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LearningTheories PDF
LearningTheories PDF
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3. The Management of Instruction degree to which a student achieved an objective, it
is important to specify desired instructional
outcomes in terms of clear, observable behaviors
(behavioral, instructional, learning, or performa-
Behavioral Modification nce objectives). An instructional application that
often makes use of both behavioral modification
Also known as behavior therapy or contingency
and instructional objectives is the contingency
management, behavior modification is typically
contract. Used with individual students, the
used to treat behavior problems in social,
contract sets out the terminal behavior the student
personal, or school situations. Some clinical
is to achieve, along with the conditions for
applications include treatments for phobias,
achievement and the consequences for completion
obsessions or eating disorders. Educational
(or noncompletion) of assigned tasks. Keller (1968)
applications involve the treatment of school-
proposed a whole new approach to college
related problems such as the lack of attention,
instruction based on behavioral principles known
hyperactivity, temper tantrums, or other behaviors
as the personalized system of instruction (PSI). PSI
that interfere with the regular workings of a
calls for course materials to be broken up into
classroom. Special education teachers are typically
units, each with a set of behavioral objectives.
well trained in behavioral modification. In each of
Students tackle course materials on their own,
these instances, the S-R-S model and its resulting
often aided by study guides which provide
principles are used to shape, modify and
practice on unit objectives. To proceed, students
otherwise control behavior.
are required to demonstrate mastery by taking a
unit quiz. Students receive feedback immediately
Classroom Management and if they pass, they can go on to the next unit. If
While behavioral therapists and special education they fail, they must remediate and take the quiz
teachers apply behavioral learning principles to again, but with no penalty.
address individuals, teachers in regular
_____________________________________
classrooms may use the same principles to help
manage the behavior of twenty to thirty children. Cognitive-Information Processing
For instance, teachers may set up group Theories
contingencies (a standard reinforcement given to a No single point in time signaled the end to the
group) for following certain rules of conduct. A associationistic or behavioral era, and the
kindergarten teacher, for example, may take beginning of the cognitive revolution. Early on,
his/her students out to the playground 10-15 the cognitive revolution was a quiet one.
minutes early if they all pick up their things. One However, as psychologists became increasingly
common means of applying group contingencies frustrated with the limitations of behavioral
that some teachers find useful is the token theory and methods, and persuasive arguments
economy (Ayllon & Azrin, 1968). In this system, against radical behaviorist theories were being
tokens serve as conditioned reinforcers that can put forth by linguists studying language
later be exchanged for objects or privileges. development, the "time was right" for the
Tokens are earned for good conduct--whatever emergence of cognitivism. Another prominent
behaviors have been selected by the teacher for factor was the development of computers (Baars,
strengthening. Since tokens operate like money, 1986), which provided both a credible metaphor
students may also be fined for breaking the rules for human information processing, and a
or engaging in undesirable behavior. significant tool for modeling and exploring
human cognitive processes.
Management of Instruction One major group of cognitive theories may be
Behavioral principles have proved useful, not only classified as cognitive-information processing
for managing student behavior, but also for learning theories. According to the cognitive
managing the way instruction is delivered. The information processing (CIP) view, the human
most prominent examples of how behavioral learner is conceived to be a processor of inform-
learning theories have been applied to the ation, in much the same way a computer is. When
management of instruction include the develop- learning occurs, information is input from the
ment of behavioral objectives, contingency environment, processed and stored in memory,
contracts, and personalized systems of instruction and output in the form of a learned capability.
(PSI). Behaviorists, as well as others, argue that Proponents of the CIP model, like behaviorists,
the only evidence of learning comes from the seek to explain how the environment modifies
study of overt behaviors. How can one be sure human behavior. However, unlike behaviorists,
that a student acquired knowledge or a skill they assume an intervening variable between the
unless we can see them actually do something environment and behavior. That variable is the
with that knowledge or skill? Thus, to assess the information processing system of the learner.
