

2. Mistake-contingent technical instruction - Instruction or demonstration on how to correct a

mistake the player has made

This is an expected behavior again due to the subject’s experience as a paid, collegiate baseball

coach, in addition to his explicit objective that the program would be heavy in skill development.

These factors led to my assumption that the coach will prioritize technical instruction during

practice.

3. General encouragement - Spontaneous encouragement not following a mistake

I figured I’d see general encouragement throughout the practice session considering the age of the

boys and the added psychosocial age-appropriate need for positive energy from their leaders I felt

would be commonly understood amongst, and the experience and educational level of the subject.
Results (Qualitative)

So many current fields, especially in the travel ball circuit, are now modern-day money-makers with a
generic design and a lack of overall charm that cannot match Ciaverella’s old style aesthetics. Mature
trees line the walkways leading to the beautiful field, situated near the river levy in an established
suburban oasis ranked as one of the finest places to live in the area.

Perhaps the most charming element of Ciaverella Field is the railroad tracks that grace the hill just behind
the right-center field fences. Hearing the roar of the locomotive engine as it traverses through River Park
on its way to another destination is a sight to behold against the backdrop of a game; it is truly enjoyable
to watch the younger kids look up and marvel at old 19th century conveyance as the train gazes down
upon the field. Pure Americana!
 The additional element of old style sunken dugouts gives the field an added dimension of the charming
throwback style not present in today’s modern-day baseball complexes that focus on capitalistic pursuits.
From this vantage point, players have the ability to look up at the field as if it is a grand stage they are
stepping up to in order to perform in front of friends and family.

The famous Ciaverella Field snack bar and adjacent T-ball field breathe life into the park, bringing
promises of post-game snow cones and the nostalgia that comes with years of the happy faces of T-ballers
experiencing the sport for the first time and the many hours donated by gracious league volunteers.
 Field maintenance neglect is evident, with sponsorship signs in disarray, hanging in a sloppy manner as
an unpleasing aesthetic to a once proud field. General maintenance of Ciaverella Field has fallen off
recently, with leaves not being swept up consistently, outfield grass lines not cut cleanly, water fountains
not functioning properly, and bathrooms not being cleaned and restocked often enough. The neglect and
lack of pride related to field upkeep could make it slightly more difficult to instill a motivational climate
largely focused on a tenet of “effort” when it’s clear the Field Director and the Board responsible for
governance of the league is exercising minimal effort to keep the field in good shape.

Behaviors

Aspects I found both important and informative was the consistent base created for a strong

motivational climate for the program. This objective was demonstrated by explicitly stating to

both the parents and kids the program would be focused on skill-development in a task-oriented

environment and indeed during the observational period each kid was given the ability to learn

different positions, including crucial positions in the infield. An equal amount of time was given

to each player to ensure engagement and an equal attention to skill development of all players,

not only the most talented ones. A behavior I scored low was ignoring mistakes, an item virtually
non-existent due to the coach’s consistent mistake-contingent technical assistance behavior

utilized to focus players on mistakes and how to improve.

A feature of this study I found surprising was the observed behavior of non-reinforcement

by the subject, specifically towards instances of good performances by the players. This could

likely be attributed to higher expectations of routine plays learned from years of coaching older,

more skilled players. Additionally, it was startling to witness the number of times the coach

utilized the punishment behavior, negatively reacting after mistakes mainly in the form of

sarcasm that appeared to be taken more critically by the players than what was intended. When

realizing that critique was not taken in stride among a young, less committed group than the

adults playing collegiately that he’s used to working with, the subject quickly transitioned to

damage control, offering calming reactions to mitigate emotional responses typical of younger

athletes.

For the most part what I observed was as expected. I anticipated observing three common

forms of behavior from the subject and saw two of these, reinforcement and mistake-contingent

technical instruction – both classified in the CBAS as reactionary behaviors. I expected to see

reinforcement, considering the coach possesses a strong educational pedigree and that it is a type of

behavior typical of coaches with experience used frequently in the attempt to derive effort from

players. I also anticipated the high usage of mistake-contingent technical instruction as a prime

objective listed on the coach’s travel academy website and in his parental agreement is a strong

focus on technical skill development. The key within this technical instruction behavior observation

was the coach allowing the players autonomy; that is the catchers were allowed to call their own pitches

and the infielders given autonomy to call for pickoffs on the bases. The concept of autonomy is a key
element in self-determination theory (SDT), which has been shown by researchers to relate to the

development of mental toughness. (Mahoney, 2016)

I did not observe a significant amount of general encouragement, listed in CBAS as a

spontaneous behavior. This was somewhat surprising considering the overall coaching

experience level of the coach, but this observed behavior, or lack thereof, may have been due to

his lack of experience coaching younger players. While general encouragement is considered a

best practice for players of all ages, the psychosocial needs of young preadolescent players

require additional attention to this item due to the heightened emotional needs of this age group

in comparison. Examples included using the phrase “Come on gentlemen” every so often to keep

a flow of encouragement moving and the practice upbeat.

