'uexp(x2)ÃÐ ¼ê y²

8 ¹
0 ý 2

1 f9ÙÐ 5Ÿ 4

2 K(X)þ éê. f 6

3 K(X)þ •ê. f 9

4 k•‘*¿•¥ ‰ê§,§±95 ½n 12

5 Liouville / Ostrowski ½n 15

6 (صexp(x2 )ÃÐ ¼ê 17

1
 §0 ý

·‚b½§ ©?Ø ¤k •Ñ•¹knê•Q§Ïd§XJx´•¥

ƒ§n ∈ Q \ {0}§@onx = 0Ò¿›Xx = 0. ·‚kXe¯¢µXJK´
˜‡•§@oKþ õ‘ª‚K[X]´ÌnŽ‚.
E´K ˜‡*•§=˜‡•¹K •. x ∈ E§XJ•3Kþ š
"õ‘ªP ∈ K[X] \ {0}¦ P (x) = 0§@o·‚¡x´Kþ “ê §ÄK
¡x•Kþ ‡ .

Ún 1. XJx ∈ E´Kþ “ê §@o•3•˜ Ęõ‘ªPx ∈

K[X]¦ §é?¿Q ∈ K[X]§·‚kQ(x) = 0 ⇔ Px |Q. õ‘ªPx ¡
•x • õ‘ª.

y²µ(i)ÄkéÑPx . ^x ∈ E´Kþ “ê §_∃f ∈ K[X]§¦

f (x) = 0. PFx = {f ∈ K[X]∗ |f (x) = 0}. dudeg f ∈ N §_∃f0 ∈ Fx §¦
∀f ∈ Fx §deg f > deg f0 . rf0 Ęz§=•‡é Px . u´k∀f ∈ K[X]§
ef (x) = 0§Kdeg f > deg Px .
(ii)eyQ(x) = 0 ⇔ Px |Q. ⇒µ∀Q ∈ K[X]§eQ(x) = 0§dÃ
"Ïf‚ ‘{Ø{§Q = pPx + q§Ù¥deg q < deg Px . u´Q(x) =
p(x)Px (x) + q(x) = 0§qPx (x) = 0§_q(x) = 0. dudeg Px > deg q§
/ F § q = 0§=Q = pPx . u´Px |Q.
q ∈ ⇐µePx |Q§KQ = pPx §
_Q(x) = p(x)Px (x) = 0.
(iii)eyPx •˜"¯¢þ§b •3Ęõ‘ªPy ½÷vQ(x) = 0 ⇔
Py |Q§KdPy |Py òíÑPy (x) = 0. u´Py (x) = 0 ⇒ Px |Py §Px = rPy ¶Ó
nPy |Px §Py = sPx . u´Px = rsPx §rs = 1§duPy !Qy ʧ s!tʧ
r = 1§s = 1§ Py = Px .

5µb Px ´Œ §KPx = Px0 Px00 §Ù¥deg Px00 > 0. deg Px0 <
deg Px . ^Px (x) = 0§_Px0 (x)!Px00 (x)¥7k˜‡•0§Ø” Px0 (x) = 0§
KPx0 ∈ F …deg Px0 < deg Px §†Px 3F ¥ gê• gñ§ Px ´ØŒ .

Ún 2. ∀x ∈ E§^K(x)L«E ¹kKÚx • f•§ex´Kþ

n−1
“ê §KK(x) = Kxi§Ù¥n = deg Px§AO §dimK K(x) = n.
L
i=0

2
 y²µ(i)w,kK ⊂ Kxi 9x ∈ Kxi §… Kxi 'u\{ ¤ †
L L L

+§'u¦{k †Æ!(ÜÆ!© Ƨ•¹E ü 1¶

Kxi §d‘{Ø{§t1 t2 = p0 Px + q 0 §Ù¥deg q 0 <
L
(ii)∀t1 (x)!t2 (x) ∈
deg Px = n§=deg q 0 6 n − 1§_t1 (x)t2 (x) = t1 t2 (x) = p0 (x)Px (x) + q 0 (x) =
q 0 (x) ∈ Kxi §_ Kxi 'u¦{$Žµ4¶
L L