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Most models of information processing can be Pattern Recognition
traced to Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) who Just attending to information is not enough to
proposed a multistage theory of memory in which ensure its further processing. Attention is believed
information received by the processing system to be necessary but not sufficient; information
undergoes a series of transformations before it can must be analyzed, and familiar patterns must be
be permanently stored in memory. This flow of identified to provide a basis for further
information, as it is generally conceived, is processing. Pattern recognition refers to the
depicted in Figure 2.3. Displayed in the figure are process whereby environmental stimuli are
three basic components of memory (i.e., sensory recognized as exemplars of concepts and
memory, short-term memory, and long-term principles already in sensory memory.
memory) along with the processes assumed to be
responsible for transferring information from one
Short-Term Memory
stage to the next. This system provides the basic
framework for all learning theories classified Short-Term Memory (STM) functions as a
under the cognitive-information processing temporary working memory where further
category. processing is carried out to make information
ready for long term storage or a response. At this
stage, concepts from long-term memory (LTM) are
also activated for making sense of the incoming
information. STM or working memory has been
likened to consciousness. When we actively think
about ideas and are therefore conscious of them,
they are said to be in working memory. STM,
however, only holds a certain amount of
information for a limited amount of time.
Figure 2.3: Information Processing Model of Human
Learning Rehearsal & Chunking
Rehearsal and chunking are two processes that
The following is a brief summary of each major may help individuals encode information into
component of the information-processing system long-term memory. When you repeat a phone
and their implications for instruction. number to yourself over and over again, you are
engaged in rehearsal. Chunking is the grouping of
Sensory Memory ideas, letters, phrases, etc. into bits of information
Sensory memory represents the first stage of to facilitate the encoding process. Take for
information processing. Associated with the example, the following span of letters:
senses (vision, hearing, etc.), it functions to hold JFKFBIAIDSNASAMIT. As individual letters, they
information in memory very briefly, just long more than exceed the capacity of working
enough for the information to be further memory. However, as five chunks--JFK, FBI,
processed. It is believed that there is a separate AIDS, NASA, and MIT--they are easily processed.
sensory memory corresponding to each of the five
senses, but all are assumed to operate in the same Encoding
way. Encoding refers to the process of relating
incoming information to concepts and ideas
Selection Attention already in long-term memory in such a way that
Selective attention refers to the learners' ability to the new material is more memorable. Encoding
select and process certain information while serves to move information from STM to LTM.
simultaneously ignoring other information. The There are too many studies and methods for
degree to which an individual can spread their facilitating encoding to review here in any
attention across two or more tasks (or sources of meaningful way. In short, it is believed that
information) or focus on selected information individuals impose their own subjective
within a single task depends on four factors: organization to materials in order to learn them.
However, techniques such as outlining,
1. The meaning of the task or information to
hierarchies, concept trees, mnemonics, mediation
the individual
and imagery have all been shown to aid the
2. The similarity between competing tasks or encoding process.
sources of information
3. Task complexity or difficulty Long-Term Memory
4. The individuals ability to control attention Long-term memory (LTM) represents our
permanent storehouse of information. Anything
that is to be remembered for a long time must be
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transferred from STM to LTM. Although that focus on the ideas of closure, organization
forgetting is a phenomenon we have all and continuity (Bower & Hilgard, 1981). Like
experienced, it is assumed that once information Vico, Gesalt psychologists suggest that people do
has been processed into LTM, it is never truly lost. not interpret pieces of information separately and
As far as we know, LTM is capable of retaining an that cognition imposes organization on the world.
unlimited amount and variety of information. It Theories of intellectual development provide a
has limitations in our retrieval process, that are third research tradition contributing to the notion
believed to constrain our ability to remember. of cognitive construction (e.g. Piaget, 1952, 1969,
There are a number of different views of how 1971; Baldwin, 1902, 1906-1911; Bruner, 1974).
