A folded plate is an example of a 3-dimensional or space

structure. To consider the effectiveness of the folded plate look

at the following experiment.
When a thin sheet of paper rests between
two supports it will bend due to the fact
that it has insufficient strength to carry its
own weight.
If the same piece of paper is folded
then it will be capable of supporting
one hundred times its own weight.
If the load is increased past this point
then the structure will fail and the
folds will flatten out.
This problem can be rectified by
using transverse stiffeners at the
ends. The folded plate acts as a beam
and can support even greater loads.

Try this Experiment at home or in school, make sure to

use sheets of paper equal area.

Folded plates consist of straight

pieces joined with sharp edges. It
cannot be made as thin as a shell
due to the fact that it is subjected
to bending.
The result of this bending can
be seen in the animation
opposite.
Folded plates can be seen as a

space version of a rigid frame.

Folded plates are best formed
from reinforced concrete due
to the fact that they can be
easily cast. Folded plates can
take the form of frames as
seen above or domes.

Geodesic Domes.
Geodesic domes are an example of a curved space frame. They
were invented by R.Buckminster Fuller and as was seen in
section 1 Structures in Nature examples of Geodesic domes can
be found in nature. As was also discussed earlier, domes are not
an new development, they have
existed for hundreds of years. The
geodesic dome is referred to as a
braced dome due to the fact that
there are bracing members present
so that the dome keeps its shape.
The geodesic dome is made up of a network of triangles, this
results in the maximum amount of strength and rigidity being
obtained while using the minimum amount of materials.
The varying number of triangles is referred to as the frequency
and the higher the frequency the greater the resistance of the
structure to collapse.
Click on the icon to see how the different frequencies
change the shape of a Geodesic dome.
Geodesic domes can be constructed from metals or plastics and
they have many advantages.
Speed of construction - In 1955 he built domes for the air-force
and they only took fourteen hours to erect.
Size - the clear span of a dome constructed by Fuller in 1958
was 117m and it had a total weight of 12MN. If you then
compare this to St.Peter's Cathedral in Rome which has a
diameter of 40m and weighed 100MN.
Folded Plate Structure

a thin-walled building structure of the shell type. Folded plate structures consist of flat components, or
plates, that are interconnected at some dihedral angle. Structures composed of rectangular plates are
said to be prismatic. In modern construction practice the most widely used folded plate structures are
made of cast-in-situ or precast reinforced concrete (including prestressed and reinforced-cement
structures). The structures are used as roofs for industrial and public buildings.

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF SHELLS

The principal purposes for preliminary design of any structure is: (1) To obtain
quantities of materials for making estimates of cost. (2) Obtain a clear picture of the
structural action, (3) Establish the dimensions of the structure, and, (4) Use the
preliminary design as a check on the final design.

It is not expected that these preliminary design calculations be precise, but rather they
should be within an accepted tolerance. The worst way to start a design is to
immediately set up a finite element analysis. Any new type of structure requires an
extended lead time to obtain a thorough understanding of the structural action.

The discussion of preliminary analysis here, has been restricted to principals rather than
to presentation of calculations. Given these principals, the engineer should be able to set
up his own calculations. Do not try to design shells without a thorough study of the
relevant sections of the current American Concrete Association regulations. There are
differences from the normal structures.

Thickness of shells

The thickness of the slab elements are normally governed by the number of layers of
reinforcing bars. For shells of double curvature, there are usually only two layers so the
minimum thickness could be:

Two 3/8 in. bars, two 1/2 in. of cover equals 1.75 inches.

However a little tolerance should be added. For a barrel shell or a folded plate:

Two 1/2 in. bars, one 3/4 in. bar, two 1/2 in. of cover equals 2.75 in.

Of course, the concrete stresses should be checked, but they seldom control. Do not
think that a shell will be stronger if it is thicker than required.

For a description of the structural elements of the shells discussed here, the reader
should first study the presentations in Mark Ketchum's Types and Forms of Shell
Structures

Preliminary Design for Types of Shells

Barrel Shells
Folded Plates
Umbrella Shells
Four Gabled Hypars
Domes of Revolution
Translation Shells

BARREL SHELLS

First find the longitudinal and shear (diagonal tension) reinforcing required for a typical
interior element of the structure.

1. A barrel shells acts as a beam in the long direction and as an arch in the curved area.
The arch is supported by internal shears. Approximate values for the bending moments
in the arch are summarized in the following sketch.

2. The area of reinforcing is obtained by estimating the effective depth of the beam
element, from the center of reinforcing to the center of compression. The force in the
reinforcing is equal to the bending moment divided by the effective depth. It may
require several approximations to get a fair value. The area of reinforcing is, of course,
the force divided by the allowable stress.

3. The tension in the diagonal direction is determined first by equating the longitudinal
force to the shear forces.

4. The sum of the shearing forces equals the longitudinal forces. Let S equal the unit
shear at the end of the beam. Then: S times the width of the shell times the length
divided by 4 equals the longitudinal force.

