Real Analysis Chapter 4 Solutions Jonathan Conder

2. Let x, y ∈ X and suppose that x 6= y. Then {x}c is open in the cofinite topology and contains y but not x. The
cofinite topology on X is therefore T1 .
Since X is infinite it contains two distinct points x and y. Suppose there exist disjoint open sets A and B (in the
cofinite topology) such that x ∈ A and y ∈ B. Then A ⊆ B c , which is finite so A is also finite. This is a contradiction
because Ac is finite but X = A ∪ Ac is infinite. Hence, the cofinite topology on X is not T2 .
Suppose that X is countable, and let x ∈ X. Choose a surjection q : N → {x}c , and for each n ∈ N set An := {q(k)}nk=1
and Bn := Acn , so that x ∈ Bn and Bn is open. If U is open and x ∈ U then U c ⊆ {x}c is finite and hence U c ⊆ AN
for some sufficiently large N ∈ N. This implies that BN ⊆ U, so {Bn }∞
n=1 is a neighbourhood base at x. The cofinite
topology on X is therefore first countable.
Conversely, suppose that the cofinite topology on X is first countable. Choose x ∈ X and a countable neighbourhood
base {An }∞ c c c
n=1 at x. If y ∈ {x} then {y} is an open neighbourhood of x, so there exists n ∈ N such that An ⊆ {y} , and
hence y ∈ Acn . It follows that {x}c ⊆ ∪∞ c c
n=1 An , which is countable because each An is finite. Therefore X = {x} ∪ {x}
c

is also countable.

3. Let (X, ρ) be a metric space with closed subspaces A and B. Given x ∈ X and ε ∈ (0, ∞), let y ∈ Bε (x). If a ∈ A
then ρ(x, A) ≤ ρ(x, a) ≤ ρ(x, y) + ρ(y, a) < ρ(y, a) + ε, so ρ(x, A) − ε ≤ ρ(y, A). Similarly ρ(y, A) − ε ≤ ρ(x, A), so
−ε ≤ ρ(y, A) − ρ(x, A) ≤ ε. This shows that x 7→ ρ(x, A) is continuous. Similarly x 7→ ρ(x, B) is continuous.
It follows that x 7→ ρ(x, A) − ρ(x, B) is continuous, so the preimages of (−∞, 0) and (0, ∞) under this map are open.
These preimages are {x ∈ X | ρ(x, A) < ρ(x, B)} and {x ∈ X | ρ(x, A) > ρ(x, B)}, which are clearly disjoint. The first
set contains A and the second contains B because ρ(x, A) = 0 iff x ∈ A and ρ(x, B) = 0 iff x ∈ B. Indeed, if x ∈ X
and ρ(x, A) = 0 then every neighbourhood of x meets A, because no r ∈ (0, ∞) is a lower bound for {ρ(x, a)}a∈A .
Finally, (X, ρ) is T1 because distinct points are separated by positive distance. Therefore (X, ρ) is normal.

4. Firstly ∅, R ∈ T because ∅ = ∅ ∪ (∅ ∩ Q) and R = R ∪ (∅ ∩ Q). If {Wα }α∈A ⊆ T and Wα has decomposition

Uα ∪ (Vα ∩ Q) for each α ∈ A, then ∪α∈A Wα = (∪α∈A Uα ) ∪ ((∪α∈A Vα ) ∩ Q) ∈ T. Moreover, if A = {1, 2} then

W1 ∩ W2 = (U1 ∪ (V1 ∩ Q)) ∩ (U2 ∪ (V2 ∩ Q))

= (U1 ∩ U2 ) ∪ (U1 ∩ (V2 ∩ Q)) ∪ ((V1 ∩ Q) ∩ U2 ) ∪ ((V1 ∩ Q) ∩ (V2 ∩ Q))
= (U1 ∩ U2 ) ∪ (((U1 ∩ V2 ) ∪ (V1 ∩ U2 ) ∪ (V1 ∩ V2 )) ∩ Q)
∈ T.

By induction it follows that T is closed under finite intersections, so T is a topology.

Let x, y ∈ R be distinct. There exist disjoint open intervals U, V ⊆ R such that x ∈ U and y ∈ V. Since U = U ∪(∅∩Q)
and V = V ∪ (∅ ∩ Q), both these intervals are open in T. Therefore T is Hausdorff.
Note that Qc is closed in T. Let W1 , W2 ∈ T be neighbourhoods of 0 and Qc respectively. Since 0 ∈ W1 , there exists
n ∈ N such that (− n1 , n1 ) ∩ Q ⊆ W1 . If W2 has decomposition √
U2 ∪ (V2 ∩ Q), then Qc ⊆ U2 because (V2 ∩ Q) ∩ Qc = ∅.
In particular U2 ∩ (− n1 , n1 ) 6= ∅, because it contains, say, 2n2 . This implies that U2 ∩ (− n1 , n1 ) ∩ Q 6= ∅, since Q is dense
in R with respect to the usual topology. Therefore W2 ∩ W1 6= ∅, so T is not regular.

5. Let X be a separable metric space with a countable dense subspace A. Then B := {B1/n (a) | a ∈ A, n ∈ N} is
countable because N × N is countable. Clearly each member of B is open in X. Conversely, if U ⊆ X is open
and x ∈ U, then x ∈ B1/n (x) ⊆ U for some n ∈ N. If x ∈ A then B1/n (x) ∈ B. Otherwise x ∈ acc(A) because

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X = A = A ∪ acc(A). It follows that B1/2n (x) contains some point a ∈ A, in which case x ∈ B1/2n (a) ∈ B. By the
triangle inequality B1/2n (a) ⊆ B1/n (x) ⊆ U. This shows that U is the union of a (possibly empty) subcollection of B.
Therefore B is a base for the topology on X, so this topology is second countable.

6. (a) Clearly R = ∪∞n=1 (−n, n]. Let a, b, c, d ∈ R and suppose that a < b and c < d. Then (a, b] ∩ (c, d] = ∅ or
max{a, c} < min{b, d}, in which case (a, b] ∩ (c, d] = (max{a, c}, min{b, d}]. This shows that E is a base for a
topology T on R. Clearly each member of E is open in T. If a, b ∈ R and a < b then

(∪∞ ∞
n=1 (a − n, a − n + 1]) ∪ (∪n=1 (b + n − 1, b + n])

is open in T, so its complement (a, b] is closed in T.

