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by
James B. Bushman, P.E.
Principal Corrosion Engineer
Bushman & Associates, Inc
Medina, Ohio USA
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indicated that the current has not decreased Place reference electrode on surface of
over time, as would be expected in an aging soil as near to directly over the structure
system, but has actually increased slightly. as possible. Obtain low resistant contact
Structure-to-soil potentials were previously by pushing cell into ground.
-1200 mv, indicating some other area of
failure. After some investigation, it was Obtain reading on 2-volt DC scale.
determined that a new air line installation was If reading fluctuates, insure that there is
electrically shorted to the system. This short solid contact to ground and to structure.
was easily removed and the protective levels
were restored. This is a good example of how
proper record keeping will identify or dismiss 1. 120
detected deficiencies.
OFF V
V
300 mV
Recording A A
10A V O
/H M
+ Reference Electrod e -
The required record keeping for proper 30
0 mA
-
CO M
Purpose
To determine the potential difference between Results
the subject structure and the soil environment.
Record the measurement on the
Equipment appropriate data sheet. Measurements
High Impedance (10 megohms minimum) taken in this manner are negative
digital voltmeter. potentials.
Copper/copper sulfate reference electrode. Repeat procedure at representative
locations along the structure being sure to
Reel of wire containing at least 100 feet of accurately describe location on data sheet.
insulated, stranded copper wire, minimum
size #16 AWG. Notes:
Assorted clips and test leads. Observing structure-to-soil potentials on
structures that lie beneath large expanses
Method (see Figure 1) of asphalt or concrete can be very
Attach a test lead from the negative inaccurate if taken through the asphalt or
terminal of the high impedance meter to concrete. The electrode tip must be in
the subject structure. Make sure electrical contact with the earth over the tank or
contact is good - scrape surface as piping of concern. This may necessitate
required. drilling permanent access holes to
facilitate this measurement. Place the
Connect the reference electrode to the electrode in the test hole and observe the
positive terminal of the meter. potential. If the meter reacts slowly, pour
a small amount of water in the hole and Assorted clips and test leads.
repeat. When the meter reacts in a brisk Fixed Cell - Moving Ground Method
normal manner, the reading will probably
be valid. Connect the reference electrode to the
positive terminal of the voltmeter.
When observing structure-to-soil
potentials, the potential should remain Place the reference electrode at a fixed
steady. If the potential varies back and location at the surface of the soil in the
forth, a stray DC current may be general area of the structures for which
indicated. Note the period of oscillation isolation or continuity is being tested.
on the data sheets. If the reading appears Attach a test lead from the negative
to be vibrating, an AC stray is apparent. terminal of the high impedance voltmeter
Record the possible presence of stray AC to a test prod or clip lead.
or DC current on the data tables.
Make firm contact with one component of
The electrode should be placed directly the structure for which continuity or
over the structure or as near as possible isolation is being determined.
when observing structure-to-soil
potentials on all facilities. Obtain and record reading on 2 volt DC
scale.
Sometimes it is necessary to select a scale
larger than two volts, especially if the Make firm contact with a component of
reading is being observed near an anode. the other structure (or component) for
The 10-volt scale on the high resistance which continuity or isolation is being
meter should then be used. determined.
When measuring structure-to-soil Obtain and record reading on 2 volt DC
potential measurements through frozen scale.
earth, contact can sometimes be made by Note: The two readings should be
first soaking the soil with warm water. obtained with as little time as possible
Dielectric Isolation and Continuity Testing between each reading. The reference
electrode must not be moved during the
Purpose test period.
To verify proper functioning of dielectric Results
insulating flange kits, nylon bushings, and
dielectric unions. For structure components which are
isolated from each other, the potentials
To verify electrical continuity in pipe, measured will be substantially different
between tanks in a common excavation (greater than 3 - 10 millivolts).
and between tanks and piping when
continuity is required for effective For structures which are electrically
cathodic protection. continuous with each other, the potentials
measured will be the same (no more than
Equipment 1 millivolt difference in value).