Kxi § t(x) 6= 0ž§dÚn1§Px - t§2dÚn15§Px †t

L
(iii)∀t(x) ∈
pƒ§u´•3r!s ∈ K[X]§¦ Px (x)r(x) + t(x)s(x) = t(x)s(x) = 1§
=t(x) _ •3.
nþ㧠Kxi ´˜‡•.
L

Kxi . ? •¹KÚx f•T ⊂ E§∀t(x) ∈ Kxi §

L L
(iv)eyK(x) =
d$Žµ45Ÿ§t(x) ∈ T §= Kxi ⊂ T § Kxi ´•¹KÚx • f
L L

•§K(x) = Kxi .
L

(v)eydimK K(x) = n. Š•Kþ •þ˜mK(x)§dþkK(x) =

Kxi § “L†Ú. ¯¢þ∀i!j 6 n − 19∀α = ai xi ∈ Kxi \ {0}!β =
L L

aj xj ∈ Kxj \ {0}§ei 6= jKα 6= β§ÄKu(x) = ai xi − aj xj = 0§0 <

deg u = max{i, j} < n§gñ§ Kxi !Kxj pƒ 8•{0}§†Ú¤á.
∀i = 0, 1, · · · , n−1§Kxi À•Kþ •þ˜m§kÄ•þxi §=dimK Kxi =
1. dimK K(x) = dimK Kxi = n · 1 = n.
P

Ún 3. éux ∈ E§^K(x)L«E ¹kKÚx • f•§eK(x)´K

þ n‘•þ˜m§Kx´Kþ “ê .

y²µØ” x 6= 0§•ÄK(x)¥ ƒ/ª. ∀i ∈ N§xi ∈ K(x)§

^E´Ã"Ïf‚§_xi 6= 0. n + 1‡pØƒÓ g,êi1 , i2 , · · · , in+1 §
Kxi1 , xi2 , · · · , xin+1 ∈ K(x)§^dimK K(x) = n§_xi1 , xi2 , · · · , xin+1 ‚5
ƒ'§=•3Ø •" a1 , a2 , · · · , an+1 ∈ K§¦ a1 x i 1 + a2 x i 2 + · · · +
an+1 xin+1 = 0. d½Â§x´Kþ “ê .

Ún 4. XJx ∈ E´Kþ ‡ §KN σµK(X) → E, R 7→ R(x)´

©ª•K(X) •K(x) Ó N .

y²µ(i)^x ∈ E´Kþ ‡ §_∀f ∈ K[X]§f (x) 6= 0§ TN û

½Â¶K(X)¥ ©ª$Žg,p K(x)¥ ©ª¼ê$Ž§=σ(R1 +R2 ) =
σ(R1 ) + σ(R2 )§σ(R1 R2 ) = σ(R1 )σ(R2 ).

3
 (ii)dþ$ŽÓÚ5Ÿ§σ(K(X))•´˜‡•. ∀R ∈ K(X)§σ(R) =
R(x) ∈ K(x)§=σ(K(X)) ⊂ K(x). ^K(x)´•¹KÚx • •§_K(x) =
σ(K(X))§σ´K(X) K(x) ÷ .
p1 p2
(iii)∀R1 = q1
!R2 = q2
∈ K(X)£p1 !q1 !p2 !q2 ∈ K[X]…q1 !q2 6=
0¤§eR1 6= R2 §Kp1 q2 − p2 q1 6= 0§^x´‡ §_q1 (x) 6= 0§q2 (x) 6=
p1 (x) p2 (x)
0§p1 (x)q2 (x) − p2 (x)q1 (x) 6= 0§=σ(R1 ) = R1 (x) = q1 (x)
6= q2 (x)
= R2 (x) =
σ(R2 ). σ´ü .
nþã§σ´K(X) K(x) Ó N .

