K.

S SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE

BUILDING STRUCTURES
SEMESTER 5

INDRAJA RM
CONTENT:
 Long span structures.

 Types of long span structure

 Portal frame

 Planar Truss

 Arch and vault

 Dome structure

 Vierendeel truss

 Space truss

 Concrete shell structure

 Fabric structure

 Cable and suspension structures

 Airplane Hangar
LONG SPAN STRUCTURES
 Structure with span larger than 20m can be regarded as long span structure for
this span is usually unable to be achieved by ordinary RC structure.

MATERIALS SUITABLE FOR VARIOUS FROMS OF LONGSPAN

 All reinforced concrete including

 Precast
 Mild-steel
 Structural steel
 Stainless steel or Alloyed aluminium
 Timber
 Plastic-coated Textile material
 Fibre reinforced plastic

TYPES OF LONG SPAN STRUCTURES:

 Long span Beams

 Long span Trusses
 Long span Roof structures
LONG SPAN BEAMS
The use of long span beams results in a range of benefits, including flexible, column-
free internal spaces, reduced foundation costs, and reduced steel erection times. Many
long span solutions are also well adapted to facilitate the integration of services without
increasing the overall floor depth.

TYPES OF LONG SPAN BEAMS

 Composite Beam with Web openings

 Tapered Girders
 Stub girder
 Hunched Composite beams
 Composite trusses
 parallel beam approach
PARALLEL BEAM APPROACH :

The parallel beam approach is effective for spans up to around 14 m. Floor grids
comprise two layers of fully continuous beams running in orthogonal directions.

COMPOSITE BEAMS WITH WEB OPENINGS :

Web openings are typically formed in beams to allow services to pass through the
beam, reducing the effective overall depth of floor construction for a given spanning
capability or for aesthetic reasons Span : 10 to 16 m.
TAPERED GIRDERS :

Tapered girders can be a cost effective solution in the span range 10 m to 20 m. They
are another solution that allows services to be accommodated within the structural
floor zone.

STUB GIRDER :

Stub girders are a Vierendeel form of truss. The bottom chord is typically formed
from a shallow open section (H-beam), on which sit short lengths (stubs) of deeper I –
sections.
HAUNCHED COMPOSITE BEAMS :

Haunches may be added at the ends of a composite beam to provide moment

continuity. The stiffness and strength of the connections mean that the rest of the span
can be shallower and services passed under it.

COMPOSITE TRUSSES:

Composite trusses, which use the concrete slab as the upper chord in the final state,
can achieve spans in excess of 20m. This means they have been used when very long
spanning capability was needed.
LONG SPAN ROOF STRUCTURES :

PORTAL FRAMES:

 A portal frame building comprises a series of transverse frames braced

longitudinally.
 The primary steelwork consists of columns and rafters, which form portal
frames, and bracing.
 The end frame (gable frame) can be either a portal frame or a braced
arrangement of columns and rafters.
 The light gauge secondary steelwork consists of side rails for walls and purlins
for the roof.
 The secondary steelwork supports the building envelope, but also plays an
important role in restraining the primary steelwork.
 Portal frames can span from 20-100m.
USES OF PORTAL FRAMES

 Portal Frames are generally used for single storey construction which require a
large unobstructed floor space

A. Factories

B. Shopping Centers

C. Warehouses

 They are very efficient for enclosing large volumes, therefore they are often used
for industrial, storage, retail and commercial applications as well as for
agricultural purposes.

TYPES OF PORTAL FRAME

 Pitched Roof Symmetric Portal Frame

 Portal Frame With Internal Mezzanine Floor
 Crane portal frame with column brackets
 Tied portal frame
  Mono-pitch portal frame
 Cellular beam portal frame
 Mansard portal frame
 Curved rafter portal frame
 Propped portal frame

Pitched Roof Symmetric Portal Frame:

Generally fabricated from UKB sections with a substantial eaves haunch section,
which may be cut from a rolled section or fabricated from plate. 25 to 35 m is the most
efficient span.

Portal Frame with Internal Mezzanine Floor:

Floor Office accommodation is often provided within a portal frame structure using a
partial width mezzanine floor.

Crane portal frame with column brackets:

Where a travelling crane of relatively low capacity (up to say 20 tons) is required,
brackets can be fixed to the columns to support the crane rails.
Tied portal frame:

In a tied portal frame the horizontal movement of the eaves and the bending moments
in the columns and rafters are reduced.

Mono-pitch portal frame:

It is a simple variation of the pitched roof portal frame, and tends to be used for
smaller buildings (up to 15 m span)

Cellular beam portal frame:

Rafters may be fabricated from cellular beams for aesthetic reasons or when providing
long spans
Mansard portal frame:

A mansard portal frame may be used where a large clear height at mid-span is
required but the eaves height of the building has to be minimised.

