CHAPTER 1 - METAL FORMING
1. Reduced chance of metal cracking, make bigger
Application of forces exceeding the yield strength and
below the ultimate tensile strength
Work materials should have,
- Low yield strength
- High ductility
Advantages
1. Fastest way to change shape of a part
2. Raw materials are cheap. (wrought steels like
mild steel are the cheapest structural metals)
Metal working temperatures (Page 2)
Cold Working
Plastic deformation below recrystallization temperature,
material is work hardened.
Advantages
1. Increased strength in direction of cold working
2. Increased surface hardness and wear resistance
3. Good dimensional tolerances and surface finish
4. Small parts can be shaped quickly
5. No heating required
Disadvantages
1. Some metals too brittle to be cold-worked
2. High forces and power required for deformation
3. Work hardening makes subsequent operation
difficult or impossible
4. Need annealing to relieve stress
5. Reduce corrosion resistance, increase electrical
resistance, change magnetic properties
Hot Working
Plastic deformation above recrystallization temperature,
material is stress relieved (totally annealed).
Keep temperature low to minimize oxidation.
Advantages
Advantages
sections and more extreme shapes
2. Grain refinement possible
a. Grain growth as temp rises
b. Recrystallization produce small grains
c. Grain growth can be controlled
3. No strain hardening, no annealing (cheaper)
4. Less power needed, smaller machine
5. Repairs casting defects
6. Improves ductility (material more homogenous)
a. Better diffusion of alloy constituents
b. Breaks up and evenly distributes “
c. Breaks up ad refines cast structure
7. Improves strength if correction of defects (holes
and porosity due to casting/powder metallurgy)
8. Can be faster than cold working
Disadvantages
1. Some metals cannot be hot-worked
2. Oxide layer on surface
3. Dimensional control difficult
a. Metal contraction
b. Oxide scales
4. Expensive and difficult to maintain high temp,
dangerous to handle hot metal
5. Accurate temp difficult, even heating
6. Difficult to lubricate
7. Decarburization of steel
8. Carbon pick-up
9. Expensive dies
ROLLING (page 8)
Rotating cylinders to draw and squeeze workpiece.
Reduction in thickness normally 1-10% per pass.
Reversing Rolling Mill – Saves factory space, suitable for
short parts. Much power needed. Heavy forces on roll-
drive mechanism.
Planetary Rolling Mill
1. Cheaper to replace
2. Less contact area with workpiece
3. Spread workpiece less sideways
Disadvantages – Small rolls are weaker than large rolls
All metals can be hot rolled. Only ductile metals can be
cold rolled. Zinc and magnesium are brittle, will crack
when cold rolled. Cold working is assumed if desired
result is a shining surface and small thickness.
EXTRUSION (page 14)
Metal is force through an opening.
Hot Extrusion
Metal preheated to just below melting point to lower
yield strength.
Applications
- Long pieces of uniform cross-secion
- Economical way to make small parts in large
quantities. Extrude dies relatively cheap
Cold Extrusion (Unlikely)
At room temp, complete fast to avoid work hardening
Hydrostatic Extrusion
Zero shear stress, impossible to fracture.
Applications
- Brittle metals
- For high reduction of cross-sectional area
TENSILE DRAWING (page 19)
Secondary process after hot extrusion or hot rolling,
economically reduce diameter smaller than 5mm. Cold
working only (Steel, Al,Cu and Cu alloys are ductile in
tension)
Application Upset Forging – Increase diameter or cross-section area CHAPTER 2 – JOINING PROCESSES
1. Reduce cross-section of bars and tubes by compression along its length
2. Produce high performance bars and seamless Application – used to shape heads on bolts, nails, etc WELDING (page 48)
tubes of very high strength Roll Forging – Reduce cross-section of lengths while Joining by melting the metal to the 2 pieces
Reduction in cross-section area per pass below 40%. increase length 1. Fusion Welding
Work material becomes too hard and brittle(work The stock does not completely pass through the rolls to 2. Pressure Welding
hardened) must be annealed to draw further. the other side 3. Fusion Welding using filler material
Rolling is generally cheaper than extrusion. Rolling Welding defects (page51)
cannot produce hollow sections, extrusion can. Press forging is generally more expensive than drop 1. Dimensional Defects
forging. 2. Structural Defects
FORGING (page 22) Advantages
Deformation by sudden blows or high pressure to SHEET METAL WORKING (page 29) 1. Quick and convenient
squeeze metal between dies. Best mechanical properties Usually done at room temp unless too thick. 2. Light weight