§1 f9ÙÐ 5Ÿ
•Kþ ˜‡$ŽÎD : K → KXJ÷vXe^‡§K¡Ù• ê$Ž
½ fµ

∀u, v ∈ K, D(u + v) = D(u) + D(v); D(uv) = D(u)v + D(v)u

•KëÓÙ fD ¤˜‡‡©•¶·‚PKcst = {u ∈ K | D(u) = 0}¿¡

Ù•K ~êf•.

±e´ f , Ð 5Ÿ9$Ž{Kµ
1. ∀u ∈ K§D(u) = D(u)+uD(1)§=uD(1) = 0§ D(1) = 0¶ (1.1)
2. ∀u ∈ K§D(u) = D(0) + D(u)§ D(0) = 0¶D(u) + D(−u) = D(0)§
D(−u) = −D(u)¶ (1.2)
∗
3. ∀u ∈ K§v ∈ K §kD(u) = D( uv · v) = D( uv )v + u
v
D(v)§=

u D(u)v − D(v)u
D( ) = ; (1.3)
v v2

30 . ∀u!v ∈ K ∗ §D(u)
u
= D(v)
v
⇔ D( uv ) = 0 ⇔ u
v
∈ Kcst ¶
4. ∀u ∈ K ∗ §n ∈ N+ §k

D(un ) = D(un−1 )u + D(u)un−1 = D(un−2 )u2 + 2D(u)un−1

= · · · = D(u)un−1 + (n − 1)D(u)un−1 = nun−1 D(u). (1.40 )

4
 ∀n ∈ Z− §K−n ∈ N+ §k0 = D(1) = D(un u−n ) = D(un )u−n +
D(u−n )un §d1.40 ªkD(u−n ) = −nu−n−1 D(u)§

D(un ) = −D(u−n )u2n = nun−1 D(u). (1.400 )

dþüª§∀u ∈ K ∗ 9n ∈ Z§k

D(un ) = nun−1 D(u). (1.4)

ai X i ∈ K[X]§Põ‘ªP ª•P 0 §P D = D(ai )X i §

P P
5. ∀P =
K∀u ∈ K§k
X X
D(P (u)) = D(ai ui ) = [D(ai )ui + iai ui−1 D(u)]
= P 0 (u)D(u) + P D (u). (1.5)

6. d±þ5ŸØJ y§Kcst (¢´K ˜‡f•.

¡Kþ ˜‡õ‘ª•Ã²•Ïfõ‘ª§XJ§´˜‡½A‡p؃
Ó ØŒ õ‘ª ¦È. •Ò´`§˜‡Ã²•Ïfõ‘ª ŸÏª©)
¥ˆÏf gêÑ´1.

Ún 5. D´½Â3kn©ª•K(X)þ f§¿…÷vD(K[X]) ⊂
K[X]. •ÄK[X]¥k•‡š"ò•Ïfõ‘ª(Qj )j∈J §§‚üüpŸ§¿
…k, ü‡pŸ õ‘ªP !Q÷v ª
X Pj P
= D( ), Pj , P ∈ K[X], Q ∈ K[X] \ {0}
j∈J
Qj Q

KQ|D(Q)¶eéu,‡j ∈ J§Qj †QpŸ§KQj |Pj .

Pj
y²µŠâ f$Ž{K§ò ªü>Ðm§PP0 = j Qj §w
Q P
j Qj
,P0 ∈ K[X]§Kk
Y
P0 Q2 = [QD(P ) + P D(Q)] Qj , (1.6)
j∈J

Q2 |[QD(P )+P D(Q)] Qj . ^Qj üüpŸ§_ j Qj •´Ã²•Ïfõ‘

Q Q
j
ª¶ Q ©)•Q = q1 r1 q2 r2 · · · qt r£r
t
1 , · · · , rt ∈ N +¤§KQ2 = q1 2r1 q2 2r2 · · ·

5
qt 2rt § j Qj –õ••¹Ïfq1 q2 · · · qt § •¹Ï
Q
QD(P ) + P D(Q)–
2r1 −1 2r2 −1
fq1 q2 · · · qt 2rt −1 §TÏf Q Ø. kQ|[QD(P ) + P D(Q)]. q
Ï•Q|QD(P )§Q†P pŸ§¤±Q|D(Q).
Qj0 †QpŸ§KQ
Q j0 †Q pŸ§d(1.6)ª§Q
2
Q j0 |P0 Q §=Qj0 |P
2
Q0
. d
j Qj j Qj j Qj
u∀j1 6= j0 §Qj0 | Qj1
Pj1 § Qj0 | Qj0
Pj 0 . duQj üüpŸ§ Qj0 † Qj0
p
٤ Qj0 |Pj0 .