(b) Let x ∈ R and note that N := {(x − n1 , x]}∞ n=1 is a collection of open neighbourhoods of x. If U ∈ T contains x
then (since E is a base for T) there exist a, b ∈ R such that a < b and x ∈ (a, b] ⊆ U. It follows that (x − n1 , x] ⊆ U
for some n ∈ N (with n1 ≤ x − a). Therefore N is a countable neighbourhood base at x, so T is first countable.
Let B be a base for T, and let x ∈ R. Then B contains a neighbourhood base at x, so there exists Ux ∈ B
such that x ∈ Ux ⊆ (x − 1, x]. In particular sup Ux = x, which implies that x 7→ Ux is injective. Therefore B is
uncountable. This implies that T is not second countable.
(c) Let x ∈ R and let U ∈ T contain x. Then x ∈ (a, b] ⊆ U for some a, b ∈ R with a < b. There exists q ∈ (a, x) ∩ Q,
since Q is dense in R with respect to the usual topology. Clearly q ∈ U \ {x}, so x ∈ acc(Q) with respect to T.
Therefore acc(Q) = R, so Q is dense in R with respect to T. In particular T is separable.

7. Suppose (xn )∞ ∞
n=1 has a subsequence (xnk )k=1 which converges to x. If U is a neighbourhood of x, there exists N ∈ N
such that xnk ∈ U for all k ∈ N with k ≥ N, hence for infinitely many k. Therefore x is a cluster point of (xn )∞
n=1 .

Conversely, suppose that x is a cluster point of (xn )∞

n=1 . Since X is first countable, there exists a nested countable
∞
neighbourhood base {Un }n=1 at x. Set n0 := 0 and, for each k ∈ N, choose nk ∈ N inductively so that nk > nk−1 and
xnk ∈ Uk . This is possible because {m ∈ N | xm ∈ Uk } is infinite and hence {m ∈ N | xm ∈ Uk } \ [1, nk−1 ] 6= ∅. If U
is a neighbourhood of x then UN ⊆ U for some N ∈ N. It follows that xnk ∈ Uk ⊆ UN ⊆ U for all k ∈ N with k ≥ N.
This shows that the subsequence (xnk )∞ ∞
k=1 of (xn )n=1 converges to x.

10. (a) Suppose X is connected, and let A ⊆ X be clopen. Then A and Ac are disjoint open sets which cover X. Since
X is connected, it follows that A = ∅ or Ac = ∅. Therefore ∅ and X are the only clopen subsets of X.
Conversely, suppose that ∅ and X are the only clopen subsets of X. If U, V ⊆ X are disjoint open sets which
cover X, then U = V c and hence U is clopen. This implies that U ∈ {∅, X}, so U = ∅ or V = ∅. Therefore X
is not disconnected, i.e. it is connected.
(b) Define E := ∪α∈A Eα and suppose that U, V ⊆ E are non-empty open sets (relative to E) which cover E. Choose
x ∈ ∩α∈A Eα , and without loss of generality assume x ∈ U. Also choose y ∈ V, so that y ∈ Eα for some α ∈ A.
Now x ∈ U ∩ Eα and y ∈ V ∩ Eα , so U ∩ Eα and V ∩ Eα are non-empty open sets (relative to Eα ) which cover
Eα . Since Eα is connected, these sets cannot be disjoint. Therefore U ∩ V 6= ∅, which shows that E is connected.
(c) Let U, V ⊆ A be disjoint open sets (relative to A) which cover A. Then U = U 0 ∩ A and V = V 0 ∩ A for some
open sets U 0 , V 0 ⊆ X which cover A such that U 0 ∩ V 0 ∩ A = ∅. It follows that U 0 ∩ A and V 0 ∩ A are disjoint open
sets (relative to A) which cover A. Since A is connected, U 0 ∩ A = ∅ without loss of generality. This implies that
U 0 ∩ acc(A) = ∅, because if x ∈ U 0 ∩ acc(A) then (U 0 \ {x}) ∩ A 6= ∅, which is impossible. Therefore U 0 ∩ A = ∅,
because A = A ∪ acc(A), and hence A is connected.

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(d) Let x ∈ X and set C := {A ⊆ X | A is connected and x ∈ A}. Then C := ∪C is connected by part (b). If A ⊆ X
is connected and C ⊆ A then x ∈ A and hence A ∈ C. This implies that A ⊆ C, so C is maximal. Similarly,
if C 0 ⊆ X is a maximal connected set containing x, then C 0 ∈ C and hence C 0 ⊆ C, so C 0 = C because C 0 is
maximal. Therefore C is unique. Since C is connected (by part (c)) and C ⊆ C, it follows that C = C, which
means C is closed.

13. Clearly U ∩ A ⊆ U . Conversely, note that A is contained in the closed set U c ∪ (U ∩ A), and hence U c ∪ (U ∩ A) = X.
This implies that U ⊆ U ∩ A, so U ⊆ U ∩ A. Therefore U = U ∩ A.

14. Suppose that f is continuous and let A ⊆ X. Then f −1 (f (A)) is closed (as f (A) is closed) and A ⊆ f −1 (f (A)) because
f (A) ⊆ f (A). It follows that A ⊆ f −1 (f (A)), which implies that f (A) ⊆ f (A).
Now suppose that f (A) ⊆ f (A) for all A ⊆ X. If B ⊆ Y, then f −1 (B) ⊆ X and hence f (f −1 (B)) ⊆ f (f −1 (B)). Since
f (f −1 (B)) ⊆ B, this implies that f (f −1 (B)) ⊆ B, or equivalently f −1 (B) ⊆ f −1 (B).
Finally, suppose that f −1 (B) ⊆ f −1 (B) for all B ⊆ Y. If C ⊆ Y is closed, then f −1 (C) ⊆ f −1 (C) = f −1 (C). This
implies that f −1 (C) = f −1 (C), so C is closed and hence f is continuous.

16. (a) Consider the following diagrams:

id f
Y X
∆ h
π1 π1
Y ×Y Y g Y ×Y Y
id
π2 π2

Y Y

There exist unique maps ∆ : Y → Y × Y and h : X → Y × Y which make the resulting diagrams commute, and
they are both continuous by Proposition 4.11. Note that ∆(Y ) = {(y, y) | y ∈ Y } is closed, because ∆(Y )c is
open: if (a, b) ∈ ∆(Y )c then a 6= b and there exist disjoint open neighbourhoods U and V of a and b respectively;
in particular (a, b) ∈ U × V ⊆ ∆(Y )c . It follows that {x ∈ X | f (x) = g(x)} = h−1 (∆(Y )) is closed.
(b) Since {x ∈ X | f (x) = g(x)} is closed and contains a dense subset of X, it is equal to X. Therefore f = g.