information is stored in LTM including, but not Developmentalists believe that learning results
limited to, schemas and mental models. from adaptations to the environment which are
characterized by increasingly sophisticated
Retrieval methods of representing and organizing
The process of retrieval from long-term memory is information. Developmental scientists also
relatively simple to understand. Previously forward the notion that children progress through
learned information is brought back to mind, different levels or stages which allow children to
either for the purposes of understanding some construct novel representations and rules.
new input or for making a response. Using A fourth line of research depicts learning as a
previous knowledge to understand and learn new socially mediated experience where individuals
material has already been discussed as encoding. construct knowledge based on interactions with
Using previous knowledge to make a response is their social and cultural environment. Like Piaget
known as retrieval. and Bruner, Vygotsky (1962, 1978) believed that
There are a number of alternative cognitive the formation of intellect could be understood by
theories, including, but are not limited to: Levels studying the developmental process. However,
or Depth of Processing, Meaningful Learning, like Bruner, Vygotsky felt that intellectual
Schema Theory, and Mental Models. These all development could only be fully understood
relate learning with information processing, which within the sociocultural context in which the
is why they are grouped here. However, they do development was occurring.
not necessary adhere to the CIP model as the Current conceptualizations of constructivist
method used by individuals to process learning focus on the 3rd (developmental) or 4th
information, or they focus on only one or a few (social) line of research. The two lines of research
components of the CIP model. do not represent opposing perspectives, but rather
_____________________________________ differences in focus. Where developmental-
constructivist tend to focus on the individual and
Cognitive-Constructivist Learning
how he or she constructs meaning of the world
Theories around him or her, social-constructivists
Since space limitations prevent an extensive emphasize the group and how social interactions
discussion of constructivism, in addition to those mediate the construction of knowledge.
cited in the following paragraphs, interested The following tables, created by Bonk and
readers are referred to the works of von Cunningham (1998) contrasts key concepts
Glasersfeld (1989, 1981), Jonassen (1991), Marra associated with developmental-constructivist and
and Jonassen (1993) and Rorty (1991). In brief, social-constructivist views of learning.
there is no single constructivist theory.
Constructivist approaches to teaching and These sources provide the groundwork for
learning is grounded in several research traditions constructivism applied to education. The common
(Perkins, 1991; Paris & Byrnes, 1989). belief that knowledge is constructed within a
social context is the foundation for this group of
The roots of constructivism may be traced back to learning theories. No discussion of learning
a little known Latin treatise, De antiquissima theories, however, is complete without examining
Italorum sapientia, written in 1710 by their epistemological foundations.
Giambattista Vico (as cited in von Glasersfeld,
1991). Vico suggested that knowledge is knowing
what parts something is made of, as well as
knowing how they are related. "Objective,
ontological reality, therefore, may be known to
God, who constructed it, but not to a human being
who has access only to subjective experience" (p.
31, von Glasersfeld, 1991).
A second, related path to constructivism comes
from Gesalt theories of perception (Kohler, 1924)
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Mind: The mind is in the head; hence, the learning focus Mind: The mind is located in the social interaction
in on active cognitive reorganization. setting and emerges from acculturation into an
Raw Materials: Use raw or primary data sources, established community of practice.
manipulatives, and interactive materials. Authentic Problems: Learning environments should
Student Autonomy: Ask students for personal theories reflect real-world complexities. Allow students to explore
and understandings before any instruction. Allow student specializations and solve real-world problems as they
thinking to drive lessons and alter instruction based on develop clearer interests and deeper knowledge and
responses. Place thinking and learning responsibility in skills.
students’ hands to foster ownership. Team Choice and Common Interest: Build not just on
Meaningfulness and Personal Motivation: Make individual student prior knowledge, but on common
learning a personally relevant and meaningful behaviour. interests and experiences. Make group learning activities
Relate learning to practical ideas and personal relevant, meaningful, and both process and product
experiences. Adapt content based on student responses oriented. Give students and student teams choice in
to capitalize on personal interests and motivation. learning activities. Foster student and group autonomy,
initiative, leadership, and active learning.
