Vertical Stress in Soil Mass

The vertical stress at any point in a soil mass due to self-weight of the soil may be
considered under the following heads:

1. Total Stress

2. Pore Water Pressure

3. Effective Stress.

1. Total Stress:

The total stress in a soil mass is the stress at any point due to the weight of the soil
column above that point. Consider a column of soil of cross-sectional area A at any point
P in the soil mass shown in Fig. 7.1. Let h be the height of soil above point P and y be the
bulk density of soil. The force acting on the element due to the weight of the soil is given
by –

W= γ × A × h

Vertical stress in the element due to the self-weight of the soil will be –

σ = W/A = γAh/A = γh …(7.1)

Equation (7.1) gives the total stress due to the self-weight at any point P, which is at a
depth “h” below the ground surface. It is clear from Eq. (7.1) that the total stress in a soil
mass increases linearly with the depth as shown in Fig. 7.1(a). Total stress is denoted by
the symbol o. Its units are kgf/cm2, t/m2, or kN/m2. It is the initial or original total vertical
stress existing at any point in the soil mass before the construction of a foundation and
the structure.
It may be noted that the soil mass is fully saturated below the groundwater table (GWT).
GWT is the upper surface of groundwater in a soil mass. In some cases, the soil mass up
to a small height above the GWT may become fully saturated due to the rise of
groundwater above GWT by capillary action.

In Eq. (7.1), γ is the bulk density of soil and depends on the degree of saturation of the
soil. When the soil is fully saturated, γ = γsat, and in this case, Eq. (7.1) becomes –

σ = γsat h …(7.2)

When the soil is dry, γ = γd, and in this case, Eq. (7.1) becomes –

σ = γd h …(7.3)

Figure 7.2 shows a soil mass in which GWT exists at the depth h1 below the ground
surface. If y1 is the bulk density of soil up to the depth h1 and γ2 = γsat is the saturated
density of the soil below the GWT, then total stress at level 1-1 is given by –

σ1 = γ1 h1

Total stress at level 2-2 is given by –

σ2 = γ1 h1 + γ2h2

The distribution of total stress with the depth for the soil mass is shown in Fig. 7.2(a).

2. Pore Water Pressure:

The groundwater exists in voids or pores of the soil mass. Hence, it is also known as
pore water. From the knowledge of hydraulics, it is known that pore water exerts
hydrostatic pressure on the soil mass at all points below the GWT. Figure 7.2 shows a
soil mass, in which the GWT is at a depth h2 below the ground level. Consider a point P at
a depth h2 below the GWT. The hydrostatic pressure exerted at any point in a soil mass is
known as pore water pressure. We know that the hydrostatic pressure, that is, pore water
pressure at point P is given by –

u = γwh2 …(7.4)

Pore water pressure is also known as a neutral pressure and denoted by the symbol u.
Its units are kgf/cm2, t/m2, or kN/m2. The pore water pressure at any point on the surface
of the groundwater is zero and increases linearly with increase in the depth below GWT,
as shown in Fig. 7.2(b). In some cases, the soil above the GWT becomes saturated due to
the capillary suction as shown in Fig. 7.3. The zone of this capillary water above the GWT
is known as capillary fringe. The pore water pressure in the zone of capillary water is
negative and proportional to the depth above GWT.

Referring to Fig. 7.3, pore water pressure at level 1-1 at a height hc above GWT is given
by –

u = –γw hc

Pore water pressure at level 2-2 on the groundwater surface is given by –

u=0

Pore water pressure at level 3-3 at a depth h2 below GWT is given by –

U = γw h2
The distribution of pore water pressure with the depth in a soil mass with capillary fringe
is shown in Fig. 7.3(b).