Curved rafter portal frame:

Portal frames may be constructed using curved rafters, mainly for architectural
reasons

Propped portal frame:

Where the span of a portal frame is large and there is no requirement to provide a
clear span, a propped portal frame can be used to reduce the rafter size and also the
horizontal shear at the foundations

BASIC COMPOSITION

 The portal structure is designed in such a way that it has no intermediate

columns.
 A portal frame building comprises a series of transverse frames braced
longitudinally.
 The primary steelwork consists of columns and pitched rafters.
 The light gauge secondary steelwork consists of side rails for walls and purlins
for the roof.
 The roof and wall cladding separate the enclosed space from the external
environment as well as providing thermal and acoustic insulation.

Types of joints
 BASE JOINT FOR PORTAL FRAME
  RIDGE JOINT FOR PORTAL FRAME

 KNEE JOINT FOR PORTAL FRAME

ADVANTAGES
  Speed and ease of erection Building can be quickly closed in and made water
tight.
 Framework prefabricated in a workshop and not affected by weather.
 Site works such as drainage, roads etc can be carried out until framework is
ready for erection.
 No weather hold up during erecting the framework
 Connected together in factories by welding and site connections should be bolted.
 Cost effectiveness
 Sustainability
 Saves time
 Capable taking loads immediately

DISADVANTAGES

 Although steel is incombustible it has a poor resistance to fire as it bends easily

when hot.
 Subject to corrosion

PLANAR TRUSS
A truss is essentially a triangulated system of straight interconnected structural
elements. The most common use of trusses is in buildings, where support to roofs, the
floors and internal loading such as services and suspended ceilings, are readily
provided.

Types of Long Span Trusses:

  Pratt Truss
 Warren Truss
 North Light Truss
 Saw Tooth Truss
 Fink Truss

Pratt Truss:

Pratt trusses are commonly used in long span buildings ranging from 20 to 75 m in
span. In a conventional Pratt truss, diagonal members are in tension for gravity loads.
This type of truss is used where gravity loads are predominant. An alternative Pratt
truss is shown where the diagonal members are in tension for uplift loads. This type of
truss is used where uplift loads are predominant, which may be the case in open
buildings .

Warren Truss:

In this type of truss, diagonal members are alternatively in tension and in compression.
The Warren truss has equal length compression and tension web members, and fewer
members than a Pratt truss. A modified Warren truss may be adopted where
additional members are introduced to provide a node at (for example) purlin locations.
Warren trusses are commonly used in long span buildings ranging from 20 to 100 m in
span. This type of truss is also used for the horizontal truss of gantry/crane girders.
North Light Truss:

North light trusses are traditionally used for short spans in industrial workshop-type
buildings. They allow maximum benefit to be gained from natural lighting by the use of
glazing on the steeper pitch which generally faces north or north-east to reduce solar
gain. On the steeper sloping portion of the truss, it is typical to have a truss running
perpendicular to the plane of the North Light truss, to provide large column-free
spaces

Fink Truss:

The Fink truss offers economy in terms of steel weight for short-span high-pitched
roofs as the members are subdivided into shorter elements. There are many ways of
arranging and subdividing the chords and internal members. This type of truss is
commonly used to construct roofs in houses .

LOAD Compression Tension the chords and members of a truss bridge experience
strain in the form of tension (stretching apart) and compression (squeezing together).
Engineers often picked different types of materials and designs for the different parts
of a bridge based on these forces. lie in a single plane and are often used to support
roofs and bridges. In roof trusses, the roof load is transmitted to the truss at the joints
by means of a series of purlins.
ADVANTAGES OF STEEL TRUSSES

 100% non-combustible
 Long clear-span capabilities
 Lightweight
 Pre-engineered and pre-fabricated by truss professionals
 Extremely strong
 The structure of interconnecting triangles means that the load-bearing capacity
of truss bridges is huge.
 The structure effectively manages both compression and tension, by spreading
out the load from the roadway throughout its intricate structure. This means that
no one part of the structure is carrying a disproportionate amount of weight. Sort
of a ‘chain is only as strong as its weakest link type of situation.
 Uses materials effectively
 Withstands extreme conditions
 Where other bridges such as beam and arch bridges may not be a viable option,
truss bridges come into their own. They are able to span great lengths, and often
used in precarious locations such as deep ravines between mountaintops. You’ll
regularly see truss bridges in use throughout mountainous areas to carry
railways
 Roadways built on to the structure
 Unlike other bridge designs, the truss bridge is able to carry its roadway on its
structure. The load can be carried above (deck truss), along the middle (through
truss) or on a bottom truss, which sits below the major truss structure. The
options make the truss bridge both versatile and economical to build.

DISADVANTAGES OF STEEL TRUSSES

 Requires a lot of space

 The structure of a truss bridge is, by design, large. The interconnecting
triangular components need to be large in order to bear and distribute heavy
loads. This means that in certain restricted spaces, the truss bridge may not be
the best option
 High maintenance costs
 Economies of scale! The truss bridge uses a LOT of parts. Each of these are
relatively light, and used effectively within the design, which means that if you’re
building a huge truss bridge it is economically sensible. However—the
maintenance costs of so many parts can be expensive. A truss bridge, like any
load-bearing structure, will require regular and detailed maintenance. So many
 parts to look after can mean that this is expensive—not to mention time
consuming.
 They’re heavy

ARCH
An Arch is a structure constructed of wedge-shaped unit. It spans an opening to
support the weight of the wall and other superimpose load

 Intrados: - This is an inner curve of an arch.