Conceptual Organization/Cognitive Framing:
Organize information around concepts, problems, Social Dialogue and Elaboration: Use activities with
questions, themes, and interrelationships, while framing multiple solutions, novelty, uncertainty, and personal
activities using thinking-related terminology (e.g., classify, interest to promote student-student and student-teacher
summarize, predict). dialogue, idea sharing and articulation of views. Seek
student elaboration on and justification of their
Prior Knowledge and Misconceptions: Adapt the responses with discussion, interactive questioning, and
cognitive demands of instructional tasks to students’ group presentations.
cognitive schemes, while building on prior knowledge.
Design lessons to address students’ previous Group Processing and Reflection: Encourage team as
misconceptions, for instance, by posing contradictions to well as individual reflection and group processing on
original hypotheses and then inviting responses. experiences.
Questioning: Promote student inquiry and conjecture Teacher Explanations, Support, and
with open-ended questions. Also, encourage student Demonstrations: Demonstrate problems steps and
question-asking behaviour and peer questioning provide hints, prompts, and cues for successful problem
(Individual Exploration). completion. Provide explanations, elaborations, and
clarifications where requested.
Generating Connections: Provide time for the
selection of instructional materials and the discovery of Multiple Viewpoints: Foster explanations, examples,
information, ideas, and relationships. Also, includes and multiple ways of understanding a problem or
encouraging students to generate knowledge difficult material. Build in a broad community of
connections, metaphors, personal insights, and build audiences beyond the instructor.
their own learning products. Collaboration and Negotiation: Foster student
Self-Regulated Learning: Foster opportunity for collaboration and negotiation of meaning, consensus
reflection on skills used to manage and control one’s building, joint proposals, prosocial behaviors, conflict
learning. Help students understand and become self- resolution, and general social interaction.
aware of all aspects of one’s learning, from planning to Learning Communities: Create a classroom ethos or
learning performance evaluation. Given the focus on atmosphere wherein there is joint responsibility for
individual mental activity, the importance of cooperative learning, students are experts and have learning
learning or peer interaction is in the modelling of and ownership, meaning is negotiated, and participation
support for new individual metacognitive skill. structures are understood and ritualized. Technology and
Assessment: Focus of assessment is on individual other resource explorations might be used to facilitate
cognitive development within predefined stages. Use of idea generation and knowledge building within this
authentic portfolio and performance-based measures community of peers. Interdisciplinary problem-based
with higher order thinking skill evaluation criteria or learning and thematic instruction in incorporated
scoring rubrics. wherever possible.
Assessment: Focus of assessment is on team as well as
Table 1: Developmental Constructivist Practices and
individual participation in socially organized practices
Principles and interactions. Educational standards are socially
negotiated. Embed assessment in authentic, real-world
tasks and problems with challenges and options. Focus
on collaboration, group processing, teamwork, and
sharing of findings. Assessment is continual, less, formal,
subjective, collaborative, and cumulative.
Table 2: Social Constructivistic Practices and
Principles
____________________________________________
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Summary of Epistomological Beliefs 2. Instructional Foundation
3. Technological Foundation
Over the past century, social psychologists have
taken a number of alternative approaches to 4. General Systems Foundation
explain how the mind acquires knowledge. One Based on findings and key concepts associated
extreme is characterized by an objectivist with each of the four foundations, various sets of
(positivist, logical empiricism) epistomology that design standards that can be used to help guide
suggests that reality is external to individuals and the development of on-line coursework and
is based on natural laws, physical properties and distance education programs, have been
their relationships. Objectivists believe that the generated.