3. Effective Stress Principle:

It is known from the Archimedes principle that an object immersed in a liquid appears to
lose weight and this loss of weight is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the
object. The actual stress acting at a point in a submerged soil mass, considering the
effect of buoyancy, is known as the effective stress. Effective stress at depth h2 below
GWT in a submerged soil mass (as shown in Fig. 7.2) is therefore given by –

σ’ = γ1h1 + γ’h2 = γ1h1 + (γsat – γw)h2 = γ1h1 + γsath2 – γwh2

Þ σ’= σ – u …(7.5)

Equation (7.5) is the mathematical representation of effective stress principle given by

Terzaghi in 1946. Thus, as per the effective stress principle, the effective stress acting at
any point in a soil mass is equal to the total stress minus the pore water pressure at that
point. Effective stress principle, stated by Terzaghi, is a significant development in the
field of soil mechanics.

Effective stress principle has applications in the following areas of geotechnical

engineering:

1. Shear strength of a soil is found to be a function of effective normal stress on the

failure plane. The shear parameters, cohesion, and angle of shearing resistance are
computed on the basis of effective stress to consider the long-term stability of
structures.

2. The process of consolidation is explained by Terzaghi on the basis of development

and dissipation of pore water pressure. The process of consolidation is said to be
completed when the effective stress increment is equal to the applied stress increment
due to the construction, after complete dissipation of pore water pressure.

3. In shallow footings, the safe bearing capacity is computed considering the effective
stress principle.

4. In pile foundations, the ultimate load capacity of the pile is computed by considering
the effective stresses along the pile shaft and the pile tip.

5. In the analysis of stability of Earth slopes, the factor of safety is determined by

considering effective stresses in vertical or inclined direction.
6. In the stability analysis of retaining structures, Rankine’s theory is widely used for the
calculation of lateral Earth pressure. In this theory, the lateral Earth pressure is
calculated by multiplying the effective stress with a lateral earth pressure coefficient.

Effective Stress in a Soil Mass:

Effective stress at any point in a soil mass is the algebraic difference between the total
stress and pore water pressure at that point –

σ ‘ = σ – u …(7.6)

Here effective stress is denoted by the symbol σ’. Its units are kgf/cm 2, t/m2, or kN/m2.
Referring to Fig. 7.1, effective stress at a depth h below the ground surface is given by –

σ ‘ = σ – u = γh – 0 = γh

The distribution of effective stress with the depth for the soil mass is shown in Fig.
7.1(c). Referring to Fig. 7.2, effective stress at depth h = h1 + h2 below ground surface is
given by –

σ = σ – u = (γ1h1 + γsath2) – γwh2

The distribution of effective stress with depth for the soil mass is shown in Fig. 7.2(c).
Referring to Fig. 7.3, effective stress at level 1 – 1 at a height hc above GWT is given by –

σ’1 = σ1 – u1 = γ1(h1 – hc ) – (–γwhc) = γ1(h1 – hc) + γwhc

Effective stress at level 2 – 2 on the groundwater surface is given by –

σ’2 = σ2 – u2 = [γ1(h1 – hc) + γsat hc] – 0 = γ1(h1 – hc)+ γsat hc

Effective stress at level 3 – 3 at a depth h2 below GWT is given by –

σ’3 = σ3 – u3= [γ1(h1 – hc) + γsat( hc + h2)] – (γwh2) = γ1(h1 – hc)+ γsat (hc + h2) – γwh2

The distribution of effective stress with depth for the soil mass is shown in Fig. 7.3(c).

Vertical Stress in Soil Mass below Strip Footing

Strip footing is used to support walls or retaining walls where length is considerably
more than the width. The load is considered per unit area per unit length, say 1 m. Thus,
the units for load are kN/m2 in SI system.

Vertical Stress below Center of Strip Footing:

Consider a strip footing of width B subjected to a uniform pressure q, including self-
weight, as shown in Fig. 8.8. The strip load acts over the length of the strip footing in the
perpendicular direction along y-axis. It is required to determine the vertical stress at a
point P which is at depth z below the center of the footing. Let θ is the angle subtended
by the edges of the strip footing at point P.