17. Suppose that, for every x, y ∈ X with x 6= y, there exists f ∈ F such that f (x) 6= f (y). Given x, y ∈ X with x 6= y,
choose such a function f and disjoint open sets U, V ⊆ R such that f (x) ∈ U and f (y) ∈ V. Then f −1 (U ) and f −1 (V )
are disjoint members of T with x ∈ f −1 (U ) and y ∈ f −1 (V ). This shows that T is Hausdorff.
Now suppose that T is Hausdorff, and let x, y ∈ X be distinct. There exists U ∈ T such that x ∈ U and y ∈ / U. Clearly
−1
∅ 6= U 6= X, so there exist U1 , U2 , . . . , Un ⊆ R and f1 , f2 , . . . , fn ∈ F such that x ∈ ∩k=1 fk (Uk ) ⊆ U. It follows that
n

/ fk−1 (Uk ) for some k ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n}, and hence fk (x) 6= fk (y).
y∈

22. If x0 ∈ X, then 0 ≤ ρ(fn (x0 ), fm (x0 )) ≤ supx∈X ρ(fn (x), fm (x)) for all m, n ∈ N. Therefore (fn (x0 ))∞
n=1 is a Cauchy
sequence in the complete metric space (Y, ρ), which has a limit f (x0 ). This defines a map f : X → Y. Given ε ∈ (0, ∞)
there exists N ∈ N such that supx∈X ρ(fn (x), fm (x)) < 2ε for all m, n ∈ N with m ≥ n ≥ N. If x ∈ X and n ∈ N
with n ≥ N then ρ(fm (x), f (x)) < 2ε for some m ∈ N with m ≥ n, so ρ(fn (x), f (x)) < ε. This implies that
supx∈X ρ(fn (x), f (x)) ≤ ε for all n ∈ N with n ≥ N, so (supx∈X ρ(fn (x), f (x)))∞ n=1 converges to 0.

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Suppose g : X → Y and (supx∈X ρ(fn (x), g(x)))∞ ε

n=1 converges to 0. If ε ∈ (0, ∞) and x ∈ X then ρ(fN (x), f (x)) < 2
and ρ(fN (x), g(x)) < 2ε for some N ∈ N, which implies that ρ(f (x), g(x)) < ε. Therefore ρ(f (x), g(x)) = 0, so
f (x) = g(x) and hence f = g. This shows that f is unique.
Now suppose that fn is continuous for all n ∈ N. Let x0 ∈ X and suppose that U ⊆ Y is a neighbourhood of f (x0 ).
There exists ε ∈ (0, ∞) such that Bε (f (x0 )) ⊆ U, and there exists N ∈ N such that supx∈X ρ(fN (x), f (x)) < 3ε . Since
−1
fN is continuous, V := fN (Bε/3 (fN (x0 ))) is an open neighbourhood of x0 . If x ∈ V then
ε ε ε
ρ(f (x), f (x0 )) ≤ ρ(f (x), fN (x)) + ρ(fN (x), fN (x0 )) + ρ(fN (x0 ), f (x0 )) < + + =ε
3 3 3
and hence f (V ) ⊆ Bε (f (x0 )) ⊆ U. This implies that f −1 (U ) is a neighbourhood of x0 , so f is continuous.

23. Let A ⊆ R be closed a ∈ R, b ∈ (a, ∞) and f ∈ C(A, [a, b]). We aim to extend f to some F ∈ C(R, [a, b]). Since Ac is
open, it is a disjoint union of open intervals {(an , bn )}∞ n=1 . At most two of these are unbounded, and on these we let
F be constant, equal to the value of f at the finite endpoint. On bounded intervals (an , bn ), we let F be the linear
function from (an , f (an )) to (bn , f (bn )). By construction F has the same image as f, and is continuous on Ac .
Given x ∈ A, we will show that F is right continuous at x; the proof of left continuity is similar. For each ε ∈ (0, ∞),
there exists δ ∈ (0, ∞) such that |f (x) − f (y)| < ε for all y ∈ (x, x + δ) ∩ A. If (x, x + δ) ⊆ A then we are done.
Otherwise (x, x + δ) meets (an , bn ) for some n ∈ N; this implies that an = x or an ∈ (x, x + δ). If an = x we are
done, since F is continuous on [an , bn ]. Otherwise |F (x) − F (y)| < ε for all y ∈ (x, an ): if y ∈ A we know this already,
and if y ∈ (am , bm ) for some m ∈ N then F (y) is between f (am ) and f (bm ), which are both within ε of f (x) = F (x)
because x ≤ am < bm < an < x + δ and am , bm ∈ A. Therefore F is right continuous at x, and we are done.

24. If X is normal, then by Urysohn’s lemma and the Tietze extension theorem, it satisfies the conclusions of Urysohn’s
lemma and the Tietze extension theorem. Conversely, if X satisfies the conclusion of Urysohn’s lemma, we claim that
X is normal. To this end, let A and B be disjoint closed subsets of X. There exists f ∈ C(X, [0, 1]) such that f |A = 0
and f |B = 1. Note that f −1 ((−∞, 37
1
)) and f −1 (( 42
37
, ∞)) are disjoint open sets which contain A and B respectively.
Therefore X is normal. Finally, suppose that X satisfies the conclusion of the Tietze extension theorem. We need to
show that X is normal; by the above it suffices to show that X satisfies the conclusion of Urysohn’s lemma. To this
end, let A and B be disjoint closed subsets of X. Note that A ∪ B is closed, and that A and B are open in A ∪ B.
Therefore χB ∈ C(A ∪ B, [0, 1]), and there exists f ∈ C(X, [0, 1]) extending χB , as required.

26. (a) As is often the case, it is easier to talk about disconnected spaces. We need to show that, if f (X) is disconnected,
then X is disconnected. Since f (X) is disconnected, it has a nonempty proper subset A which is both open and
closed (clopen). Note that A = U ∩ f (X) for some open set U ⊆ Y, and A = C ∩ f (X) for some closed set
C ⊆ Y, by definition of the relative topology on f (X). Therefore f −1 (A) = f −1 (U ) = f −1 (C) is a nonempty
proper clopen subset of X. This implies that X is disconnected.
(b) Again we prove the contrapositive: if X is disconnected, then it is not arcwise connected (usually this is called
path connected). Let A be a nonempty proper clopen subset of X. There exists x0 ∈ A and x1 ∈ Ac , but there
is no path joining these points: if there was such a path, say f, then f ([0, 1]) ∩ A is a nonempty proper clopen
subset of f ([0, 1]), which is impossible by part (a).
(c) By part (a) the spaces X + := X ∩ ((0, ∞) × R) and X − := X ∩ ((−∞, 0) × R) are connected. If A is a clopen
subset of X, we need to show that A = ∅ or A = X. Without loss of generality (0, 0) ∈ A (otherwise, take Ac ).
Clearly, there is a sequence in X + which converges to (0, 0). Since A is a neighbourhood of (0, 0), it follows that

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A ∩ X + is a nonempty clopen subset of X + . This implies that A ∩ X + = X + . Similarly, A ∩ X − = X − . Therefore