 Extrados:- Outer Curve of an arch
 Soffit: - Inner Surface of an arch.
 Voussoirs: - These are wedge shaped units.
 Crown:- Highest part of extrados
 Spandril: - Curved triangular space form between extrados and horizontal line.
 Key: - Wedge-shaped unit fixed at the crown of the arch.
 Skew back:- It is inclined or splayed surface on the abutment.
 Springing points:- These are the points from which the curve of the arch spring.
 Springing line:- It is an imaginary line joining the springing point of either ends
 Abutment:-End point of an Arch.
 Springer:- It is the first voussoir at springing level.
 Pier:-Intermediate support of an archade.
 Arcade:- It is a row of arches in continuation.
 Haunch:-Lower half of the arch between the crown and skew back
 Ring:-It is the circular course forming an arch.
 Impost:- It is the projecting course at upper part of pier or abutment to stress the
springing line.
  Bed Joint:-Joints between the Voussoirs which radiate from centre.
 Centre or Stricking Point:- This is geometrical centre point from where the arc
forming the extrados, arc rings, intrados.
 Span:-Clear horizontal distance between the supports

LOAD TRANSFER

The wedge action of the keystone allows it to transfer vertical loads to each side using
compression only, and subsequently, each voussoir pushes on the one next to it.
Masonry arches are inherently unstable and tend to collapse when there are four or
more hinges. Therefore, to improve the stability of the arch, masonry walls are
conjoining built.
CLASSIFICATION OF ARCHES BASED ON

 Shape
 Number of Centers
 Workmanship and Material Used

BASED ON SHAPE
Flat Arch: Forms an equilateral triangle with intrados as base( at an angle of 60°) Used
only for light loads Weakest Arch

Segmental Arch: Centre of Arch lies below springing line. Thrust transferred to the
abutment is in inclined direction. Most Common type of Arch
Semi-circular Arch: Centre Lie on Springing line Shape of the arch is Semi-circular
Thrust transferred to the abutment is perfectly in vertical direction

Horse Shoe Arch: The arch has the shape of a horse shoe. Incorporating more than a
semi-circle. Mainly used for Architectural consideration.
 Pointed Arch: Also known as Gothic Arch. It consist two arc of the circle meeting at
apex. Triangle form may be equilateral or isosceles (also known as Lancet Arch)

Venetian Arch: This is another form of Pointed Arch. Has deeper depth at crown than
springing. It has four centres located on springing line.
Florentine Arch:This is similar to Venetian Arch. Its intrados is a semicircle. It has
three centers located on springing line

SEMI ELLIPTICAL ARCH

An arch having the shape of half an ellipse; in its construction, the ellipse is
often approximated by three adjoining circular arcs.

OGEE ARCH

An arch with two ogee curves meeting at the apex.

STILTED ARCH: Stilted Arch consists of a semi-circular arch with two vertical portions
at the springing’s

BASED ON NUMBER OF CENTRES

ONE CENETRED
Segmental, semi-circular, flat, horse-shoe arches and stilted arches are one centered
arches. In some cases, perfectly circular arch is provided for circular windows which is
called as bull’s eye arch is also come under these category

TWO CENTERED

Pointed or gothic or lancet arches are generally come under this type.

THREE CENTERED

Semi elliptical and Florentine arches are generally having three number of
centers
FOUR CENTERED
Venetian arch is a typical example for four-centered arch. Tudor arch is also
having four centers.
FIVE CENTERED

A good semi-elliptical shape arch contains five centers

BASED ON MATERIALS AND WORKMANSHIP

STONE ARCH

 RUBBLE
  Rubble arches are very weak and used only for inferior work.
 These are used up to spans of 1m.
 These are made of rubble stones which are hammer dressed, roughly to shape
 and size and fixed in cement mortar

 ASHLAR

 In this type, the stones are cut to proper shape of voussoirs (a wedge-shaped or
tapered stone used to construct an arch) and fully dressed, joined with cement
mortar. Ashlar stones are also used to make flat arches

BRICK ARCHES
 ROUGH BRICK ARCHES

AXED BRICK ARCHES

PURPOSE MADE BRICK

ARCHES

GUAGED BRICK ARCHES

CONCRETE ARCHES
 PRECAST CONCRETE ARCHES

In Precast concrete block arches the blocks are cast in molds to the exact shape
and size of voussoirs

 MONOLITHIC CONCRETE ARCHES

Monolithic concrete block arches are suitable for larger span. These are
constructed form cast-in-situ concrete
VAULT
Vault is an arched structure, usually of masonry, used as ceiling or canopy or as a
support for the roof. Masonry walls are composed of wedge shaped pieces called
voussiors, which are held in place by the pressure of the neighbouring pieces

 Vault is an architectural term for an arched form used to provide a space with a
ceiling or roof.
 A temporary supporting structure must be erected within the vaulted area
during the construction.