Consider an elemental load over a small width dx at any distance x from the center of the
footing, at an angle α with z-axis. The total elemental load over this small width extending
across the length of the footing is qdx. This may be considered as line load. The vertical
stress at point P, due to this elemental line load, can be obtained using Eq. (8.13) as –

The total vertical stress at point P due to the entire load is given by –

In Fig.8.8,

tan α = x/z Þ x = z . tan α

Also dx = z . sec2 α . dα. Substituting the values of x and dx in Eq. (8.16), we get –

where q is the load intensity (kN/m2) from the strip footing at the ground surface and θ is
the angle subtended by point P with the edges of the footing.

Vertical Stress below Strip Footing at a Point Outside the Edges:

Figure 8.11 shows a strip footing subjected to a uniform load of intensity q per unit area.
It is required to determine the vertical stress at any point P, which is not below the center
of the footing.

Let θ1, θ2 be the angles subtended by the edges of the footing with z-axis at point P and θ
be the total angle subtended by the edges of the footing at point P.
The vertical stress at point P can be obtained by integrating Eq. (8.17) between the
limits θ1and θ2:

In Eq. (8.20), both the angles θ1 and θ2 are clockwise and positive.

It may be seen that if θ1 = – θ2, point P will be below the center of the footing and the
equation for vertical stress becomes –

σz = q/π(θ + sinθ cosθ) = q/π (θ + sinθ)

which is the same as Eq. (8.18).

Vertical Stress below Strip Footing within the Edges:

Figure 8.12 shows a strip footing exerting a pressure q on the soil. It is required to
determine the vertical stress at point P, which is within and between the edges of the
footing at any depth z, as shown in Fig. 8.12.
The vertical stress at point P is obtained by integrating Eq. (8.17) between the limits –
θ1 and θ 2as follows –

It may be seen that if θ1 = θ 2, point P will be below the center of the footing and the
equation for vertical stress becomes –

σz = q/π (θ + sinθ cosθ) = q/π (θ + sinθ)

which is the same as in Eq. (8.18).

Vertical Stress Distribution on Vertical Plane below Strip Footing:

1. Case I – Below the Center of a Strip Footing:

The vertical stress below the center of a strip footing can be determined at depths z/b =
0.05, 0.1, 0.2, etc. up to z/b = 10 by substituting the corresponding angle in Eq. (8.18).
Figure 8.13 shows the vertical stress distribution thus obtained on a vertical plane below
the center of a footing as a function of z/b.

It may be observed from Fig. 8.13 that the vertical stress, which is equal to q immediately
below the footing, decreases sharply to about 0.55q at z/b = 1 and to 0.3q at z/b = 2.
Thereafter, there is a gradual decrease in the vertical stress with the increase in z/b. It
may also be observed that the intensity of the vertical stress is 0.2q at z/b = 3 and 0.1 q at
z/b = 5.6.

2. Case II – Below the Edge of a Strip Footing:

Figure 8.14 shows the vertical stress due to a strip load below the edge of a footing with
z/b. It may be observed that the vertical stress decreases considerably from 0.5q at z/b =
0.05 to about 0.41q at z/b = 1and 0.1q at z/b = 6.
Vertical Stress Distribution on a Horizontal Plane:

Equation (8.22) can be used to obtain vertical stress at different points on a horizontal
plane at a given depth, say z/b = 1. Figure 8.15 shows the vertical stress distribution
below a strip footing on a horizontal plane at three depths z/b – 0.5, 1, and 2. Here, the
vertical stress is represented on the y-axis as a multiple of q and the x-axis represents
distance from the center of the footing as a multiple of b, the width of the footing.

It may be seen that the vertical stress changes significantly over the width of the footing
when z/b = 0.5. It changes only marginally over the width of the footing at z/b = 1 and 2.
The distribution becomes erratic toward edges at z/b = 2 as shown in Fig. 8.15.
Vertical Stress below the Center of a Uniformly Loaded Circular Area:

Consider a circular footing of radius r at the ground surface exerting a uniform pressure
q. Consider an elemental part of this load consisting of annular strip of very small width
ds at any radial distances from the center, as shown in Fig. 8.16.