A = X, which shows that X is connected.
If X is path connected, there should be a path f from (0, 0) to ( π1 , 0). Define t0 := sup f −1 ({(0, 0)}) and note
that f (t0 ) = (0, 0) because f −1 ({(0, 0)}) is compact. Since f is continuous, there exists t1 ∈ (t0 , 1) such that
f (t) ∈ B 1 (0, 0) for all t ∈ [t0 , t1 ]. Note that f (t1 ) ∈ Y, so π1 (f (t1 )) 6= 0, where π1 : R2 → R is the projection
2
onto the x-axis. In particular, there is a point (x, 1) of Y such that x is between π1 (f (t1 )) and 0. By part (a)
π1 (f ([t0 , t1 ])) is connected, so it contains x (if not, then (−∞, x) ∩ π1 (f ([t0 , t1 ])) is a nonempty proper clopen
subset) and hence f ([t0 , t1 ]) contains (x, 1). This contradicts the fact that f ([t0 , t1 ]) ⊆ B 1 (0, 0).
2

27. If X = ∅ then X is connected. Otherwise choose x ∈ X and let C ⊆ X be the connected component of x. Suppose
that C 6= X. Then there exists y ∈ C c , and C is closed (by the previous homework), so there exist α1 , α2 , . . . , αn ∈ A
and Uα1 ⊆ Xα1 , Uα2 ⊆ Xα2 , . . . , Uαn ⊆ Xαn open such that y ∈ ∩nk=1 πα−1
k
(Uαk ) ⊆ C c . Define zk ∈ X by

π (y), α ∈ {α , α , . . . , α }
α 1 2 k
πα (zk ) :=
π (x), α ∈
/ {α , α , . . . , α }
α 1 2 k

for each k ∈ {0, 1, . . . , n}, so that z0 = x and zn ∈ ∩nk=1 πα−1

k
(Uαk ). Given k ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n} define ik : Xαk → X by

p, α = αk
πα (ik (p)) := ,
π (z ), α 6= α
α k k

so that πα ◦ ik is continuous for all α ∈ A and ik is continuous. In particular ik (Xαk ) is connected, and it contains
both zk and zk−1 . Since z0 = x this implies that i1 (Xα1 ) ⊆ C, and by induction it follows that zn ∈ in (Xαn ) ⊆ C.
But zn ∈ C c , which is a contradiction. Therefore C = X, so X is connected.

32. Suppose X is Hausdorff and let hxα iα∈A be a net in X which converges to x ∈ X. If y ∈ X and x 6= y, there exist
disjoint open sets U, V ⊆ X such that x ∈ U and y ∈ V. There exists β ∈ A such that xα ∈ U for all α ∈ A with
α & β. If γ ∈ A then there exists δ ∈ A such that δ & β and δ & γ, which implies that hxα iα∈A is not eventually in
V because xδ ∈/ V. Therefore x is the only limit point of hxα iα∈A .
Conversely, suppose that X is not Hausdorff, and choose x, y ∈ X distinct with no disjoint open neighbourhoods.
For each pair (Nx , Ny ) ∈ Nx × Ny we may choose xNx ,Ny ∈ Nx ∩ Ny , because if Nx and Ny were disjoint, they would
contain disjoint open neighbourhoods of x and y respectively. If Nx ∈ Nx , choose Ny ∈ Ny and note that xOx ,Oy ∈
Ox ∩ Oy ⊆ Nx for all (Ox , Oy ) ∈ Nx × Ny such that (Ox , Oy ) & (Nx , Ny ). This implies that hxNx ,Ny i(Nx ,Ny )∈Nx ×Ny
converges to x, and a similar argument shows that it also converges to y.

34. If hxα iα∈A is a net in X which converges to x ∈ X, and f ∈ F, then f is continuous so hf (xα )iα∈A converges to f (x).
Conversely, let hxα iα∈A be a net in X and suppose there exists x ∈ X such that hf (xα )iα∈A converges to f (x) for all
f ∈ F. Given a neighbourhood U ⊆ X of x, there exist f1 , f2 , . . . , fn ∈ F and U1 ⊆ f1 (X), U2 ⊆ f2 (X), . . . , Un ⊆ fn (X)
open such that x ∈ ∩nk=1 fk−1 (Uk ) ⊆ U. For each k ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n} there exists βk ∈ A such that fk (xα ) ∈ Uk
for all α ∈ A with α & βk . By induction there exists an upper bound β for {β1 , β2 , . . . , βn }, and it follows that
xα ∈ ∩nk=1 fk−1 (Uk ) ⊆ U for all α ∈ A with α & β. Therefore hxα iα∈A converges to x.

36. Suppose there exists a topology T on X in which convergence corresponds to pointwise almost everywhere convergence.
For each n ∈ N ∪ {0} and k ∈ {0, 1, . . . , 2n − 1} define f2n +k := χ[2−n k,2−n (k+1)] . Since it takes on each of the values 0

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and 1 infinitely many times, (fn (x))∞ ∞

n=1 fails to converge for all x ∈ [0, 1]. In particular, (fn )n=1 does not converge to
0 in (X, T). Hence there exists U ∈ T such that 0 ∈ U with the property that for each N ∈ N there exists n ∈ N such
that n ≥ N and fn ∈ / U. Define n0 := 0, and for each k ∈ N choose nk ∈ N so that nk > nk−1 and fnk ∈ / U. Clearly
∞ 1 ∞ ∞
(fnk )k=1 converges to 0 in L (as does (fn )n=1 ), so it has a subsequence (fnkj )j=1 which converges to 0 pointwise
almost everywhere. This is impossible because fnkj ∈ / U for all j ∈ N.

38. Suppose that T ⊆ T 0 . If x, y ∈ X and x 6= y, there exist disjoint sets U, V ∈ T ⊆ T 0 such that x ∈ U and y ∈ V.
Therefore (X, T 0 ) is Hausdorff. Suppose that (X, T 0 ) is compact, and let V ∈ T 0 . Then V c is closed in T 0 , hence
compact relative to T 0 . The identity map from (X, T 0 ) to (X, T) is continuous, so V c is compact relative to T. Since
T is Hausdorff V c is closed in T, so V ∈ T and hence T = T 0 . In particular, if T ⊂ T 0 then (X, T 0 ) is not compact.
Conversely, suppose that T 0 ⊂ T. The identity map from (X, T) to (X, T 0 ) is continuous, so (X, T 0 ) is compact.
Therefore (X, T 0 ) is not Hausdorff, by the previous argument.

39. Suppose a space X has a countable open cover {Un }∞ n=1 with no finite subcover. For each n ∈ N there exists
xn ∈ (∪nk=1 Uk )c . Let hxnk i∞ ∞
k=1 be a subsequence of hxk ik=1 and let x0 ∈ X. Then x0 ∈ Um for some m ∈ N, and
/ Um for sufficiently large k ∈ N. This implies that hxnk i∞
xnk ∈ k=1 does not converge, so X is not sequentially compact.

