5/5/2018 Arch 7210: Lecture 5

Dynamics in Building Design

Lecture 6
Arch 7210, Structural Design for Dynamic Loads, University of Virginia Table of
Copyright © 1997-2010 Kirk Martini. 02-Oct-2012 15:13 Contents

Today's Topics

Vibrations in Buildings
Dynamic Properties of Building Structures
Period of vibration
Damping

Design issues
Resonance of structure with load
Human comfort
Mitigating vibration.

Dynamic Properties of Building Structures

Period of vibration

Japanese buildings, March 11, 2011

Alcoa Building
Steel, 26 stories.

Periods of vibration:

Transverse (east-west): 2.21 sec

Longitudinal (north-south): 1.67 sec

Torsional: 1.12 sec

[Chopra 1996, p. 38]

ISS
Golden Gate Bridge
Steel, center span of 4200 feet.

Periods of vibration:

Transverse: 18.2 sec

Vertical : 10.9 sec

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Longitudinal: 3.81 sec

Torsional: 4.43 sec

[Chopra 1996, p. 40]

KM
Most real structures are not single degree
of freedom systems
They are multi-degree of freedom systems,
whose state is defined more than one
displacement quantity.
Multiple degree of freedom systems have
multiple modes of vibration
Each mode has an associated period.
The longest period is called the
fundamental or natural period
Rule of thumb: Period ~= Number of
Stories / 10
e.g. a 15 story building has a fundamental period
of approximately 1.5 seconds. This applies
primarily to moment frame buildings. This rule
is very rough, but is good for understanding the
general ballpark.

Modes of Vibration

[Elements demo]

In a mode shape, the pattern of the

member forces exactly balances the pattern
of mass times acceleration.
i.e. the pattern of accelerations scaled by mass in
a mode shape is proportional to the pattern of
displacements scaled by stiffness.
The longest-period mode is called the
fundamental mode, and it's period of
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vibration is called the structure's natural

period of vibration
The period of the fundamental mode is also
called the fundamental period. The longer period
modes are called lower modes, while shorter
period modes are called higher modes.
Translational and torsional modes should
be well separated
(i.e. the periods of vibration are not close
together) to avoid the interaction of the modes
that occurred in the Tacoma Narrows bridge
collapse.

Damping

Damping is always good in buildings.

Damping reduces the effects of vibration and resonance.
Damping is an ill-defined phenomenon
It is generally used to describe any energy dissipation mechanism not associated with damage of
structural material, primarily friction and microcracking.
Mathematical models for damping are approximate and emperical.
The damping ratios used in practice are based on experimental measurements of buildings.
Damping depends on non-structural as well as structural elements.
Cladding and partitions can contribute significantly, as well as the type of structural connections.
Modern structures typically have less damping than older structures.
Lighter cladding; fewer partitions; partitions don't connect to ceiling; welded connections.

Approximate Damping Values

Working Stress Level (1/2 yield point)

Type of Structure Damping Ratio
Welded steel
Prestressed concrete 2-3%
Well reinforced concrete (slight cracking)
Reinforced concrete with considerable cracking 3-5%
Bolted or riveted steel
5-7%
Timber
At or just below yield point
Welded steel
5-7%
Prestressed concrete (without loss of prestress)
Reinforced concrete 7-10%
Bolted or riveted steel 10-15%
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Bolted timber
Nailed timber 15-20%
[Chopra 1996, p. 416]

Design Issues

Resonance
Dynamic effects are important when the period of the loading is close to the period of the structure.
Sources of dynamic loading
Wind
Earthquake
Occupants: walking, dancing, exercise
Machinery

Wind

The variation is wind velocity is highly irregular:

[Gupta 1993, fig 3.3.1]

Frequency content
The irregular signal can be viewed as a spectrum with varying power at different frequencies (periods)
Most of the power is low frequency (long period).
Approximately 5 to 10 seconds and greater (e.g. buildings greater than 50 stories, long span bridges,
etc.)

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Dynamic effects of wind are rarely important for structures where T < 2 seconds

Earthquake

Response Spectrum
A response spectrum shows the frequency content of an earthquake in
terms of the response of a single-degree-of-freedom oscillator.

[Arcade Demo]

Occupants and contents

Period is very short: describe motion with frequency in Hz rather than period in
seconds
Human activity
Walking: 1 - 3 Hz
Aerobics: 150 beats per minute = 2.5 Hz
First Harmonic: 300 beats per minute
Machinery
3000 rpm = 50 Hz
Resonance can be very perceptible
See Annoying Floors

Human Perception of Motion

Acceleration
Your body does not directly perceive displacement or velocity; it perceives acceleration: changes in
velocity.