§2 K(X)þ éê. f
˜‡‡©•K ‡©*•E´˜‡•¹K ‡©•§Ù fD´Kþ
f3Eþ òÿ§¿…E†KkÓ ~êf•§=D(K) ⊂ K§…Ecst =
Kcst . !•Äkn©ª•K(X)9Ù fD¦ K(X)´K ‡©*•§¿
…D(X) ∈ K.

5µ∀P ∈ K[X] \ K§dþ˜!{K5§D(P ) = P 0 D(X) + P D §(

ÜD(X) ∈ KŒ±wÑdeg D(P ) 6 deg P §…deg D(P ) < deg P ⇔ P Ä‘
Xêas ∈ Kcst . éuĘõ‘ªP §eP |D(P )§KP = 1.

Ún 6. R´K(X)¥ kn©ª§¿…D(R) ∈ K§KR = cX + g§Ù

¥c ∈ Kcst§g ∈ K.

y²µ R = P
Q
§Ù¥P !Q ∈ K[X]∗ §P !QpŸ…Q´Ä˜õ‘ª. u
QD(P )−P D(Q)
´D(R) = Q2
∈ K§9•3k ∈ K¦ QD(P ) − kQ2 = Q[D(P ) −
kQ] = P D(Q). Ï•Q!P pŸ§¤±Q|D(Q)§d !5§P = 1§ R ∈ K[X].
Ps
i=0 as X §Ù¥a1 , · · · , as ∈ K§s > 1§KD(R) sg‘X
s
R =
ê•D(as )§s − 1g‘Xê•D(as−1 ) + sas D(X). eas ∈
/ Kcst §KD(as ) 6=
/ K§gñ¶ as ∈ Kcst §KD(as ) = 0§D(as−1 )+
0§deg D(R) = s > 0§D(R) ∈
sas D(X) = D(as−1 ) + D(sas X) = D(as−1 + sas X)§w,as−1 + sas X ∈
/ K§
dK(X)cst = Kcst ⊂ K§kD(as−1 + sas X) 6= 0§dždeg D(R) = s − 1§
qD(R) ∈ K§¤±s = 1. R = cX + g§Ù¥c!g ∈ K§dþ®²`²§Ä
‘Xêc ∈ Kcst .

6
 3‡©•K¥§·‚rU L«¤Xe/ª ƒ¡•K¥ LiouvilleÚµ
n
X D(fi )
D(g) + ci , g ∈ K, ci ∈ Kcst , fi ∈ K \ {0}. (2.1)
i=1
f i

Ún 7. f ∈ K§ef ´K(X)¥ LiouvilleÚ§K•3c ∈ Kcst ¦ f −

cD(X)´K¥ LiouvilleÚ.

y²µÄkUìLiouvilleڽ§òf 3K(X)¥Ðm§
X D(Rθ )
f = D(R) + bθ
θ∈Θ
Rθ

Pθ
Ù¥R ∈ K(X)§bθ ∈ Kcst §Rθ = Qθ
∈ K(X)∗ §Pθ !Qθ ∈ K[X]∗ . òRθ =
Pθ
Qθ
“\þª§Œ

X  D(Pθ ) D(Qθ )
 X D(P 0 )
f = D(R) + bθ + bθ = D(R) + b0θ 0
θ
,
θ∈Θ
P θ Qθ
θ∈Θ 0
P θ