40. Let hxn i∞ ∞ ∞ c ∞

n=1 be a sequence in X, and for each n ∈ N define En := {xk }k=n . If ∩n=1 E n = ∅, then {(E n ) }n=1 is a
countable open cover of X, which has a finite subcover {(E n1 )c , (E n2 )c , . . . , (E nm )c }. It follows that

∩m m m c c c
k=1 Enk ⊆ ∩k=1 E nk = (∪k=1 (E nk ) ) = X = ∅,

which is a contradiction because xN ∈ ∩m m ∞

k=1 Enk for N := max{nk }k=1 . Hence there exists x0 ∈ ∩n=1 E n . If U ⊆ X
is a neighbourhood of x0 and n ∈ N then U \ {x0 } meets En , so there exists k ∈ N such that k ≥ n and xk ∈ U.
This implies that x0 is a cluster point of hxn i∞ ∞
n=1 . By exercise 7 (see above), it follows that hxn in=1 has a convergent
subsequence provided that X is first countable.
P∞
43. Let hank i∞ ∞
k=1 be a subsequence of hak ik=1 , and define x :=
k −(nk +1) . Then x ∈ [0, 1) (in fact x ∈ [0, 1 ])
k=1 (1+(−1) )2 4
and ank (x) = 12 (1 + (−1)k ) for all k ∈ N. The sequence hank (x)i∞ k=1 = h0, 1, 0, 1, . . . i does not converge, so ha i∞
nk k=1
does not converge in [0, 1][0,1) and hence hak i∞
k=1 has no convergent subsequence.

44. If {Un }∞
n=1 is a (countable) open cover of f (X), then {f
−1 (U )}∞ is an open cover of X, which has a finite subcover,
n n=1
−1 N N
say {f (Un )}n=1 . It follows that {Un }n=1 covers f (X), which shows that f (X) is countably compact.

45. Suppose X is countably compact. If f ∈ C(X), then f (X) is countably compact by Exercise 44. Since C is first
countable, it follows that f (X) is sequentially compact by Exercise 40, and hence bounded by Heine-Borel.
Conversely, suppose that X has a countable open cover {Un }∞ n=1 with no finite subcover. For each n ∈ N there exists
n c ∞
xn ∈ (∪k=1 Uk ) . Define C := {xn }n=1 , and let K ⊆ C. If x0 ∈ X then x0 ∈ Un for some n ∈ N. Since X is T1 ,
for each k ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n} there is an open neighbourhood Vk of x0 such that xk ∈/ Vk \ {x0 } (if xk = x0 just set
n
Vk := X). It follows that Un ∩ (∩k=1 Vk ) is a neighbourhood of x0 which is disjoint from K \ {x0 }, so x0 ∈/ acc(K).
∞
Therefore acc(K) = ∅, so every subset of C is closed. If n ∈ N then xn ∈ Um for some m ∈ N, and hxk ik=1 eventually
lies outside Um . Hence we may define f : C → N by f (c) := max{k ∈ N | xk = c}. Note that f is continuous and
unbounded, because every subset of C is closed and f (xn ) ≥ n for all n ∈ N. By Tietze’s extension theorem, there
exists an extension F ∈ C(X) of f, which is unbounded and hence C(X) 6= BC(X).

6
 Real Analysis Chapter 4 Solutions Jonathan Conder

49. (a) If x ∈ E, then x has a compact neighbourhood N ⊆ E. This contains an open neighbourhood U ⊆ N of x, and
U = U ∩ E is relatively open, so N is a neighbourhood of x in the relative topology. It is actually a compact
neighbourhood, because the topologies on N relative to E and X are the same. Therefore E is locally compact.
(b) Let x ∈ E and choose a compact neighbourhood N ⊆ E of x in the relative topology. As N is a compact
subspace of the Hausdorff space X, it is closed. Let U ⊆ N be a relatively open neighbourhood of x, so that
U = V ∩ E for some open V ⊆ X. By Exercise 13, x ∈ V ⊆ V = V ∩ E ⊆ N ⊆ E, which shows that E is open.
(c) Suppose E is locally compact in the relative topology. Since E ⊆ X is closed, it is compact and E is a compact
Hausdorff space. The relative topologies on E inherited from E and X are the same, so E is locally compact
in the relative topology inherited from E. If C ⊆ E is relatively closed and E ⊆ C, then C = D ∩ E for some
closed D ⊆ X, so C is closed and hence C = E. This implies that E is dense in E, so E is relatively open in E
by part (b) with X replaced by E.
Conversely, suppose that E is relatively open in E. Again, note that E is a compact Hausdorff space, in which
case E is locally compact in the relative topology inherited from E, by part (a). This is the same as the relative
topology inherited from X, so E is also locally compact in that topology.

51. Suppose φ is proper, and extend it to a map X ∗ → Y ∗ . Let U ⊆ Y ∗ be open. If ∞Y ∈ / U then φ−1 (U ) is open,
because φ|X is continuous. Otherwise U c ⊆ Y is compact, so φ−1 (U c ) is compact and hence φ−1 (U ) = φ−1 (U c )c is
open (as X ∗ is Hausdorff, or because ∞X ∈ φ−1 (U )). Therefore φ is continuous.
Conversely, suppose that φ extends continuously to a map X ∗ → Y ∗ . If K ⊆ Y is compact, then K c is open in Y ∗ ,
so φ−1 (K c ) is open in X ∗ . Since ∞X ∈ φ−1 (K c ), it follows that φ−1 (K) = φ−1 (K c )c is compact. Thus φ is proper.

54. (a) If K ⊆ Q is a neighbourhood of 0, then (−ε, ε) ∩ Q ⊆ K for some ε ∈ (0, ∞) ∩ Q. Clearly √ε2 ∈ K \ K, so K is
not a closed subset of R; in particular it is not compact. Therefore 0 has no compact neighbourhood in Q.
(b) Define K := {0} ∪ { n1 }∞ c ∞ 1 1
n=1 , and note that K = ∪n=1 ( n+1 , n ) ∪ (−∞, 0) ∪ (1, ∞) is open, so K is closed (in R)
and bounded, hence compact. For each n ∈ N let fn : Q → C be the indicator function of { n1 }. The sequence
hfn i∞
n=1 converges to 0 pointwise, but not uniformly on K.