ELEMENTS OF VAULTS

 ABUTMENT A structure built to support the lateral pressure of an arch or span,

e.g. at the ends of a bridge.
 IMPOST Top course of a pillar or a wall that supports the arch or vault.
 INTRADOS Inner curve of an a arch or vault.
 VOUSSIOR A wedge shaped or tapered stone used to construct an arch or a
vault
TYPES OF VAULTS

 BARREL VAULT
 GROIN VAULT
 RIBBED VAULT
 FAN VAULT
 Cloister vault
 Net vault
 Annular vault
 Rampant vault
 Catalan vault


BARREL VAULT

 Barrel vault is an architectural element formed by the extrusion of a single curve

along a given distance.
 A barrel vault is generally semi-circular in cross section .
 The barrel vault is the simplest form of a vault ,effectively a series of arches
placed side by side, i.e., one after another..
 The barrel vault is the most straight forward single curvature shell construction.
 Any number of continuous spans are possible but sufficient gaps should be given .
 Two types of barrel vaults :
 long span barrel vaults
 short span barrel vaults
GROIN VAULT

The word “groin” refers to the edge between the intersecting vaults. A Groin vault is
created by two barrel vaults intersecting at right angles. The arches of vaults are
rounded or pointed. A Groin vault also known as a Double Barrel vault.

Characteristics of Groin vault- Sometime the arches of groin vaults are pointed instead
of round.

 The groin vault required great skills in cutting stone to from a neat arris.
 Difficult to construct neatly because of the geometry of cross groins.
 In comparison with a barrel vault, a groin vault provides good economies of
material and labour. The construction of groin vault can be understood most
simply by visualizing two barrel vault section at right angles merging to form a
squarish unit.
 Arris is the sharp edge formed by the intersection of two surfaces, such as the
corner of a masonry unit. An arris rail is a structural element, whose cross
section is a 45 degree isosceles right angled triangle. Arris rails are usually made
of wood, and are manufactured by cutting a length of squar e-section timber
lengthwise diagonally
RIB VAULT

 Ribbed vault is defined as the intersection of two or three barrel vaults. Rib vaults is
reinforced by masonry ribs.

Types of
Rib vault: There are two types of rib vault.

 1.Quadripartite rib vault : When two masonry ribs dividing into 4 sections.
 2.Sexpartite rib vault: When three masonry ribs dividing into 6 sections.

Characteristics of Rib vault –

 When the Ribbed vault are edged with an armature of piped masonry often
carved in decorative patterns.
 Some ribbed vaults even have six section in each bay. It is best for roofing
purpose.
FAN VAULT

 A fan vault is a form of vault used in the Gothic style, in which the ribs are all of
the same curve and spaced equidistantly, in a manner resembling a fan.
 Structure : The ribs of a fan vault are of equal curvature and rotated at equal
distances around a central (vertical) axis, forming the conoid shape which gives
rise to the name. In between sequences of conoids, flat central spandrels fill the
space.
DOMES
The dome is essentially an arch rotated around a centre point 180 degrees. A group
of arches conjoined radially around a vertical axis.
Materials used

 Bricks, mud, stone, glass, wood, metal, plastic, concrete

Load transfer:

 The generic form of the dome provides substantial resistance to wind loads that
may act on the structure.
 The snow loads and live loads are exceedingly minimal and have close to 0%
impact on the structure.
 Since the dome is customarily used as a roof structure atop which there are no
live loads acting, the effect of the live loads on the structure might, as well, not be
considered
 This means that the primary load that needs to be considered is the dead load,
and secondarily, the seismic load.
 The structural response of domes is complex, and protecting domes from
earthquakes by conventional strengthening methods is not always reliable. Seismic
isolation protection of domed structures is practicable and feasible.

TYPES OF DOMES
Crossed-arch Dome: Ribs intersect one another off center, forming an empty polygonal
space at the center. Found in Spain, North Africa, Armenia, Iran, France and Italy

Geodesic Dome: Upper portion of geodesic spheres. Composed of a framework of

triangles in a polyhedron pattern. Efficiency increases with size.

 Hemispherical dome: Half of a sphere

Onion dome: Bulge out beyond base diametres, offering a profile greater than a
hemisphere with a pointed top.

Oval Dome: Oval in shape and profile. Combination of circular arcs, transitioning at
points of tangency. Romans created these in exceptional circumstances. Medieval oval
domesaremostly found to be covering rectangular bays in churches.

Parabolic Dome: Unique structure Bending stress due to the uniformly distributed load
of it’s “dead load is zero.

 Sail Dome: Dome gives an impression of a same sail pinned down at each corner and
billowing upward.

Saucer Dome: Segmental Domes Reduce the portion of dome intension. Strong and
have increased radial thrust. Masonry saucer domes, because they exist entirely in
compression, can be built much thinner than other dome shapes without becoming
unstable.