Ù¥b0θ ´bθ ¥ ,˜‡§Pθ0 ´Pθ !Qθ ¥ ,˜‡. XòPθ0 Ęz9ŸÏª

rθ1 rθs
©)§PPθ0 = aθ Pθ1 · · · Pθsθ θ §Ù¥aθ ∈ K ∗ §sθ ∈ N §rθi ∈ N §Pθj ´üüp
Ÿ!ØŒ gêŒu" Ęõ‘ª§“\þªÐmKk
rθ1 rθs
X D(aθ Pθ1 · · · Pθsθ θ )
f = D(R) + b0θ rθ1 rθs
θ∈Θ0
aθ Pθ1 · · · Pθsθ θ
s
!
θ
X D(aθ ) X D(Pθt )
= D(R) + b0θ + rθt
θ∈Θ0
aθ t=1
Pθt
X D(ai ) X D(Pj )
= D(R) + ci + dj , (2.2)
i∈I
a i
j∈J
P j

Ù¥I = Θ0 §ci = b0i ∈ Kcst ¶dj • b0θ rθt (∀θ ∈ Θ0 §t = 1, 2, · · · , sθ ) ü §

dj ∈ Kcst ¶Pj ´Pθt ü § Pj ´üüpŸ!ØŒ gêŒu" Ę
õ‘ª.
/ K[X]§d‘{Ø{§Œ R = S + Q
b R∈ P
§Ù¥S ∈ K[X]§P !Q ∈
K[X]∗ §P !QpŸ§P ´gêŒu0 š"Ęõ‘ª…deg Q < deg P . d(2.2)

7
 D(ai ) D(Pj )
ª§f ! ∈ K. òR“\ÐmŒ
P P
i∈I ci ai ∈ K§ D(R) + j∈J dj Pj

Q X D(Pj )
D(R) = D(S) + D( ) + dj ∈ K, (2.3)
P j∈J
Pj
Q X D(Pj )
D( ) + dj ∈ K[X],
P j∈J
Pj

Ù¥D( Q
P
)Ðm N´uy§Ù©fgê u©1gê¶duPj ´gêŒu0
D(Pj )
Ęõ‘ª§ D(Pj ) gê uPj . D( Q
P
P
) + j∈J dj Pj ∈ K[X]Ï©
D(P )
©fgê u©1g꧕•3˜«œ¹§@Ò´D( Q
P
P
) = − j∈J dj Pj j .
dÚn5§P |D(P )§ P = 1§†/P gêŒu00gñ. R ∈ K[X]§Óž
D(Pj ) D(Pj )
ΠD( Q
P P
P
) = − j∈J d j Pj
∈ K[X]§ j∈J dj Pj = 0§“\(2.3)ª
=D(R) ∈ K. dÚn6§R = cX + g§D(R) = cD(X) + D(g). “\(2.2)ª=
k
X D(ai )
f − cD(X) = D(g) + ci ,
i∈I
a i

Ù¥c ∈ Kcst . f − c(X)´K¥ LiouvilleÚ.

D(u)
3˜‡‡©•K¥§¡v ∈ K´u ∈ K \ {0} éê§XJD(v) = u
¶K
‡©*•E ¡•éê. §XJ÷vE = K(v)§Ù¥v ∈ E´u ∈ K \
{0} éê.

½n 1.£Liouville5 ½n¤ E = K(v)´K éê.‡©*•§v´K

þ ‡ §ef ∈ K´E¥ LiouvilleÚ§Kf 7´K¥ LiouvilleÚ.

y²µékn©ª•K(X)§dÚn4§•3g, Ó σ : K(X) →
−1
K(v)§±9_N σ : K(v) → K(X). 3K(X)þ½Â ê$Ž§¦ K(X)
¤•K ‡©*•§¿…D(X) = D(v) ∈ K. •ÄK(v)†K(X)ƒm Ó .
Šâf ´E¥ LiouvilleÚ§Ðmk
X D(fi (v))
f = D(g(v)) + ci , (2.4)
i∈I
fi (v)