The total load acting on this elemental annular strip is q × 2 πs × ds. This load can be
considered as a concentrated load acting at a constant radial distance of s from the
center. The elemental vertical stress due to this load at point P, which is at any depth z
below the center of the footing, can be obtained using Eq. (8.7) as –
Differentiating on both sides, we get –

2.s.ds = 2.l.dl (since z is constant and its differential is zero)

or s.ds = l.dl

From Eq. (8.24), when s = 0, l = z; and when s = r,

l = (r2 + z2)1/2

Substituting these values in Eq. (8.23), the vertical stress at point P is given by –

Thus, the vertical stress at depth z below the center of the circular footing is given by –
Here q is the load per unit area, r is the radius of the circular footing, and z is the depth
below the center of the footing. Figure 8.17 shows the stress distribution on a vertical
plane below the center of a circular footing on the x-axis as a function of z/b on the y-
axis, where b = 2r = width of the footing.

It may be observed from Fig. 8.17 that the vertical stress decreases rapidly from q at the
bottom of the footing to 0.5q at z/b = 0.7,0. 3q at z/b = 1.0, and 0.2q at z/b = 1.3. The
vertical stress is equal to 0.1q at z/b = 1.8.

Vertical Stress below the Corner of Uniformly Loaded Rectangular Area:

Figure 8.20 shows a uniformly loaded rectangular area of dimensions I and b, subjected
to a uniform pressure q. It is required to determine the vertical stress at point P having
coordinates (x, y, z) below the corner of the rectangular area at any depth z below the
load.
Consider an elemental area of very small dimensions dx and dy of the loaded area at any
horizontal radial distance, r at distances x and y along the x and y axes from the corner.
The total load acting on the elemental area is q × dx × dy. This load can be considered as
a concentrated load. The vertical stress due to this elemental load at point P can be
obtained using Eq. (8.7) as –

The vertical stress at point P due to the entire load is given by –

The solution of the above double integral is obtained by Newmark, which is very
complicated. The final expression for vertical stress at point P is given by –

σ = IBq …(8.29)
Now, q is the intensity of pressure on the rectangular area and IB is the Boussinesq
influence factor.

Now –

x = m2 + nz + 1; y = m2n2; m = l/z; n = b/z …(8.30b)

where l is the length of footing, b is the width of footing, and z is the depth of point P
vertically below the corner of the footing. In evaluating IB using Eq. (8.30), the second
term obtained in degrees should be converted to radians. Also at some higher values of
m and n, the second term becomes negative as the tangent of an angle is negative in the
second quadrant. The angle should be converted to a positive value by adding 180° (π
radians) to the negative value for obtaining the correct value of IB.

For example, for m = 1.2 and n = 2.4, the second term within parentheses of Eq. (8.30) is –
89.673° (–1.5651 radians). For obtaining the correct value of IB, the angle should be
corrected as –

θC = 180 + 6 = 180 – 89.673 = 90.327° = 1.5765 radians

and the correct value of IB = 0.2147. Equation (8.29) can be used to compute the vertical
stress below rectangular and square footings.

1. Vertical Stress at Any Point P below A Rectangular Footing:

Figure 8.21 shows the plan of a rectangular footing exerting a uniform pressure of
intensity q.
The vertical stress at any point P at depth z below the footing shown within the
rectangular area can be determined using the following steps:

i. Divide the rectangle ABCD into four smaller rectangles such that point P is the
common corner for all these rectangles.

ii. Thus, the smaller rectangles formed are AEPF, EBGP, FPHD, and PGCH.

iii. Determine the Boussinesq influence factors for these rectangles using the
corresponding length and width, that is, l1 b1, l2b2, l3b3, and l4b4 at depth z. Let such
values obtained be IB1, IB2, IB3, and IB4 for the four rectangles.

iv. The vertical stress at point P at depth z is given by –

σz = (IB1 + IB2 + IB3 + IB4)q …(8.31)

2. Vertical Stress below the Center of a Rectangular or Square Footing:

All rectangles in this case will be of the same size. Hence –

IB1 = IB2 = IB3 = IB4 (say)

Vertical stress at any depth below the center of a rectangular footing is –

σz = 4IBq …(8.32)

where IB is computed using m = l/2z and n = b/2z. For a square footing, I = b and hence m
= n = b/2z.