mind processes symbols and mirrors reality, and
that thought is governed by, and reflects external
reality. Objectivists believe that meaning is Psychological Foundations
external to and independent of the understanding Psychological foundations reflect views on how
of individuals. The polar opposite of objectivism is individuals acquire, organize and deploy skills
interpretivism (constructivist, subjectivist). and knowledge. Some of the conclusions are:
Interpretists believe that knowledge is 1. DE students need to be active participants in
constructed. The mind interprets sensory data and the planning and evaluation of their learning
organizes it through active and dynamic processes
2. Experiences (including mistakes) form the
according to innate perceptual categories such as
bases for knowledge construction
numerosity and animacy. Furthermore,
interpretists emphasize concepts, such as 3. DE students are most interested in learning
perceptual relations (Gibson, 1966) and the subjects that have immediate relevance to
structure of language (Chomsky, 1965) that are their job or personal life
imposed upon the world by individuals. 4. DE students’ learning is problem centered
Interpretists believe that reality is internal to the rather than content-oriented
organism and that meaning is dependent on
5. DE students prefer to build on prior learning
individual understanding. An alternative to both
and experience
objectivism and interpretivism is pragmatism
(Driscoll, 1994). Moreover, it is generally believed, in contrast to
constructivist or positivist epistemologies, that
Pragmatists also believe that reality is
there is a true reality that is external to, but can not
"constructed." However, the meaning derived by
be known directly by humans. Knowledge,
individuals are believed to be negotiated within a
however, is thought to be provisional, not
social context. Unlike interpretists, pragmatists
absolute. It is considered that reality is
believe that individuals' reality is mediated by
"constructed" and that meaning derived by
their prior knowledge structures and their
individuals is negotiated within a social context.
interactions with the environment and with
An individual's reality is mediated by his or her
others. They believe that the mind builds symbols
prior knowledge structures and interactions with
and interprets nature, and that thought is
the environment and with others. It is believed
governed by individuals' perceptions that reflect
that the mind builds symbols and interprets
their internal reality. Pragmatists believe that
nature, and that thought is governed by an
meaning is constructed by individuals based on
individual's perception that reflects his or her
their interpretation and understanding of reality.
internal reality. Therefore, DE students are
A further comparison of objectivism, pragmatism
presented with a range of learner-centered and
and interpretivism (Driscoll, 1994) is given here
teacher-directed methods based on the desired
(Table 3).
learning outcomes, learners' prior knowledge and
For more extensive discussions of epistemological experience, and each faculty member's strengths
beliefs, interested readers are referred to the and beliefs.
works of von Glasersfeld (1989, 1981), House
Learner-centered methods are best suited for
(1980, 1983a, 1983b), Jonassen (1994, 1991), Lebow
facilitating learning of higher-order thinking skills
(1993) and Rorty (1991) among others.
and when students have prior knowledge of
_____________________________________ and/or experience with the subject matter. In
comparison, teacher-directed methods are
What is the relation with Design appropriate when teaching well defined sets of
Standards? procedures and when dealing with novice learners
who are totally unfamiliar with the content or
Distance education programs are grounded on instructional strategies. Furthermore, in several
research and theory in four basic foundations: cases, a combination of these strategies may be
1. Psychological Foundation
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applied successfully within a course, as well as human learning and behavior. In other words,
across courses within a program of study. there is no panacea. Therefore, we should not
However, some argue against the use of an limit ourselves to one particular theory,
eclectic approach (e.g., designing instruction from model or approach. Rather, we should be
multiple theoretical perspectives) because it is said working toward understanding the context
to strip concepts, strategies and tools of meaning and conditions for which different methods
and utility. "Problems arise ... when tools and means are best suited.
developing in the service of one epistemology are • The real proof, that either validates or refutes
integrated within instructional systems designed arguments for or against eclectic models of
to promote learning goals inconsistent with it" instruction, lie in student test scores and work
(Bonk & Cunningham, 1998, p. 25). samples, as well as attitude, motivation and
In contrary, others feel that an eclectic approach satisfaction measures. Theoretical and
based on a pragmatist epistemology is appropriate conceptual arguments are interesting,
for the design and delivery of on-line instruction particularly for academics and theoreticians,
for a number of reasons: but for students, if multiple methods and
means from differing theoretical perspectives
• Different theories have their own strengths results in positive attitudes, motivation,
and weaknesses, and continue to evolve. We learning and performance it would be
should not totally discard one just because difficult to argue against an eclectic approach
something new is trendy. For example, from a pragmatic standpoint.
behaviorist theories of human learning are
not necessary wrong, but rather fail to explain
certain phenomenon. Thus, cognitive Instructional Foundation
information processing and cognitive
Instruction emphasizes how information is
constructivist theories have developed to
conveyed to learners and focus on the activities,
explain a greater degree of variance.
methods, and structures of the environment that
Behaviorist theories, however, still clarify
are designed to facilitated learning. Principles
certain behaviors quite well. Thus, one could
associated with student-centered learning,
utilize the strengths of different approaches
situated cognition and performance assessments
when appropriate.
form the basic instructional foundations.