Characteristics 3. Easy to make
1. Durable, reliable Sheet Metal Drawing 4. Cheap
2. Excellent mechanical properties On mild steel, stainless steel, alloys of Al, Mg, Cu, any 5. Does not affect stress-flow design
3. Dense ductile material Disadvantages
Hammer Forging – Used for considerable reduction in Application 1. Dependent on hum factors
cross-section 1. Thin-walled seamless metal cup 2. Surface must be clean
Drop Forging – Very common method 2. Uniformity and close tolerances 3. Fixtures needed
Produces flash which can be recycled, machining 4. Defects are common
produces even more. Ironing 5. Heat treatment may be needed
Advantages Thinning down the walls of drawn cups 6. Need Quality control methods
1. Superior mechanical properties due to fibrous
structure Rubber Pad Forming Low carbon steels are excellent for welding. High carbon
2. High production rate Advantages steels need special techniques (pre-heating or post-
3. High density product 1. Saves money of the die heating to prevent cracking)
Press Forging – Slow pressure squeeze into shape, give 2. Reduce metal springback after forming
deep penetration. Fast, automated, and large scale. Gas Welding
Application Shearing of Sheet Metal For welding thin sheets below 2mm
1. For large sections Advantages Advantages
2. Secondary and finishing operations 1. Fast 1. Cheap, portable, versatile
Advantages 2. Amenable to large scale production 2. No electrical supply
1. Smooth surface 3. No flash 3. Can weld thin sheets, lower temp, easier to
2. Good dimensions control
3. Quieter than drop forging
4. More uniform structural quality
Arc Welding Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TIG) CHAPTER 3 – CASTING TECHNOLOGY
Electric arc generated between electrode and workpiece Non-consumable Tungsten electrode. Separate filler rod
1. Joining sections of 2mm thickness or more needed, can weld thin to moderate sections (1-5mm). Sand Casting (page 67)
2. Faster welding, greater depth of penetration Advantages
3. For materials with high heat conductivity Application of MIG & TIG 1. Can produce huge parts
- TIG needs more space than MIG 2. Cheap
Resistance Welding - Both used for welding stainless steels, MG, Al, 3. No directional properties
Electrodes press the parts together and carry electricity. Cu and Ti alloys 4. Complicated shapes
Weld sheet metals of roughly the same thickness, bad - TIG slower than MIG 5. Require only little machining
conductor of heat and electricity. - Inert Gas Shield will prevent formation of Disadvantages
- Spot welding porous chromium oxide layer 1. Rough surface
- Seam welding 2. Mold can use only once
Advantages Friction Welding 3. Poor dimensional tolerance, metal shrinks
1. Heat is localized Advantages Defects sources
2. Fast 1. Join dissimilar metals 1. Badly prepared pattern
3. No filler metal 2. Fast 2. Poor design
4. Easily automated for large-scale production Limitation – only for round sections 3. Poor casting technique
Disadvantages
1. High cost of initial equipment Laser Beam Welding Die Casting (page 74)
2. Difficult to join sheets of different thickness Welding fine wires, thin foils, or jobs requiring high - Equipment is expensive
precision - Good dimensional tolerances
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) Advantages - Good surface finish
For thick sections and sheets. Not for sheets below 8mm. 1. Easily controls energy - Non-expendable molds used for mass
Advantages 2. Tiny (0.1mm) Heat Affected Zone production.
1. Automatic feed of electrode and flux - Ideal for low melting point metals (Al, Zn, Pb,
2. Molten flux forms protective coating over weld Electronic Beam Welding Cu, Mg and Sn alloys).
3. High current yield high welding speeds Advantages - Medium Carbon tool steel molds, water-cooled
4. Can join thick sections with a single pass 1. Easily controls energy to prolong life and shorten casting time.
Disadvantages 2. 2 Tiny (0.1) Heat Affected Zone - High Production rate
1. Needs lots of space and investment Disadvantage Hot Chamber Die Casting
2. Automation is necessary since joint A high vacuum is needed. Much time spent on Only suitable for low melting point metals (Pb, Sn, Zn
evacuating the chamber alloys).
Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG) Cold Chamber Die Casting
Same as arc welding, with inert gas shield to protect Can be used for non-ferrous metals of higher melting
from atmosphere. For large-scale production and weld point (Al, Cu, Mg alloys). Liquid metal in contact with
only 1 type of metal. injection cylinder for short time, less alloying takes place.
Fast production rate, cycle time less than 1 minute.