3. Vertical Stress at Point P outside the Loaded Area:

Figure 8.23 shows a plan of a uniformly loaded rectangular area ABCD and the vertical
stress is required at point P outside the loaded area.

In this case, consider the following rectangles, all of which have a common corner at P:

i. Rectangle 1 – EBHP (IB1), considering (l + le) and b1.

ii. Rectangle 2 – PHCF (IB2), considering (l + le) and b2.

iii. Rectangle 3 – PGDF (IB3), considering le and b2.

iv. Rectangle 4 – EAGP (IM), considering le and b1.

The vertical stress at point P at depth z can be obtained from –

σz = (IB1 + IB2 – IB3 – IB4)q …(8.33)

4. Vertical Stress at a Point Completely Outside the Loaded Area:

Figure 8.24 shows a point that is completely outside the uniformly loaded rectangular
area, exerting a pressure q.

In this case, consider the following rectangles, all of which have a common corner at
point P:

i. Rectangle 1 – EPHB (IB1), considering (l + le) and (b + be).

ii. Rectangle 2 – EPGA (lB2), considering le and (b + be).

iii. Rectangle 3 – FPHC (IB3), considering (l + le) and be.

iv. Rectangle 4 – FPGD (IB4), considering le and be.

The vertical stress at any depth z below point P is given by –

σz = (IB1 – IB2 – IB3 + IB4)q …(8.34)

5. Vertical Stress Distribution below A Square Footing:

Figure 8.25 shows the vertical stress on a vertical plane below the center of a square
footing represented on the x-axis as a function of z/b on the y-axis. It may be observed
that the vertical stress increases rapidly from a small value of 0.18 q at z/b = 0.05 to a
maximum value of about 0.87q at z/b = 0.323. The vertical stress then decreases rapidly
to about 0.5q at z/b = 0.75 and 0.2q at z/b = 1.4. It then decreases gradually to 0.1 q at z/b
= 2.

The vertical stress distribution on a vertical plane below the edge of a square footing is
shown in Fig. 8.26. It may be observed that vertical stress below the edge is significantly
less than that below the center at any depth.
6. Vertical Stress Distribution on a Horizontal below A Square Footing:

The vertical stress below a square footing is maximum at z/b = 0.323. Figure 8.27 shows
the vertical stress distribution on a horizontal plane below a square footing at this depth
level (z/b = 0.323). The y-axis represents the vertical stress and the x-axis represents the
distance from the center of the footing as a product of the width of the footing.

It may be observed that the vertical stress is maximum at the center, with a value of
0.847q, and decreases with distance away from the center toward the edges on either
side. The vertical stress is 0.37q below the edge of the footing, which is about 42% of the
stress below the center.

Table 8.2 presents the Boussinesq influence factors for vertical stress below the corner
of a uniformly loaded rectangular area. IB values are provided for m and n values, starting
with m = 0.2 and n = 0.2. These values indicate a depth of five times the width of the
footing, and hence, values for m = n < 0.2 are not important as the vertical stress at this
depth level is negligible, m and n are in the same ratio as the width and the length of the
footing.

Since lengths more than four times the width are uncommon, values in Table 8.2 are
provided for m and n up to 4:1. Also, the value of JB initially increases with the increase
in m or n, and more or less becomes constant at higher values of m and n. For example,
for m = 2, the value of IB increases with the increase in n up to n = 5.6 and thereafter
becomes constant. It may be seen that IB = 0.2498 for m = n = 10 and is 0.2499 for m = 10
and n = 20 and 0.2500 for m = n = 20.
How to Determine Vertical Stress on Soil Mass? (Newmark’s Chart) | Soil Engineering