Another key finding was the general communication instances demonstrated by the coach,

not just in interacting with the boys but also the parents. This could likely be attributed to the

coach’s new business and his attempts at public relations to maintain his clients. Whereas the

lack of attention on the kids during parts of the practice to socialize led to a higher non-

reinforcement score, it underscored an attention to relationship-building. This occurred, in theory,

as an attempt to keep these kids together and achieve relatedness. The concept of relatedness is

“the belief that one is valued by and connected to wide social networks”, and is also a prime

component of SDT. (Mahoney, 2016) The focus on family relationship-building and team bonding

could mean the coach is focused on relatedness to optimize human functioning and promote

mental toughness during the development process.

Results (Quantitative)
Table 1: Coaching Behavior Frequencies
Coach: Pete Date 10/13/17 Location: Ciaverella Field, Sacramento, CA

Coaching Behaviors Instances

(n)
Class I - Reactive behaviors 135
Responses to desirable performances 45
Reinforcement
A positive, rewarding reaction (verbal or nonverbal) 34
to a good play or good effort
Non-reinforcement 11
No response to a good performance
Responses to mistakes 81
Mistake-contingent encouragement 4
Encouragement after a mistake
Mistake-contingent technical instruction 48
Instruction or demonstration on how to correct a mistake the player has made
Punishment 18
A negative reaction (verbal or nonverbal) after a mistake
Punitive technical instruction 8
Technical instruction given in a punitive or hostile manner after a mistake
Ignoring mistakes 3
No response after a player mistake
Response to misbehavior 9
Keeping control 9
Reactions intended to restore or to maintain order among team members
Class II - Spontaneous Behaviors 47
Game related 30
General technical instruction
Spontaneous instruction in the techniques and strategies of the sport not following a 22
mistake
General encouragement 5
Spontaneous encouragement not following a mistake
Organization
Administrative behavior that sets stage for play by assigning duties and 3
responsibilities
Game irrelevant 17
General communication
17
Interactions with players unrelated to the game
Discussion

The purpose of this study was to examine whether the subject successfully emphasized

appropriate behaviors during a single practice session to facilitate a strong motivational climate

promoting long-term skill development, and given that framework my confidence of those

objectives occurring without some intervention is low. Although the coach is experienced, that

experience lies primarily in working with college-aged adults. It was apparent that the coach

does not clearly understand the psychosocial needs of preadolescent 11-year old boys, many

times speaking to them as an adult or peer and not realizing the incapability of his players to

fully understand the nuances of sarcasm during critical technical instruction. The coach did

several things well, such as reinforcing positive behaviors and offering consistent and precise

technical instruction upon mistakes. This model will likely will lead to short-term development,

however to promote long-term growth there will need to be technical assistance in specific

behavioral areas. These include reducing the amount of punishment behaviors demonstrated,

both through verbal and nonverbal methods; rather than using mistake-contingent encouragement

as a fallback method to cut tensions after punishment using it as a stand-alone behavior. Further,

it would benefit practice flow and overall player self-esteem to offer more general

encouragement, keeping practices light-hearted and reaffirming.

Limitations

Limitations of this observation include the sample size being too small to consider data to

be statistically significant enough to offer technical assistance. It would benefit any intervention

efforts to observe the coach during a game situation. For instance, even though player skill levels

are being given similar attention in a task-oriented environment, does that notion change during
the competition of a game? Are kids offered equal playing opportunities to develop their skills in a

competitive situation? Another limitation is the coach being new to this group of kids, therefore

not having an informative enough understanding of each of the players personality and

motivations. Observing a coach with a better knowledge of his players might lead to a difference

in observed results in his behaviors towards different players.

Implications

There are a couple of implications worth noting after conducting this observational study.

First, watching players shut down after receiving a punitive response from the coach hits home,

as I personally have used this tactic to convey a point and received similar feedback from my

players. As mentioned prior, this behavior most strongly correlates to player’s attitudes toward

sport and is one area I must focus on for improvement. The other implication is observing the

effects of the coach’s focus on organization, specifically giving players ownership over cleaning

up the field and the responsibilities that come with preparing to play. In the past I’ve always

allowed the boys to leave directly after our post-game talk, but it has become clearer the benefits

derived from increasing responsibilities amongst the players. Rather than feeling a sense of a lack

of fun that should accompany sport, I can better incorporate organization into my program

knowing it adds to ownership/autonomy and ultimately the overall development of player and

team.
 References

 Smoll, F.L., & Smith, R.E. (2002). Coaching behavior research and intervention in youth sports.

Children and youth in sport: A biopsychosocial perspective, 2, 211-234.

 Hodge, K., Henry, G., Smith, W. (2014) A Case Study in Excellence in Elite Sport:

Motivational Climate in a World Championship Team. The Sport Psychologist, 60-74.

Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/tsp 2013-0037

 Mahoney, J.W., Ntoumanis, N., Gucciardi, D.F., Mallett, C.J., & Stebbings, J. (2016)

Implementing an Autonomy-Supportive Intervention to Develop Mental Toughness in

Adolescent Rowers, Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 199-215, Retrieved from

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2015.1101030

 Driska, Andrew SDT & Basic Psychological Needs. Retrieved from

https://d2l.msu.edu/d2l/le/content/592678/Home