56. (a) If t ∈ (0, ∞) then Φ0 (t) = (t + 1)−2 > 0, so Φ is strictly increasing on [0, ∞) by the mean value theorem. Since
Φ(t) < 1 for all t ∈ [0, ∞), it follows that Φ is strictly increasing. If s, t ∈ [0, ∞) then
t+s t s t s
Φ(t + s) = = + ≤ + = Φ(s) + Φ(t),
1+t+s 1+t+s 1+t+s 1+t 1+s
and the same clearly holds if s = ∞ or t = ∞.
(b) If y ∈ Y then Φ(ρ(y, y)) = Φ(0) = 0. Conversely, if x, y ∈ Y and Φ(ρ(x, y)) = 0 then ρ(x, y) = 0 (as Φ is
injective) and hence x = y. Clearly Φ ◦ ρ is nonnegative and bounded. If x, y, z ∈ Y then Φ(ρ(x, y)) = Φ(ρ(y, x))
and Φ(ρ(x, z)) ≤ Φ(ρ(x, y) + ρ(y, z)) ≤ Φ(ρ(x, y)) + Φ(ρ(y, z)). Therefore Φ ◦ ρ is a metric.
If y ∈ Y and r ∈ (0, ∞) then
Φ◦ρ
Brρ (y) = {x ∈ Y | ρ(x, y) < r} = {x ∈ Y | Φ(ρ(x, y)) < Φ(r)} = BΦ(r) (y).
r
Moreover, if r < 1 then r = Φ( 1−r ) and hence

BrΦ◦ρ (y) = {x ∈ Y | Φ(ρ(x, y)) < Φ( 1−r

r
)} = {x ∈ Y | ρ(x, y) < r
1−r } = B ρ r (y).
1−r

Otherwise BrΦ◦ρ (y) = Y. This shows that ρ and Φ ◦ ρ define the same topologies on Y.

7
 Real Analysis Chapter 4 Solutions Jonathan Conder

(c) The proof is the same as part (b), except that

B1 (g) = {f ∈ CX | ρ(f, g) < 1} = {f ∈ CX | sup |f (x) − g(x)| < ∞}

x∈X

for all g ∈ CX . These sets are still open in the topology of uniform convergence, as required.
(d) It is routine to check that ρ is a metric. Let r ∈ (0, ∞) and f ∈ CX . For each g ∈ Br (f ) there exists ε ∈ (0, ∞)
such that Bε (g) ⊆ Br (f ). Choose m, N ∈ N so that Φ(m−1 ) < 2ε and ∞ −n < ε . Note that
P
n=N 2 2
(  N −1 ! )
X −1 X 
 X
−n ε
{h ∈ C | sup |h(x) − g(x)| < m } ⊆ h ∈ C  2 Φ sup |h(x) − g(x)| < ⊆ Bε (g).
x∈U N
 x∈U n 2
n=1

This shows that Br (f ) is open in the topology of uniform convergence on compact sets. Conversely, let f ∈ CX
and m, n ∈ N. For each g ∈ CX with supx∈U n |g(x) − f (x)| < m−1 , there exists ε ∈ (0, ∞) such that

{h ∈ CX | sup |h(x) − g(x)| < ε} ⊆ {h ∈ CX | sup |h(x) − f (x)| < m−1 }.

x∈U n x∈U n

It is clear that B2−n Φ(ε) (g) is contained in the former set. This shows that the latter set is open in the metric
topology, so the two topologies are equivalent.

57. (a) Let {Uα }α∈A be an open cover of X, and choose a sequence hEn i∞ n=1 of precompact open subsets of X such that
E n ⊆ En+1 for all n ∈ N and ∪n=1 En = X. Set E0 := ∅ and for each n ∈ N define Un := {Uα ∩(En+2 \E n−1 )}α∈A ,
∞

so that Un is an open cover of the compact set E n+1 \ En (or E 2 in the case n = 1), having a finite subcover
Vn . Write ∪∞
n=1 Vn = {Vn }n=1 , and note that this cover is a refinement of {Uα }α∈A . We claim it is locally finite.
∞

Indeed, if x ∈ X then x ∈ En+2 \ E n−1 for some n ∈ N, which is an open neighbourhood of x that meets no
members of Vm for all m ∈ N with |m − n| ≥ 3. If n ∈ N then V n is a closed subset of E m+2 for some m ∈ N,
and is therefore compact.
For each x ∈ X there exists n ∈ N such that x ∈ Vn , and x has a compact neighbourhood Nx ⊆ Vn . Given n ∈ N,
there is a finite set Yn ⊆ X such that V n ⊆ ∪y∈Yn Ny◦ . From above it is clear that Vn meets only finitely many
members of {Vm }∞ m=1 , say {Vm }m∈Jn for some finite index set Jn ⊆ N. Define Zn := {y ∈ ∪m∈Jn Ym | Ny ⊆ Vn }
and Wn := ∪y∈Zn Ny◦ . Since Zn is finite W n ⊆ ∪y∈Zn Ny ⊆ Vn . Moreover, if x ∈ X then there exists n ∈ N such
that x ∈ Vn ⊆ ∪y∈Yn Ny◦ , so x ∈ Ny◦ for some y ∈ Yn . By definition Ny ⊆ Vm for some m ∈ N, and x ∈ Vn ∩ Vm so
n ∈ Jm , implying that y ∈ Zm and hence x ∈ Wm . This shows that {Wn }∞ n=1 is an open cover of X. Since it is
∞
a refinement of {Vn }n=1 , it is a locally finite refinement of {Uα }α∈A . Note also that Wn is precompact for each
n ∈ N (as W n ⊆ V n ).
(b) For each n ∈ N, by Urysohn’s lemma there exists fn ∈ Cc (X, [0, 1]) such that fn (W n ) = {1} and fn (Vnc ) = 0,
where {Wn }∞ ∞ ∞
n=1 and {Vn }n=1 are the covers constructed in part (a). Since {Vn }n=1 is locally finite, each x ∈ X
P∞
has an open neighbourhood on which f := n=1 fn is well-defined and continuous. Note that f ≥ 1 because
{Wn }∞n=1 covers X, and in particular gn := fn /f is a well-defined member of Cc (X, [0, 1]) for each n ∈ N. It is

n=1 is a partition of unity subordinate to U.

clear that {gn }∞

58. Let K ⊆ α∈A Xα be closed, and suppose there exists x ∈ K ◦ . Then there exists a finite subset B ⊆ A and open
Q

sets Uβ ⊆ Xβ for each β ∈ B such that x ∈ ∩β∈B πβ−1 (Uβ ) ⊆ K. Since B is finite, Xα is noncompact for some
α ∈ A \ B. Hence there exists an open cover {Vγ }γ∈Γ of Xα which has no finite subcover. If {πα−1 (Vδ )}δ∈∆ covers K,
Q
for some ∆ ⊆ Γ, then {Vδ }δ∈∆ covers Xα . Indeed, if yα ∈ Xα then the point y ∈ α∈A Xα defined by πα (y) = yα

8
 Real Analysis Chapter 4 Solutions Jonathan Conder

and πβ (y) = πβ (x) for all β ∈ A \ {α} lies in K, so y ∈ πα−1 (Vδ ) and hence yα ∈ Vδ for some δ ∈ ∆. This implies that
{πα−1 (Vγ )}γ∈Γ is an open cover of K with no finite subcover. Therefore K is not compact, which shows that every
Q
closed compact subset of α∈A Xα has empty interior.