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Newmark gave a construction to determine the vertical stress at any point below a footing of any
shape. Newmark’s influence chart is based on the concept of the Boussinesq theory for vertical
stress below the center of a uniformly loaded circular area.
Construction of Newmark’s Influence Chart:
When a uniformly loaded circular area of radius r1 is divided into 20 equal parts, the vertical
stress at the center at any depth z due to load from each part (sector) will be equal to 1 /20 of
that due full circular area. Thus,

If this vertical stress is assigned an arbitrary fixed value of say 0.005q, then –

Solving Eq. (8.35), for r1, the radius of the loaded area that causes 1/20 of the total vertical
stress is obtained as r1 = 0.26975z. Thus, every 1/20 of the circle of radius 0.26975z would
cause a vertical stress of 0.005q at a depth z below the center of the loaded area. For any given
depth, where vertical stress is to be determined, say z = 1 m, a circle can be drawn with r1 =
0.26975z = 0.26975 × 1 = 0.26975 m, as shown in Fig. 8.31.

A second circle is now drawn and divided into 20 equal sector parts with a radius r2 such that
each sector part would cause a vertical stress of 2 × 0.005q.
Solving Eq. (8.36) for r2, we get r2 = 0.4005z. In the two circles drawn so far, there are 40 parts,
with each part exerting an equal vertical stress of 0.005q at depth z below the center of the
loaded area. Similarly, the radius of the third circle can be determined from –

Using a similar procedure, a total of nine circles can be drawn, with each annular area divided
into 20 equal parts, called unit areas, and each unit area exerting a vertical stress of 0.005q.
The radii of these circles are given in Table 8.3. For the specific value of 0.005cq, the radius of
the 10th circle would become infinity. Figure 8.32 shows Newmark’s influence chart with these
nine circles.

The procedure used in constructing Newmark’s influence chart ensures that each part or unit
area in the chart would exert a vertical stress of 0.005g at the center at depth z. The scale, to
which the chart is drawn, is specified in the form of line AB, which is equal to the depth z to the
scale of the chart.
Use of Newmark’s Influence Chart:
The plan of the loaded area (footing) is drawn on a tracing paper to such a scale that the length
of line AB on the chart is equal to the depth where vertical stress is required. For example, if the
vertical stress is required at a depth of 4 m and if the length of the line AB is 2 cm, then the
scale to be adopted is 2 cm = 4 m, that is, 1:200.
The plan of the loaded area, drawn to this scale, is placed on the chart such that point P, where
vertical stress is required, coincides with the center of the chart. For example, the loaded area
placed on the chart as shown in Fig. 8.33(a) to determine vertical stress at the corner, and as in
Fig. 8.33(b), to determine vertical stress at the center. The vertical stress at point P at the
required depth is then given by –
σz = If q N …(8.38)

where If is the influence value, which is 0.005 in the present case; q is the pressure on the
loaded area; and N is the number of unit areas of the Newmark’s chart enclosed by the loaded
area.
In counting the number of unit areas enclosed by the loaded area (N), the unit areas partially
enclosed should also be properly considered in terms of fractions such as 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, etc., and
the total value of N should be computed.
If the vertical stress is required at a different depth, say z = 1 m, the plan of the loaded area is to
be drawn to a new scale of 2 cm = 1 m, that is, 1:50, and the procedure is repeated.
Advantages and Limitations of Newmark’s Influence Chart:
The advantage of Newmark’s influence chart is that this chart can be conveniently used to
estimate the vertical stress below loaded areas of any shape. The vertical stress can be
determined at any point, either within or outside the loaded area. The chart also eliminates
tedious computation to determine the Boussinesq influence factor IB such as Eqs. (8.29) and
(8.30).
However, the loaded area is to be plotted to a different scale each time the vertical stress is to
be computed at a different depth. Further, there is a personal error involved in counting the
number of unit areas partially covered by the loaded area. Also, with the availability of
programmable calculators, Excel worksheets, and high-speed computers, the Newmark’s chart
does not offer any special advantage. Thus, it has now become more or less obsolete.