Umbrella Dome: Pumpkin, melon or organ piped dome Divided at the base into
segments, which follow the curve of the elevation

Advantages

 very strong shape , gets strong as the dome size inccreasis

 perfect load distribution
 no need for structural supports
 domes are energy efficient concrete, which conduts and holds heat easily, absords
the differences in the interior temperature over the day. Dauring the night, the
concrete radiates energy back into the interior

Disadvantages

 unusable spaces
 doors and windows – either male or special or der has to be given
CASE STUDY
EDEN PROJECT

 The Eden project is a popular visitor attraction in Cornwall, England, UK.

o Inside the two biomes are plants that are collected from many diverse
climates and environments.
o The project is located in a reclaimed china clay pit, located 2 km (1.2 mi)
from the town of St Blazey and 5 km (3 mi) from the larger town of St
Austell.
o The complex is dominated by two huge enclosures consisting of adjoining
domes that house thousands of plant species, and each enclosure emulates a
natural biome.
o The biomes consist of hundreds of hexagonal and pentagonal, inflated,
plastic cells supported by steel frames.
o The Tropical Biome, covers 1.56 ha (3.9 acres) and measures 55 m (180 ft)
high, 100 m (328 ft) wide, and 200 m (656 ft) long. It is used for tropical
plants, such as fruiting banana plants, coffee, rubber and giant bamboo,
and is kept at a tropical temperature and moisture level.

The Tropical Biome

 The Mediterranean Biome covers 0.654 ha (1.6 acres) and measures 35 m (115 ft)
high, 65 m (213 ft) wide, and 135 m (443 ft) long. It houses familiar warm
temperate and arid plants such as olives and grape vines and various sculptures.
 The covered biomes are constructed from a tubular steel (hex-tri-hex) with
mostly hexagonal external cladding panels made from the thermoplastic ETFE.
 Glass was avoided due to its weight and potential dangers. The cladding panels
themselves are created from several layers of thin UV-transparent ETFE film,
which are sealed around their perimeter and inflated to create a large cushion.
 The resulting cushion acts as a thermal blanket to the structure. The ETFE
material is resistant to most stains, which simply wash off in the rain.
 If required, cleaning can be performed by abseilers. Although the ETFE is
susceptible to punctures, these can be easily fixed with ETFE tape.
 The structure is completely self-supporting, with no internal supports, and takes
the form of a geodesic structure.
 The panels vary in size up to 9 m (29.5 ft) across, with the largest at the top of the
structure.
VIERENDEEL TRUSS:
This style of structure was named after the Belgian engineer Arthur Vierendeel, who
developed the design in 1896.

The Vierendeel girder design is sometimes adopted in the design of footbridges. The
Vierendeel truss/girder is characterized by having only vertical members between the
top and bottom chords and is a statically indeterminate structure. Hence, bending,
shear and axial capacity of these members contribute to the resistance to external
loads. The use of this girder enables the footbridge to span larger distances and present
an attractive outlook. However, it suffers from the drawback that the distribution of
stresses is more complicated than normal truss structures.

Load Distribution

The forces that act on this truss are:

• Bending forces
• Shear forces
• Axial forces

Tension and compression Vierendeel trusses are moment resisting. Vertical members
near the supports are subject to the highest moment and therefore require large
sections to be used then those at mid span.

Considerable bending moments must therefore be transferred between the verticals

and the chords which can result in expensive stiffened details.
A vierendeel truss is usually constructed with reinforced concrete, but also may be
fabricated with structural steel.

The external loads are supported by means of a the flexural resistance of short heavy
members. The continuous moment-resisting joints cause the trusses to be statically
indeterminate.

For many vierendeel trusses- particularly those that are several stories height- than the
horizontal members may be much larger and stiffer than the other horizontal
members. To get better results with the portal or cantilever methods, the non-
uniformity of sizes should be taken into account by assuming that more shearing force
is carried by the stiffer members.

Advantages

 The joints may be heavy but the absence of diagonals makes this form suitable
for storey height construction.
 Using standard computer programs the analysis is not difficult, however the
system allows full storey height construction without obstruction to openings.

Disadvantages

 They are usually more expensive than the conventional truses.

 Their use is limited to instances where the diagonal web members are either
obtrusive or undesirable.
 The resulting joints are often very heavy in appearance.
CASE STUDY
Docks Malraux / Heintz-Kehr architects

 ArchitectsHeintz-Kehr architects
 LocationStrasbourg, France
 Architect in ChargeGeorges Heintz, Anne-Sophie Kehr
 Design TeamPascal Philbert, Marc Rickling
 Area11600.0 sqm
 Project Year2014
 This metallic exoskeleton, inspired by the port rhetoric, reinterprets in a
contemporary way the grid and features of the existing building, the new part
just has skin (of glass) and bones (of steel). The huge cantilever (15m) on the
western facade, structured by its 6 truss beams (vierendeel) - 30m long and 9m
high - shelters the central piazza of the area
 If the oversizing of the existing concrete structure eased the loads transfer, the
seismic upgrade to compliance of the whole building called for a micro-chirurgy
on the structure : widening of expansion joints, creation of seismic shear walls
(7mx1m, 5-storeys height),
 The underpinning foundation upgrade was an experimental première in Europe :
2m wide and 14m deep jet-grouting columns in which were stucked 4 petroleum
metallic tube filled with concrete. Structure-related costs represent as much as
50% of the global construction cost (usually it is around 30-35%)
 On ground floor, where large bricks fillings were replaced with huge glass panels
and large heights glass doors (3.70m), the existing building hosts restaurants, and
their terraces show the former altimetry docks, a base for the new recomposition.
SPACE TRUSS
A three-dimensional structures. The assembled linear elements are arranged to
transfer the load.