High Impedance (10 megohms minimum) For structures where the potential
Digital Voltmeter. difference is between 2 and 5 millivolts,
Copper/copper sulfate reference electrode. continuity or isolation is uncertain. Re-
test using the Test Procedure provided in
Reel of wire containing at least 100 feet of the AC Null Balance Resistance Method.
insulated, stranded copper wire, minimum
size #16 AWG. AC Null Balance Resistance Method
AC Null Balance Resistance Meter Using the AC Resistance meter, contact a
component of the structure of concern required; if not however, the trouble shooting
using individual test leads from the P1 and procedures should be followed.
Cl terminals of the meter. Stray Currents
With the same meter, contact the other Stray current corrosion can cause serious
structure (or component) of concern using corrosion when it occurs. Stray current is the
two additional test leads connected to the result of current leakage from some electrical
P2 and C2 terminals of the meter. system such that part of the current path is
Adjust the range selector switch and through the earth. An underground metallic
“Null-Balance” dial until the analog meter structure lying within the circuit will tend to
indicates a “zero” or balanced condition. receive and discharge current: the anodic
areas correspond to points of current
Observe and record the resistance discharge. Currents of this sort are commonly
measured between the two structures. known as “stray currents” because of their
Results inherently accidental nature, and the damage
they cause is referred to as “electrolytic
For structures which are electrically corrosion”.
continuous to each other, the resistance
measured will be less than 0.5 ohms. The most common source of stray current is
the electrical railway system or its urban
For structures which are electrically counterpart, the streetcar or subway. Return
isolated from each other, the resistance current from the electrically conveyed vehicle
measured will be greater than 2 ohms. system divides, part returns to the substation
For structures where the values measured via the rails and part leaks off the rails,
fall between 0.5 and 2 ohms, continuity or producing current flow through the soil. This
isolation is uncertain. leakage may be collected by an underground
metallic structure. Near the substation, the
Note: Four individual leads from the current flows from the pipeline through the
meter to the structures of concern must be soil back to the rail system, causing corrosion
used for this test to be valid. In addition, of the structure. Installation of metallic bonds
individual contacts for each lead must be from the structure to the negative bus at the
made to the structures being tested. substation will avert damage to the structure
SURVEY & EVALUATION OF by providing an alternate return path for the
PROTECTED STRUCTURES current.
Potential Surveys There are other possible sources of stray
The structure-to-soil potential measurement is current - almost any DC powered network is
necessary to determine the effectiveness of capable of causing damage in this manner.
cathodic protection on any underground Mine railways, cranes, and other machinery
metallic structure. A detailed potential profile using DC for operational power are potential
of all protected structures should be hazards. Frequently there are severe exposures
performed at the intervals indicated in in and near chemical plants using electrolytic
“Maintenance Programs”. The survey processes. Welding equipment, particularly
techniques to be employed are outlined in when employed in production work, is a
“Test Procedures”. All test points should be common source of trouble, although rarely is
contacted and over-the-structure potential the damage done at any great distance from
recorded. Subsequent to collecting the data, the equipment.
the criteria for cathodic protection as Another common source of stray DC earth
discussed in the “Criteria” section should be currents are impressed current cathodic
applied. If the structure is experiencing protection systems which can cause corrosion
adequate protection, no further testing is damage to foreign structures which are in the
same area. Stray currents such as this are not close. Testing must be conducted to determine
the same type as describe above, but are if remedial measures are required.
usually classified as “cathodic interference”. Evidence of cathodic interference is usually
The damaging effect is altogether accidental, discovered during routine potential surveys.
but the presence of DC in the earth is Abnormal potential readings (in the more
intentional. A complete discussion of cathodic positive direction) when observed in the
interference is contained in the next section. vicinity of a cathodically protected foreign
Whenever the measurement of structure-to- structure are generally a valid indication of
soil potentials show fluctuating values with no interference.
“rhyme nor reason”, there is probably a case The mechanics of cathodic interference are
of stray current at hand. It is very helpful to relatively simple (ref. Figure 2). Cathodic
leave the instrument connected and watch the current emanates in all directions from the
fluctuations through several periods of rectifier and associated anode bed on a given
change. The frequency and nature of the structure. Eventually, the current so
oscillations will often give a clue as to the discharged will return to the rectifier unit. If a
origin. It may be that the actual operation of foreign structure lies within the region of
the offending system can be observed in the current discharge from the rectifier system
near vicinity. anodes, it may provide a low resistant path for
Stray currents are normally very noticeable current return: current collects on the foreign
during a structure-to-soil potential survey. If structure (pick-up area), follows the foreign
the meter is left connected in the usual structure to a point where it returns to the
manner, it is sometimes even possible to given structure (discharge area), flows along
observe potentials which fluctuate from the given structure to the negative connection
negative to positive. and back to the rectifier, thus completing the
circuit. The “pick-up” area is cathodic and
When location of the cause of trouble is not hence, no detrimental effects will occur here.