Centrifugal Casting CHAPTER 4 – POWDER METALLURGY CHAPTER 5 – PIPE AND TUBE PRODUCTION
For casting large pipes, grey cast iron cylinder liners
Advantages Metal powders are compressed and sintered to form a Production methods depend on wall thickness, diameter,
1. Finger grain size due to fast cooling (tougher) metal product length and applications. (page 88)
2. Cleaner casting Advantages (page 85)
3. Highly dense structure, free of defects 1. High melting point metals can be fabricated Induction Welding of Cold Rolled Strip
4. High production rates below their melting points. To make low cost low strength tubes of various steels,
5. Best mechanical properties, very high casting 2. Non-metallic constituents can be introduced not suitable for 10-15mm below, and not for good
pressure can be achieved and their contents can be controlled conductors of electricity
6. Can cast large pipes accurately 3. Special structural effects:
a. Controlled porosity Seam Welding of Skelp
Continuous Casting b. Lamellar structure Welded seam
Melted metal flows down continuously to allow c. Composite structure
solidification in a water-cooled mold. Can be hot rolled d. Controlled density Hollow Extrusion
into products immediately after solidification. 4. Good dispersion in alloys
Advantages 5. High purity Mannesmann Process
1. Fully automated 6. Low machining costs Make reliable tubes and pipes of any size that must not
2. Molds/dies are cheap 7. Close tolerance have any weld joint
3. No wastage 8. No waste material
4. Reasonable physical properties and surface 9. High speed production for small parts Casting With Central Core
finish 10. Uniform composition For cast iron pipes of any size
5. Quick and convenient process Disadvantages
6. Secondary operations make use of existing heat 1. High cost of raw materials Centrifugal Casting
2. Simple dies
Investment Casting 3. Small product size Roll Bending And Welding
Patterns can only be used once 4. Difficult to store powders For making very thick large pipes
Advantages 5. Powder size not consistent
1. Extremely good surface finish 6. Product can be brittle Spiral Welding of Metal Strip
2. Complicated shapes 7. Difficult to handle low melting point metals For extremely large pipes
3. No machining required 8. Slight shrinkage on sintering and cooling
4. Wide range of alloys is suitable to cast 9. Cannot be bent or cold-worked Welded From Separate Metal Sheets
5. Close tolerances even for high melting point 10. Cannot make threads For extremely large pipes
metals 11. Minimum thickness about 1mm and max 2.5xD
Limitations Drawing And Pressing Of Sheet
1. Expensive method For very small tubes of thin wall thickness
2. Casting cannot be too large
CHAPTER 6 – UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING
PROCESSES
Non-traditional machining processes are very slow which
will not normally be employed. Cost a lot more than
conventional machines.
Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) (page94)
Die-Sinking EDM
Applications
- Machine molds and dies
- Drill very small holes, orifices, slots
- Machine very hard materials
- Machine thin-walled parts that are very weak
Advantages
1. Machine any hard materials, so long is
conductive
2. Products are completely burr-free
3. Very close tolerances
4. Can machine intricate configurations
5. No mechanical strains induced
6. Produce very sharp corners
Limitations
1. Both electrode and workpiece must be
electrically conductive
2. Electrode wear
3. Slow metal removal rate, low production rate
4. Recast surface layer has high residual stresses
and high roughness
5. Heat treatment causes warping
Wire-cut EDM
Applications
- Machining hard conducting materials
- High precision machining
- For complicated profiles
CHAPTER 7 – PLASTICS TECHNOLOGY Compression Molding
For producing thermosetting plastics, require higher
Advantages (page 110) pressure to achieve good definition in the grooves
1. Wide range of colours
2. Good thermal insulation Transfer Molding
3. Good electrical insulation For producing thermosetting plastics only.
4. Good corrosion resistance Advantages over compression molding
5. Low specific gravity - No flash, less finishing
6. Easy to process - Mold many products simultaneously
7. Cheap - Can mold small intricate parts which are difficult
8. Rigid plastics can be flexible to compression mold
9. Transparent and translucent
Disadvantages Reaction Injection Molding (RIM)
1. Repairs using heat can never be perfect
2. Give off objectionable odours
3. Not for high temp use
4. Creep under any load
5. Week in tension, compression, torsion, bending
6. Subjected to deterioration
7. Low modulus of elasticity and rigidity
Thermoplastics (page 111)
Soften on heating, re-harden on cooling. Process is
reversible and scrap material can be recycled. Easier to
process and more amenable to large-scale production.
Thermosetting Plastics (page 115)
Process is irreversible, will not soften on reheating, rigid,
hard, brittle.
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES FOR PLASTICS (page 121)
Injection Molding
Extremely convenient large scale production, usually for
thermoplastics. Mold is most expensive component,
usually made of Al