Take a form of a flat surface or curve surface.

Designed with no intermediate columns to create large open area.

Examples:

 SPORTS ARENAS
 EXHIBITION PAVILIONS
 ASSEMBLY HALLS
 TRANSPORTATION TERMINALS
 AIRPLANE HANGARS WORKSHOPS,
 WAREHOUSES ENCLOSURES

Load Distribution:

FLEXING LOADS (BENDING MOMENTS) ARE TRANSMITTED AS TENSION

AND COMPRESSION LOADS ALONG THE LENGTH OF EACH STRUT.
Types
Advantages

 Light
 Elegant & Economical
 Carry load by three dimensional action
 High Inherent Stiffness
 Easy to construct
 Save Construction Time & Cost
 Services (such as lighting and air conditioning) can be integrated with
space frames
 Offer the architect unrestricted freedom in locating supports and planning
the subdivision of the covered space.

 Disadvantages
 One major disadvantage is that they can be difficult to engineer. It's not
straightforward to determine how forces will distribute throughout a
structure that has a lot of redundant pieces.

CASE STUDY
Tokyo Tatsumi International Swimming Center

Inspired by the image of a bird soaring on its wings, the roof is consisted with 5 curved
surfaces of different heights. The curved steel pipe space-truss generates arch-effect,
maximizing the rigidity of the roof.

When entering this place, you will see the main pool, and a pool companion. The main
pool has seating for thousands of spectators. Two 50-meter pools plus a large diving
facility. Locker rooms are nice and spacious.

• Completion: 1993

• Floor: 3 floors above, 2 floors below

• Total floor area: 22,319.269m²

• Structure: Reinforced Concrete structure / Steel Reinforced Concrete structure,

Steel pipe space-truss (roof)

• Client: Bureau of Port and Harbor Tokyo Metropolitan Government

• Total Design: Mitsuru Senda + Environment Design Institute

• Structural Design: KKE

CONCRETE SHELL STRUCTURE
Shell is a type of building enclosures.

 Shells belong to the family of arches . They can be defined as curved or angled
structures capable of transmitting loads in more than two directions to supports.
 A shell with one curved surface is known as a vault (single curvature ).
 A shell with doubly curved surface is known as a dome (double curvature).

Types of concrete shells:

 The material which the shell is made of: like reinforced concrete, plywood or
steel, because each one has different properties that can determine the shape of
the building and therefore, these characteristics have to be considered in the
design.

 The shell thickness:  shells can be thick or thin.

Thin concrete shells:

The thin concrete shell structures are a lightweight construction composed of a

relatively thin shell made of reinforced concrete, usually without the use of internal
supports giving an open unobstructed interior. The shells are most commonly domes
and flat plates, but may also take the form of ellipsoids or cylindrical sections, or some
combination thereof.
Types of thin concrete shells:

 Barrels shells
 Folded plate
 Hyperbolic Paraboloid (Hypar)
 Various Double Curvature
 Dome
 Translation Shells

Barrels shells:

The cylindrical thin shells, also called barrels, should not be confused with the vaults
even with the huge similarity in the shape of both structures, because each of these
structures have a different structural behavior as well as different requirements in the
minimum thickness and the shape

The structural behavior of the barrels shell is that it carries load longitudinally as a
beam and transversally as an arch. and therefore, the materials have to resist both
compression and tension stresses.
Folded plate:

A thin-walled building structure of the shell type

Advantages of Folded Plate Roofs:

 Movable form work can be employed.

 Form work required is relatively simpler.
 Design involves simpler calculations.

Disadvantages of Folded Plate Roofs:

 Folded plate consumes more material than shells.

 Form work may be removed after 7 days whereas in case of shells it can be little

earlier.
CASE STUDY
Bosjes Chapel / Steyn Studio

 Architects Steyn Studio

 Location Breederiver Valley, R43, Witzenberg Municipality, South Africa
 Area 430.0 m2
 Project Year 2016
 the crisp white form is conceived as a lightweight, and dynamic structure which
appears to float within the valley. A reflective pond emphasises the apparent
weightlessness of the structure. Elevated upon a plinth, the chapel rises from the
flat land its sits upon, providing a hierarchical focal point within its
surroundings.
 In order to keep the structural form of the roof and assembly space pure, other
elements of the buildings functional programme are either hidden within the
plinth, or discretely within the outer corners of the surrounding garden.

FABRIC STRUCTURES:
The term tensile structures describes the category of buildings in which the load
bearing capacity is achieved through tension stress in the majority of the components,
such as cables, technical fabrics or foils.

•It can also be defined as a structure where the exterior shell is a fabric material spread
over a framework. The fabric is maintained in tension in all directions to provide
stability.