If there are no other forces on an element at the neutral axis of the beam, then the
diagonal tension equals the shear. From this information, a pattern of diagonal tension
bars can be constructed.

5. The horizontal reaction of the arch elements of the shell must be contained by an
rigid frame and a horizontal tie. Assume that this is simply a wide arch equal to half of
the span. An approximation for the horizontal force would be equal to the load per foot
on this arch times the arch span, squared divided by 8 and the rise. The thrust in the
arch can be determined from this and the vertical reaction.

6. The edge spans of the shell should be supported by intermediate columns. The
stiffness of a barrel shell at the outside edges is simply not stiff or strong enough to
carry the required loads. The shell reinforcing at the edge members acts more like a
typical arch and should be reinforced with two layers of bars.

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FOLDED PLATES

The design of folded plate roof structures follows the design of barrel shells, but is
much simpler because the elements are all essentially beams.

1. Support the folded plate at its longitudinal edges by frequent columns as was
suggested for barrel shells.

2. Analyse and design the slab element as a continuous beam on fixed supports,
including the first spans, normally a simple support. If it is haunched, then as a
continuous haunched beam.

3. Design a typical longitudinal interior element as a beam by the usual methods.

4. Support the ends of the folded plates by rigid frames. In this case the frames are
loaded by the shear forces from the slab element and are in the plane of the frame
members.

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UMBRELLA SHELLS

Following is a sketch of a typical inverted umbrella hypar. The principal elements are:
• The shell element with stresses predicted by the membrane equation.
• The interior rib created by the intersection of the shell elements.
• The exterior rib supporting the shell, particularly in the exterior corners
• The cental column and the connection to the shell.

The membrane equation for a hypar gives the direct stresses in the shell:

Shear = Tension = wab/2f,

where w = unit load, a and b = the dimensions of the individual panel, and f is
the vertical height of the panel.

These loads are transfered directly to the supporting ribs through shear, and are
used to design the ribs. The internal ribs are in compression and the external ribs
are in tension. In both cases, the direct stress varies from zero at the edges to
maximum at the center.

If the external ribs are placed above the shell then the edge member will be
prestressed in positive moment and the edge of the shell will tend to deflect
upward which is most desirable. It is also desirable to design this member for
the additional weight of the edge member. The deflection at the end of the rib is
critical.

The central column should be designed for some unbalanced load. The
connection to the shell defies analysis, but tests by the Portland Cement
Association have proved the strength of these types of joints. Be sure to include
adequate reinforcing for any contingency.

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FOUR GABLED HYPARS

The design of this structure follows, with exceptions, the design of the umbrella
hypar. Please refer to the previous example. The sketch shows the essential
elements:

The shell acts as an arch in one direction and as a catenary in the other. The
membrane theory would predict that the stresses would be the same but of
different sign. Studies by the finite element method have demonstrated that if
the abutments are fixed, the compression stresses are greater, but if the
abutments move because of, for example, a steel tie stretching, then the catenary
stresses are larger. Which brings us to the conclusion that for the first case it
would be advisable to increase the thickness of the shell near the supports to
take the load off the rib elements.

The top ridge member is in compression and may require additional area above
that of the shell. This is a long compression member and is free to deflect
downward with the possibility of ultimate buckling, (Which has happened.) It is,
therefore, advisable to camber this member upward to offset this tendency.

The slanting side ribs are also in compression and to some extent in bending,
and sould be designed for some of the weight of the rib, say one quarter for a
start.

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DOMES OF REVOLUTION
The rules described are suitable for domes of revolution of any configuration or
variable thickness, not just cylindrical domes. The steps are as follows:

o Determine the total weight, P, above a series of horizontal sections

o The total vertical stress,V, at any section will be equal to the vertical
force, P.
o The radial force at any section can be obtained for the freebody diagram
for an element as shown in the sketch. The symbol, Z, is perpendicular
to the element. For a cylindrical dome the radial force can be obtained
form the equation:

(T(vertical) + T(horizontal))/R = Z

o If the shell is not vertical, or nearly vertical, at the base, then a ring beam
will be required. The force in the ring beam is obtained from the
horizontal component, H, of the force at the base as shown in the sketch,
and the cylinder formula: P = HR, where R is the horizontal radius of the
shell.
o There will be some bending moment at the junction of the shell and the
ring beam, so it is usual to gradually increase the thickness at this point
and add moment reinforcing.

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TRANSLATION SHELLS

The translation shell is simply a square dome as shown by the sketch. The shape
is generated by a curve moving along another curve. If the curves are circles,
then every vertical section is the same. The dome is usually supported by arches.
There are three principal design areas:

o The central dome area which is designed like a spherical dome.

o The corners where there is considerable tension from the ring beam
affect.
o The arches which take their share of the total load. They are loaded in
shear including the weight of the arches themselves.

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The main advantage of folded plate structures over other shells (such as cylindrical) is the simplicity of
manufacture. Approximate static calculations of folded plate structures are based on the membrane
theory of shells; more exact static calculations are based on limit equilibrium and on P. L. Pasternak’s and
V. Z. Vlasov’s general theory of shells.