Perception of Acceleration

Degree of Discomfort Acceleration level

Imperceptible < 5 mili-g
Perceptible < 5 mili-g - 15 mili-g
Annoying < 15 mili-g - 50 mili-g
Very Annoying < 50 mili-g - 150 mili-g
Intolerable > 150 mili-g
[Simiu 1986, p. 449]
Design is a trade off of building cost and building function
The World Trade Center was designed with the aim that 10 mili-g accelerations would occur at the top
occupied floor no more than 12 times per year [Simiu 1986, p. 451]
Prediction requires wind tunnel testing
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The acceleration response of the building depends on the behavior of turbulent flow, which has no good
mathematical models.

Vibration
In addition to perceiving general changes in velocity, the body is particularly sensitive to changes in
velocity that result from vibration.
The human body is a structure
Body parts have mass and stiffness, and hence natural periods of vibration. These parts can resonate
with a forcing function, and become highly perceptible and annoying. Humans are particularly
sensitive to vibrations in the range of 3 to 8 Hz [Murray 1989]
Perception depends on the combination of displacement and frequency
The combination of these two determines the acceleration.

[Post 1997]

A case study:

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Vibrations may be perceptible at very small amplitudes.

Adding stiffness may not help for impulse loads
It will decrease the amplitude of displacements for impulse loads (a heel drop), but also increase
frequency of vibration. These effects tend to offset.
Adding mass usually does help for impulse loads.
Adding mass tends to decrease displacements due to impulse loads and also decreases frequency of
vibration: both beneficial.

Mitigating Vibration

Structural tuning to avoid resonance.

If vibration problems result from resonance between the structure and loading, or if the structure vibrates
at a frequency to which humans are sensitive, it may be possible to change the structure's period of
vibration by altering its mass or stiffness. e.g.:
Stiffen structural members.
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Add columns.
Change deck material to lighter weight.
Artificial damping to reduce the effects of resonance
All structures have some inherent damping. There are devices which can increase damping by
dissipating energy when the structure moves.
Viscoelastic dampers: scotch tape
The World Trade Center used thousands of viscoelastic dampers, attaching the lower truss chords to
columns with a rubbery material that dissipates heat as it works back and forth under building motion.
These dampers were for human comfort rather than damage prevention or life safety. Similar dampers to
mitigate floor vibrations are discussed in the "Annoying Floors" article.

[Schueller 1977, p. 122]

Tuned mass dampers

A tuned mass damper (TMD) is a single-degree-of-freedom oscillator that is attached to a structure for
the purpose of reducing resonant vibrations. The mass and stiffness of the TMD are tuned to be close
to the structure's period of vibration, and the TMD is equipped with damping devices to dissipate
energy.
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The TMD dissipates energy as resonance builds

If the main structure starts to vibrate strongly, the TMD will also vibrate, dissipating significant
energy. TMD's are widely used for vibrating machinery, and have also been used to mitigate wind-
induced vibrations of tall buildings, and occupant-induced vibrations of floors.

Summary
Real structures are multi-degree-of freedom systems, and have several vibration modes, each with
its own period of vibration.
The mode with the longest period is called the fundamental period or natural period.

All structures have some inherent damping, which depends on the construction type, including
cladding and partitions.
Mathematical models for damping are highly approximate and emperical.

Dynamic effects are an important design consideration for a variety of circumstances:

A dynamic load tends to resonate with the structure.
Wind resonates with very long period structures (> 2 sec).
Earthquakes resonate most strongly with shorter period structures (< 1 sec), but can be
significant for longer period structures.
High frequency loads such as walking or exercise (1 Hz - 3 Hz) can resonate with floor
systems.
A structure vibrates in a range to which humans are sensitive (~3 Hz - ~8 Hz).

Vibration effects can sometimes be mitigated by altering the structure's period of vibration, adding
mass, or by increasing damping through artificial damping or tuned mass dampers.

American building codes have nothing to say about criteria for acceptable levels of vibration in a
structure. This issue must be worked out by the architect and engineer with the building owner.

Arch 7210, Structural Design for Dynamic Loads, University of Virginia Table of
Copyright © 1997-2010 Kirk Martini. 02-Oct-2012 15:13 Contents

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