•The only exception is represented by rigid boundaries and structural members which
are generally subjected to compression and bending. Fabric structures are considered a
sub-category of tensile structure.
TYPES OF FABRIC STRUCTURE:

 Saddle roof
 Mast supported
 Arch supported
 Combinations Types of Fabric
Structures `

Saddle roof :

Four or more point system when the

fabric is stretched between a set of
alternating high and low points.

Mast supported:

Tent-like in appearance, mast

supported structures typically have
one or sometimes several peaks that
are supported by either interior or
perimeter masts.

•The fabric is attached to the interior

mast by special connections, usually a
bale ring or cable loop.
•Mast-supported structures can also be supported by adjacent buildings. The peaks of
a mast supported structure are determined by the design and how the fabric is
attached.

•Openings are typically ovoid or elliptical. The fabric that extends from the top of the
opening is seamed and can necessitate patterning.

•Mast supported systems are suitable for long span roofs.

Arch supported:

•Curved compression members are used as the

main supporting elements and cross arches are
used for lateral stability.

•In a plane arch, large differences between the

thrust lines and the main geometry will
produce large bending moments that in turn
produce large changes in shape and high
stresses in the arch chord section. One method
to significantly reduce these effects is to tie or
restrain points along the arch chord to reduce
the initial large deformations of the chord.

4. Combinations:
Connection types:
 BASE PLATE
 Connection to concrete foundation pillar
 MEMBRANES
 Forms the enclosure of the structure. Connections can be glued or heat welded
PVC coated polyester (polyvinylchloride)
 Silicon coated glass •
 Teflon coated glass P.T.F.E (polytetrafluroethylene)
 BALE RING/ MEMBRANE PLATE:
 are used at the top of conical shapes.
 Provide a link between the membrane and structural elements.
 Membrane plates accept centenary cables and pin connection hardware.
 TYPES OF
FABRIC MEMBRANE

 PVC : Less expensive 15 to 20 year life span. Easy to erect

 SILICONGLASS: Higher tensile strength Brittle, subject to damage from flexing
30+ year life span
 TEFLONGLASS: Similar to silicon glass, less brittle.

Advantages

 Longer life cycles of materials.

 Materials can be re-used in form.
 Most materials are completely recyclable.
 Less impact on site.
 Less construction debris after demolition.
 Unique designs Lightweight and flexible
 Environmentally sensitive
 High strength weight ratio 

Disadvantages

 Little to no rigidity
 Loss of tension is dangerous for stability
 Thermal values limit use

CABLE AND SUSPENSION BRIDGES:

 A cable is a flexible structural component that offers no resistance when

compressed or bent in a curved shape. Technically we can say cable has zero
bending rigidity.
 It can only support tensile loading.
  Cables are often used in engineering structures for support and to transmit load
from one point to another when used to support suspension roofs, bridges and
trolley wheels, cables form the main load carrying element in the structure.
 Due to its flexibility cables offers no resistance to shear or bending.
 A cable is the main component of cable supported bridge or suspended roof
structures.

Types of Cables:

 There are generally two types of cables structures.

 1- Suspension type Cables.
 2- Stayed type Cables.

SUSPENSION BRIDGE

 A suspension bridge is a type of bridge in which the deck (the load-bearing

portion) is hung below suspension cables on vertical suspenders.
 This type of bridge has cables suspended between towers, plus vertical suspender
cables that carry the weight of the deck below, upon which traffic crosses.
  This arrangement allows the deck to be level or to arc upward for additional
clearance.
 The main type of force in a suspension bridge are tension in cables and
compression in the pillars.
 The suspension cables must be anchored at each end of the bridge, since any load
applied to the bridge is transformed into a tension in these main cables
 The main cables continue beyond the pillars to deck-level supports, and further
continue to connections with anchors in the ground.
 The roadway is supported by vertical suspender cables or rods, called hangers.
The bridge will usually have two smaller spans, running between either pair of
pillars and the highway, which may be supported by suspender cables or may use
a truss bridge to make this connection.
 In the latter case there will be very little arc in the outboard main cables.

CABLE STAYED BRIDGE

 A cable-stayed bridge has one or more towers (or pylons), from which cables
support the bridge deck. There are two major classes of cable-stayed bridges:
harp and fan.
  In the harp or parallel design, the cables are nearly parallel so that the height of
their attachment to the tower is proportional to the distance from the tower to
their mounting on the deck.
 In the fan design, the cables all connect to or pass over the top of the towers. The
fan design is structurally superior with minimum moment applied to the towers
but for practical reasons the modified fan is preferred especially where many
cables are necessary.

Types of cable stayed bridge:

Load transfer in cable stayed bridge:

 Advantages Of Suspension Bridges :

 Suspension bridges have a high strength to weight ratio.

 They are flexible (can also be disadvantage) and can span long distances with no
piers therefore good on very high places, across water etc. and they require little
access from below aiding construction.
 They can be very thin and therefore less visible.
 They have an elegant look.
 The area spanned by a suspension bridge is very long in proportion to the
amount of materials required to construct bridges.