59. Let X and Y be locally compact spaces. If (x, y) ∈ X × Y, then x and y have compact neighbourhoods K ⊆ X
and L ⊆ Y. By Tychonoff’s theorem K × L is a compact subset of X × Y, and it is a neighbourhood of (x, y) (by
the definition of the product topology). Therefore X × Y is locally compact; by induction a finite product of locally
compact spaces is locally compact.
Q∞
60. Let {Xn }∞ ∞
n=1 be a collection of sequentially compact spaces, and let hxn in=1 be a sequence in n=1 Xn . Starting with
0 ∞
hxn in=1 := ∞ ∞ ∞
hxn in=1 , define for each m ∈ N a subsequence hxn in=1 of hxn in=1 such that hπm (xm
m m−1 ∞
n )in=1 converges
∞ ∞
to xm ∈ Xm . Define x ∈ n=1 Xn by πn (x) = xn for all n ∈ N, and let U ⊆ n=1 Xn be a neighbourhood of x.
Q Q

There exists N ∈ N and open subsets Un ⊆ Xn for each n ∈ {1, 2, . . . , N } such that x ∈ ∩N −1
n=1 πn (Un ) ⊆ U. Given
m ∈ {1, 2, . . . , N }, hxnn i∞ m ∞ n m
n=m is a subsequence of hxn in=1 , so there exists Nm ∈ N such that πm (xn ) = x for all n ∈ N
with n ≥ Nm . If n ∈ N and n ≥ max{Nm }N n m n
m=1 then πm (xn ) = x for all m ∈ {1, 2, . . . , N }, and hence xn ∈ U. This
∞
shows that hxnn i∞ ∞
Q
n=1 (a subsequence of hxn in=1 ) converges to x. Therefore n=1 Xn is sequentially compact.

63. If f = 0 then T f = 0 ∈ C([0, 1]). Otherwise kf ku > 0. Let ε ∈ (0, ∞) and note that K is uniformly continuous
(because [0, 1]2 is compact). Hence there exists δ ∈ (0, ∞) such that |K(z1 ) − K(z2 )| < ε/kf ku for all z1 , z2 ∈ [0, 1]2
with |z1 − z2 | < δ. It follows that
Z 1 Z 1 
 
|T f (x1 ) − T f (x2 )| = 
 K(x1 , y)f (y) dy − K(x2 , y)f (y) dy 
0 0
Z 1 
 
=  (K(x1 , y) − K(x2 , y))f (y) dy 

0
Z 1
≤ |K(x1 , y) − K(x2 , y)||f (y)| dy
0
Z 1
ε
≤ |f (y)| dy
0 kf ku
Z 1
ε
≤ kf ku dy
0 kf ku
Z 1
= ε dy
0
=ε

for all x1 , x2 ∈ [0, 1] with |x1 − x2 | < δ. This shows that T f ∈ C([0, 1]). Now let ε ∈ (0, ∞) and choose δ ∈ (0, ∞) such
that |K(z1 ) − K(z2 )| < ε for all z1 , z2 ∈ [0, 1]2 with |z1 − z2 | < δ. Then |K(z1 ) − K(z2 )| < ε/kf ku for all f ∈ C([0, 1])
with 0 < kf ku ≤ 1 and z1 , z2 ∈ [0, 1]2 with |z1 − z2 | < δ, so {T f | kf ku ≤ 1} is equicontinuous by the above calculation
and the fact that |0 − 0| < ε. Moreover, if x ∈ [0, 1] and f ∈ C([0, 1]) with kf ku ≤ 1 then
Z 1  Z 1 Z 1
 
|T f (x)| =  K(x, y)f (y) dy  ≤ |K(x, y)||f (y)| dy ≤ |K(x, y)| dy,
0 0 0

so {T f | kf ku ≤ 1} is pointwise bounded, and thus precompact by the Arzelà-Ascoli theorem.

√
64. Let ε ∈ (0, ∞) and define δ := α ε. If f ∈ F := {f ∈ C(X) | kf ku ≤ 1 and Nα (f ) ≤ 1} then

|f (x) − f (y)| ≤ Nα (f )ρ(x, y)α ≤ ρ(x, y)α < δ α = ε

9
 Real Analysis Chapter 4 Solutions Jonathan Conder

for all x, y ∈ X with ρ(x, y) < δ. This implies that F is equicontinuous. Moreover, if f ∈ F and x ∈ X then
|f (x)| ≤ kf ku ≤ 1, so F is pointwise bounded and hence precompact, by the Arzelà-Ascoli theorem. Now let hfn i∞ n=1
be a sequence in F which converges in C(X) to some f ∈ C(X). If x ∈ X then hfn (x)i∞ n=1 is a sequence in [−1, 1]
∞
which converges to f (x), so |f (x)| ≤ 1 and hence kf ku ≤ 1. Similarly, if x, y ∈ X then hfn (x) − fn (y)in=1 converges
to f (x) − f (y), and hence |f (x) − f (y)| ≤ ρ(x, y)α . This implies that f ∈ F, so F is closed, thus compact.

68. Define E := {(x, y) 7→ f (x)g(y) | f ∈ C(X), g ∈ C(Y )}. The collection A of finite sums of elements of E is the algebra
generated by E, because this algebra contains A, and A is an algebra. Indeed, if f1 , f2 , . . . fn , h1 , h2 , . . . , hm ∈ C(X)
and g1 , g2 , . . . , gn , k1 , k2 , . . . , km ∈ C(Y ), then

n
! m 
n X
m n X
m
X X X X
fi gi  hj kj =
 fi gi hj kj = (fi hj )(gi kj ) ∈ A.
i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1

Note that A is closed under complex conjugation, because if f1 , f2 , . . . fn ∈ C(X) and g1 , g2 , . . . , gn ∈ C(Y ) then
n
X n
X n
X
fi gi = fi gi = fi gi ∈ A.
i=1 i=1 i=1

Because complex conjugation is continuous, A is also closed under complex conjugation. If (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ) ∈ X × Y
and (x1 , y1 ) 6= (x2 , y2 ), then x1 6= x2 or y1 6= y2 . In the former case, there exists f ∈ C(X) with f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 )
because X is normal, and hence f · 1 ∈ A separates (x1 , y1 ) from (x2 , y2 ). The latter case is similar, and we conclude
that A separates points. Since X × Y is compact and Hausdorff, and A contains the constant functions, the complex
Stone-Weierstraß theorem implies that A = C(X × Y ).