• Instructional strategies should be based on
Student-Centered Learning
desired learning outcome and learners' prior
knowledge, experience and interests. For
example, when teaching basic procedures
(simple algorithms), direct instruction may be
more efficient and appropriate than social-
constructivist approaches to teaching and
learning. In contrast, when the primary
learning objective is to have students'
critically analyze, interpret and apply an ill
defined body of research, constructivist
approaches may be more appropriate than
teacher-directed methods.
• Students differ in terms of learning
requirements and preferred learning
Figure 2.4: Student centered learning environment.
methods. To reach and satisfy as many
students as possible, different approaches
should be utilized when appropriate.
• Like students, instructors have their own
strengths, weaknesses and beliefs. Therefore,
instructors should also be able to apply what
is best suited to their teaching and
management style.
• Things change. We must stay abreast of
changes, remain flexible and adapt our
approaches accordingly to accommodate
these changes.
• There is no one set of principles or single
theory that explains everything related to Figure 2.5: Teacher centered learning environment.
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Figures 2.4 and 2.5 illustrate both student-centered Situated cognition suggests that learning is
and teacher-centered models of instruction. Under determined by both contextual and human factors.
the traditional teacher-centered approach, teachers For knowledge to be useful, it is believed that
serve as the center for epistemological authority, learning must be situated in authentic tasks to
directing the learning process and controlling enable transfer to similar situations. In short,
students' access to information. This model instruction should be embedded in real-life
evolved to increase the number of students contexts, and address issues that are familiar to
receiving instruction from an instructor; a students, and are relevant to their needs and
necessity during the agricultural and industrial interests. DE providers "situate" learning by
eras. Under this paradigm, students are treated as asking students to apply learned skills and
"empty vessels" and learning is viewed as an knowledge, develop work samples and complete
additive process with new information that is course assignments that are based on problems
geared to the "average" students is simply added confronted at their work setting.
on top of existing knowledge and everyone is Performance Assessment
forced to progress at the same pace. Family and
community members may contribute to student Concepts associated with performance assessment
learning, but rarely in any systematic fashion. represent the final basic instructional foundation.
Performance assessments differ from conventional
Research, however, indicates that students are not paper and pencil tests in two key respects. First,
empty vessels. They come to class with their own unlike conventional measures that tend to
perceptual frameworks and learn in different evaluate students' possession of knowledge,
ways. Learning is no longer viewed as a passive performance assessments judge students' ability to
process where static bodies of facts and formulas apply knowledge. Second, performance
are passed along to the uninitiated. Rather, assessments are used as an integral part of
learning is an active, dynamic process in which learning. Rather than sorting students, such
connections are constantly changing and the assessments tell students and their instructors
structure is continually reformatted. In short, how well they are developing their skills and
students construct their own meaning by talking, knowledge and what they need to do to develop
listening, writing, reading, and reflecting on them further. This provides students with profiles
content, ideas, issues and concerns. In student- of their emerging skills to help them become
centered environments, learners are given direct increasingly independent learners. The majority of
access to the knowledge base and work DE courses are project-based, asking students to
individually and in small groups to solve demonstrate their achievement of course
authentic problems. In such environments, parents standards by applying learned skills and
and community members also have direct access knowledge. Efforts are also concentrated in place
to teachers and the knowledge base, playing an to design, implement and evaluate a program
integral role in schooling process. wide portfolio assessment system.
Situated Cognition
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