possible by direct observation, a recording The "discharge" area is intensely anodic and
instrument should be connected to the severe corrosion damage will take place at
structure. The record over a twenty-four hour this point.
period can very often be useful in detecting
the offender. For example, if there is a
cessation of the fluctuation during the noon Pipeline
hour, then the source is most likely industrial
machinery rather than transportation Corr os ion
R emote Anode B ed
equipment. By the application of similar Rec tifier (+)
reasoning to such records of several
successive days, it is usually possible to detect (-)
the DC system from which the stray current is
Servi ce Bldg.
emanating.
Dispenser Piping
Cathodic Interference
A cathodic protection system installed to
arrest corrosion on a given underground
structure may produce extensive damage on Tanks
other structures. Usually the structures
concerned will be situated in close proximity
to each other: they may cross, extend parallel
or be simply in the same vicinity. Cathodic
interference is not necessarily a problem, Figure 2 - Remote UST Anode System Causing
however, merely because two structures are Stray Current Corrosion on Nearby Pipeline
E arth to P rotected Pi pe
Anode Bed
Bonding: to afford a metallic return for
current collected by a foreign structure.
Auxiliary Drainage: the use of magnesium
anodes to provide auxiliary drainage in the
areas of current discharge.
Figure 3 - Cathodic Protection System Design: The current density in the earth is
Induced Stray Current Corrosion far greater in the immediate vicinity of an
anode bed than it is elsewhere. Thus, this
is the area of most hazardous exposure.
The crossing of a pipeline in the near Effort should be made to select sites for
proximity of the anodes protecting another impressed current systems which are
underground structure (ref. Figure 3). remote from foreign structures. The major
This example is perhaps the most commonly design feature which will minimize
encountered case of interference. The foreign damage is obviously that of placing the
line collects some of the current from the anode bed as far away from foreign
anode bed associated with another pipeline or structures as possible (ref. Figure 4)
Bonding: Potential reading taken on the exposure. This will afford sufficient
foreign line with the reference cell placed cathodic protection or auxiliary drainage
directly over the crossing will give an to the affected area and avert the damage
indication as to the interference effects. perpetuated by the offending system. The
The ideal situation is to have a bond anodes will supply a path to ground for
station near the crossing with a test lead the current collected on the foreign
from each pipeline brought into a test box. structure. The damage, therefore, is
Interrupt the nearby rectifier and record inflicted on the magnesium or zinc anode
"on" and "off' readings on each test lead. rather than the structure. This same
technique can be used in simple crossing
cases as a substitute for a bond. The
Figure 4 - Distributed UST Anode System collected current, instead of flowing back
Designed to Avoid Interference with to the protected structure, is discharged to
earth by way of the magnesium anodes.
Pipeline
Rectifier
Dispen ser Piping
Re ctifie r
(-) (+)
Pr ote cted Pipeline
because anode life is greatly reduced metallic surfaces in contact with electrolytes.
when used for auxiliary drainage. No single criteria for evaluating the
effectiveness of cathodic protection has
Joint Interference Testing proved satisfactory for all conditions. Special
Corrosion engineers are responsible for cases exist which require alternate
cooperating with owners of foreign structures interpretation of general criteria. The criteria
in order to coordinate corrosion control presented herein has been developed through
measures. Cathodic protection can only be laboratory analyses and empirical evaluation
effective if all parties operate their systems of successful cathodic protection systems.
with concern for other structures in the area. It In order to establish general criteria for the
has been stated that cooperation is more structures at a project site, it is necessary to
advantageous than legal pursuits, because the consider each specific metal as used in
latter do not solve corrosion problems. construction of a given facility. In most
The planning of new impressed current instances therefore, more than one criterion
cathodic protection systems must include will be given for a particular metal. Different
notification to owners of other structures situations exist which require various means
which are near to or cross the subject of analysis for each material. For example:
structure. The owners of foreign structures steel - coated, bare, tied to copper, tied to
should be informed of the following: zinc, in concrete, etc. each condition
necessitates utilizing different criteria for
Location of installation evaluating the level of cathodic protection.