Disadvantages of Suspension Bridges:

 Flexibility Disadvantages: Suspension bridges are flexible, which is an advantage

until conditions become severe.
 Foundation Disadvantages: When built in soft ground, suspension bridges
require extensive and expensive foundation work to combat the effects of the
heavy load on foundation towers.
 Heavy Loads Flexibility also becomes a disadvantage when heavy, concentrated
loads are involved. Suspension bridges are not generally used for regional rail
crossings that carry maximum weight loads, which adds dangerous stress to the
structure.

CASE STUDY
The Brooklyn Bridge
 The Brooklyn Bridge is a hybrid cable-stayed/suspension bridge in New York
City.
 It connects the boroughs of Manhattan and Brooklyn, spanning the East River.
 The Brooklyn Bridge has a main span of 1,595.5 feet (486.3 m) and a height of
276.5 ft (84.3 m) above mean high water.
 It is one of the oldest roadway bridges in the United States and was the world's
first steel-wire suspension bridge, as well as the first fixed crossing across the
East River.
 Over the years, the Brooklyn Bridge has undergone several reconfigurations; it
formerly carried horse-drawn vehicles and elevated railway lines, but now
carries vehicular, pedestrian, and bicycle traffic. Commercial vehicles are
banned from the bridge.

 Although the Brooklyn Bridge is technically a suspension bridge,[12] it uses a

hybrid cable-stayed/suspension bridge design.
 The towers are built of limestone, granite, and Rosendale cement.
 The bridge was built with numerous passageways and compartments in its
anchorages. 
 Construction of the Brooklyn Bridge began in 1869.[12] The bridge's two towers
were built by floating two caissons, giant upside-down boxes made of southern
yellow pine, in the span of the East River
 then beginning to build the stone towers on top of them until they sank to the
bottom of the river.
 Compressed air was pumped into the caissons, and workers entered the space to
dig the sediment, until the caissons sank to the bedrock.
 Once the caissons had reached the desired depth, the caissons were filled in with
brick piers and concrete.
 The whole weight of the bridge still rests upon these constructions.
AIRPORT HANGARS:
A hangar is a closed building structure to hold aircraft, spacecraft or tanks in
protective storage. Most hangars are built of metal, but other materials such as wood
and concrete are also used.
TYPES OF HANGARS

SIMPLE AIRCRAFT HANGAR: Simple Steel Portal Framed Buildings are ideal for small
hangars up to 30m span.

Tied Portals may be stretched to 85m.

TRUSS AIRCRAFT HANGAR: Spans from 30m

to 100m
ARCH SPAN AIRCRAFT HANGAR: Spans to 200m and more(in case of segmental tied
truss work)

GLOVE AIRCRAFT HANGAR: Small structural economies can be obtained where the span
and the doors are made to fit a specific aircraft and the nose/fuselage front half of the
hangar is reduced in size.

SPINE TRUSS AIRCRAFT HANGAR: In the case of very short, wide hangars a spine truss
may be cost effective.
CANTILEVER AIRCRAFT HANGAR: Cantilever hangars are ideal for future extension.
They can be as long as you need. Requires a substantial office/workshop zone behind as
a counterweight.

BUTTERFLY AIRCRAFT HANGARS: Butterfly hangars need aprons both sides.

MEMBER DETAILS
Hangars need special structures to be built.
The width of the doors have to be large; this includes the aircraft entrance.

The bigger the aircraft to be introduced, the more complex a structure is needed.

According to the span of the hangar, sizes can be classified thus:

CASE STUDY
Hangar One

 Hangar One is one of the world's largest freestanding structures, covering 8 acres
(3.2 ha) at the Moffett Field airship hangars site at Moffett Field, California (near
Mountain View), in Santa Clara County of the southern San Francisco Bay Area,
California.
 Hangar One is constructed on a network of steel girders sheathed with
galvanized steel. It rests firmly upon a reinforced pad anchored to concrete
pilings.
 The floor covers 8 acres and can accommodate six (6) (360 feet x 160 feet)
American football fields. The airship hangar measures 1,133 feet (345 m) long
and 308 feet (94 m) wide.
 The building has an aerodynamic architecture.
 Its walls curve inward to form an elongated approximate catenary form 198 feet
(60 m) high.
 The clam-shell doors were designed to reduce turbulence when the Macon moved
in and out on windy days.
 The "orange peel" doors, weighing 200 short tons (180 metric tons) each, are
moved by their own 150 horsepower (110 kW) motors operated via an electrical
control panel.
 The hangar's interior is so large that fog sometimes forms near the ceiling
 A person who is unaccustomed to the building's extension is susceptible to optical
disorientation. Looking across its deck, planes and tractors appear like toys.
 Looking up, a network of catwalks for access to all parts of the structure can be
seen.
 One elevators meet near the top, allowing maintenance personnel to get to the top
quickly and easily.
 Standard gauge tracks run through the length of the hangar. During the period
of lighter-than-air dirigibles and non-rigid aircraft, the rails extended across the
apron and into the fields at each end of the hangar.
 Hangar One accommodated not only the giant airship but several smaller non-
rigid lighter-than-air craft simultaneously.