69. Let A and B be the subalgebras of C(X) and C(X, R), respectively, generated by the coordinate maps and the
constant function 1. Then A = spanC (B), because A contains B (note that A ∩ C(X, R) is a subalgebra of C(X, R))
and spanC (B) is an algebra. Indeed, if a1 , a2 , . . . , an , b1 , b2 , . . . , bm ∈ C and f1 , f2 , . . . , fn , g1 , g2 , . . . , gm ∈ B then

n
! m 
n X m n Xm
X X X X
ai fi  bj gj =
 ai fi bj gj = (ai bj )(fi gj ) ∈ spanC (B).
i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1

Therefore A is closed under complex conjugation, because if a1 , a2 , . . . , an ∈ C and f1 , f2 , . . . fn ∈ B then

n
X n
X n
X
ai fi = ai fi = ai fi ∈ A.
i=1 i=1 i=1

Because complex conjugation is continuous, A is also closed under complex conjugation. If x1 , x2 ∈ X and x1 6= x2 ,
then πα (x1 ) 6= πα (x2 ) for some α ∈ A, and hence A separates points. By Tychonoff’s theorem X is compact, and it
is also Hausdorff because [0, 1] is Hausdorff. Since A contains the constant functions, the complex Stone-Weierstraß
theorem implies that A = C(X).

70. (a) By definition h(I) = ∩f ∈I f −1 ({0}), which is closed because {0} is closed in R.
(b) Clearly 0 ∈ k(E). If f, g ∈ k(E) and a ∈ R then af (x) + g(x) = 0 for all x ∈ E, so af + g ∈ k(E). Moreover,
if f ∈ k(E) and g ∈ C(X, R) then f (x)g(x) = 0 for all x ∈ E, so f g ∈ k(E). This shows that k(E) is an ideal
of C(X, R). For each x ∈ E the coordinate map πx : C(X, R) → R is (Lipschitz) continuous (relative to the
uniform norm on C(X, R)), so k(E) = ∩x∈E e−1x ({0}) is closed.

10
 Real Analysis Chapter 4 Solutions Jonathan Conder

c
(c) Clearly E ⊆ h(k(E)), and hence E ⊆ h(k(E)). If x ∈ E then, since X is normal, there exists f ∈ C(X, R) such
that f (E) = 0 and f (x) = 1. It follows that x ∈
/ h(k(E)), because f ∈ k(E) but f (x) 6= 0. Thus h(k(E)) = E.
(d) Clearly I ⊆ k(h(I)), and hence I ⊆ k(h(I)). Define U := X \ h(I), and let x ∈ U. Then {x} and U c are closed
and disjoint, so there exist disjoint open neighbourhoods V, W ⊆ X of x and U c . It follows that W c ⊆ U is a
compact neighbourhood of x, since X is compact and V ⊆ W c . This shows that U is locally compact. Define
J := { f |U | f ∈ I}. If f ∈ I and ε ∈ (0, ∞) then {x ∈ U | |f |U (x)| ≥ ε} = {x ∈ X | f (x) ≥ ε} because f (x) = 0
for all x ∈ h(I). Since this set is closed (thus compact), f |U ∈ C0 (U ). Therefore J is a closed subalgebra of
C0 (U, R) (because function restriction respects pointwise addition and multiplication, and uniform limits). If
x, y ∈ U and x 6= y, there exists f ∈ I such that f (x) 6= 0. Since X is normal there exists g ∈ C(X, R) such
that g(x) = 1 and g(y) = 0. Then gf ∈ I and hence (gf )|U ∈ J, so J separates points. Moreover, there is
no x ∈ U such that f (x) = 0 for all f ∈ J. By the Stone-Weierstraß theorem, it follows that J = C(U, R) or
J = C0 (U, R), depending on whether U is closed or not. If f ∈ k(h(I)) then f |U ∈ C0 (U, R) for the same reason
that J ⊆ C0 (U, R), so f |U = g|U for some g ∈ I, in which case f = g because f (x) = g(x) = 0 for all x ∈ h(I).
This shows that k(h(I)) ⊆ I, and hence k(h(I)) = I.
(e) The previous two exercises show that k is a bijection from the closed subsets of X onto the closed ideals of
C(X, R).

76. Let B be a countable base for the topology on X. Since X is normal, for each U, V ∈ B such that V ⊆ U, there exists
fU,V ∈ C(X, [0, 1]) which is 0 on U c and 1 on V . Clearly F := {fU,V | U, V ∈ B and V ⊆ U } is countable. Let C ⊂ X
be closed and let x ∈ C c . There exists U ∈ B such that x ∈ U ⊆ C c , and by normality there exist disjoint open sets
U 0 , V 0 ⊆ X such that U c ⊆ U 0 and x ∈ V 0 . Then x ∈ V ⊆ V 0 for some V ∈ B, and V ⊆ V 0 ⊆ (U 0 )c ⊆ U. Now C ⊆ U c ,
so fU,V (C) = {0}, while fU,V (x) = 1 because x ∈ V. This shows that F separates points and closed sets.

77. Clearly ρ maps into [0, 1]. If x ∈ X, then ρ(x, x) = 0 by definition. Given x, y ∈ X with x 6= y, there exists n ∈ N
such that xn 6= yn , in which case ρ(x, y) ≥ 2−n ρn (xn , yn ) > 0. Clearly ρ(x, y) = ρ(y, x) for all x, y ∈ X. Moreover,
∞
X ∞
X ∞
X ∞
X
ρ(x, z) = 2−n ρn (xn , zn ) ≤ 2−n (ρn (xn , yn )+ρ(yn , zn )) = 2−n ρn (xn , yn )+ 2−n ρ(yn , zn ) = ρ(x, y)+ρ(y, z)
n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1

for all x, y, z ∈ X. This shows that ρ is a metric.

Let n ∈ N and U ⊆ Xn be open. Given x ∈ πn−1 (U ), there exists r ∈ (0, ∞) such that Br (xn ) ⊆ U. If y ∈ B2−n r (x)
then ρ(x, y) < 2−n r, and in particular ρn (xn , yn ) < r, which implies that yn ∈ U and hence y ∈ πn−1 (U ). This shows
that πn−1 (U ) is open in (X, ρ), and hence every member of the product topology on X is open in (X, ρ).
Conversely, let U ⊆ X be open in (X, ρ). Given x ∈ U, there exists r ∈ (0, ∞) such that Br (x) ⊆ U. Choose N ∈ N
so that 21−N ≤ r. For each n ∈ {1, 2, . . . , N } define Un := Br/2 (xn ), and set V := ∩N −1
n=1 πn (Un ). If y ∈ V then

N
X ∞
X N
X ∞
X
ρ(x, y) = 2−n ρ(xn , yn ) + 2−n ρ(xn , yn ) < 2−n−1 r + 2−n < 2−1 r + 2−N ≤ r,
n=1 n=N +1 n=1 n=N +1

so y ∈ U. Since x ∈ V, this shows that U is open in the product topology. Therefore (X, ρ) has the product topology.

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