Type and size of installation Criteria for Specific Metals
Date of energizing The most generally accepted means of
Locations of known crossings analyzing the effectiveness of cathodic
protection employs measurement of structure-
The owners should be invited to participate in to-electrolyte potential with respect to a
joint interference tests at the crossings and copper/copper sulfate reference electrode. The
should be asked if other crossings exist not following table summarizes typical electrode
known to the subject company. A written potentials for the most commonly encountered
notice should be forwarded and accompanied metals installed underground:
by pertinent portions of maps marked to show
the known foreign crossings and the proposed Potential vs.
cathodic protection facilities in the near Cu-CuSO4
Metal
proximity of those crossings. They should be Ref. Electrode
asked to note any additional structure routes (Volts)
and/or locations on the maps and return them
Commercially pure
to the subject company. -1.75
Magnesium
CRITERIA FOR CATHODIC
PROTECTION Magnesium alloy (6% Al, 3%
-1.6
Zn, 0.15% Mn)
General
Zinc -1.1
The purpose of this section is to establish
various criteria for cathodic protection. Aluminum alloy (5% zinc) -1.05
Specific metals will be discussed and potential Commercially pure
measurements indicative of cathodic -0.8
Aluminum
protection presented.
Mild Steel (clean and shiny) -0.7
The object of cathodic protection is to control
the electrochemical corrosion mechanism of Mild Steel (rusted) -0.5
Opens in the ground bed cables – One of pinpoint the break. Disconnected anodes
the more common problems which can be located by observing structure-to-
develop with impressed current systems, soil potentials with the reference electrode
especially in congested areas, is a break in placed immediately over the anode
the anode circuit. Detection of an open in locations. A peak will be observed over
either the positive or negative leg is each functional anode; disconnected
relatively simple. Monthly data on the anodes will give no indication.
rectifier current and voltage outputs is Opens in negative and positive cables -
used to determine if the cable has slowly Negative and positive cables are
deteriorated or if the cables have been frequently installed in the same ditch line
severed. In most cases where a faulty DC and therefore the possibility of opens in
lead is encountered, the voltage output both wires should not be overlooked. The
will be near the level last recorded, but the same procedures should be employed as
current output will be very slight, if any. described above.
The steps taken to determine which lead
(or leads) is open and the method to locate Low Voltage – If the voltage is only about
the break are as follows: half what it should be (use circuit
resistance as calculated from previous
Open the negative cable – If the break is rectifier readings) when the current output
suspected in the negative connection, is at the maximum, the trouble may be due
attach a test lead from the structure (clip to:
to a test station, valve box, or any
accessible point of contact) to the negative Open circuits in half the stacks
DC terminal of the rectifier. If the resulting in half-wave rather than full-
negative cable is in fact open, the test lead wave rectification – This can be
will complete the circuit and current flow detected by turning the unit off and
will be observed. Examine the route of the feeling the individual plates or heat
negative cable to determine if any digging sinks of the stacks. If some of the
has recently occurred in the area. plates are warm and part are cold, the
stacks have an open circuit and are
Open in positive cable - A break in the half-waving.
ground bed circuit most commonly occurs
in the positive leg. This is due to the fact Rectifier connected for higher AC
that any break in the insulation which voltage than being supplied.
exposes bare copper will result in current In a three phase unit, additional
discharge to ground at that point. A problems may arise from an open
complete severance of the cable will circuit resulting in lower current in
shortly follow. If the open occurs before one phase than in the other two. This
the first anode, the entire ground bed will can be due to uneven aging of stacks
be lost. It should be noted, however, that or low line voltage.
breaks may occur at any point within the
circuit. If only a portion of the anode Major Rectifier Defects
string is disconnected, the anode bed When the rectifier unit is not functioning
resistance will increase appreciably (i.e. properly, systematically isolate the
for a given DC voltage, the current will components until the defective part is
drop). To determine if the positive leg is located.
in fact open, install a temporary anode bed
and connect to the positive terminal of the
rectifier. If current flows in the temporary
circuit, disconnect and use the conductive
method with a pipe and cable locator to