Ù¥g!fi ∈ K(X)§ci ∈ Ecst = Kcst . 5¿ ? P (X) ∈ K[X]§k

σD(P (X)) = σ(P 0 (X)D(X) + P D (X)) = σ(P 0 (X))D(X) + σ(P D (X))

= P 0 (v)D(v) + P D (v) = D(P (v)),

8
 P (X)
∀R(X) = Q(X)
∈ K(X)§k

σ(Q(X))σ(D(P (X))) − σ(P (X))σ(D(Q(X)))

σD(R(X)) =
[σ(Q(X))]2
Q(v)D(P (v)) − P (v)D(Q(v)) P (v)
= 2
= D( ) = D(R(v)).
Q (v) Q(v)

duσ´Ó N § kσ −1 D(R(v)) = D(R(X)). é(2.3)ªü>Šσ −1 §Kk

X σ −1 (D(fi (v))) X D(fi (X))
f = σ −1 (D(g(v))) + ci = D(g(X)) + ci ,
i∈I
σ −1 (fi (v)) i∈I
fi (X)

f ´K(X)þ LiouvilleÚ. dÚn7§•3c ∈ Kcst ¦

X D(aj )
f − cD(X) = D(a) + cj ,
j∈J
aj

Ù¥a ∈ K§aj ∈ K ∗ §cj ∈ Kcst . duv´u ∈ K ∗ é꧓\þª

" #
X D(aj ) D(u)
f = D(a) + cj +c ,
j∈J
aj u

f ´Kþ LiouvilleÚ.

§3 K(X)þ •ê. f
K´˜‡‡©•§•ÄK kn©ª•K(X)§¦ K(X)´K ‡©*
•…÷v
D(X)
∈ K.
X
w,§þã^‡ duD(X) = aX§a ∈ K ∗ . PD(X) = aX.

Ún 8. ? P ∈ K[X].
1. ? k ∈ K ∗§n ∈ Z∗§D(k) 6= nak. ?˜Ú§deg D(P ) = deg P .
2. P |D(P ) …= P = cX n§Ù¥c ∈ K.

9
 y²µ1. b •3k ∈ K ∗ §n ∈ Z∗ ¦ D(k) = nak§KD(k)/k = na =
D(X )/X §†>~
n n
m> D(k)/k − D(X n )/X n = D( Xkn )/ Xkn = 0§u
´ Xkn ∈ Kcst § k
Xn
∈
/ K§gñ§ D(k) 6= nak. P ∈ K[X] Ä‘Xê
•as §s•P gê§KD(P ) = P 0 D(X)+P D sg‘Xê•saas +D(as ) 6= 0§
0
…P D(X)gê•s§P gê us§ deg D(P ) = deg P .
D

2. 7‡5w,¤á§y¿©5. éuš²…£P gêŒu"¤ œ¹§

Ø” P = as X s + · · · + a0 §as ∈ K ∗ §as−1 , · · · , a0 ∈ K§s > 0. u´D(P ) =
(saas +D(as ))X s +[(s−1)aas−1 +D(as−1 )]X s−1 +· · ·+(aa1 +D(a1 ))X +D(a0 ).
d1§saas + D(as ) 6= 0§ D(P ) 6= 0. u´P |D(P ) ⇒ D(P ) = kP §k ∈ K ∗ .
b ,‡ai£i ∈ {0, 1, · · · , s − 1}¤Ø•"§é'P ÚD(P ) sg‘Úig‘X
꧌
saas + D(as ) iaai + D(ai )
= ,
as ai
D(as ) D(ai )
= sa + = ia + ,
as ai
D(ai /as ) D(ai ) D(as ) D(X s−i )
= − = (s − i)a = ,
ai /as ai as X s−i
D(X s−i ) D(ai /as ) D(X s−i as /ai )
− = = 0,
X s−i ai /as X s−i as /ai
s−i
u´ X ai as ∈ Kcst § gñ. u´as−1 = · · · = a1 = a0 = 0§ P = as X s §
Ù¥as ∈ K£\þP ∈ K ²…œ/¤.

Ún 9. R ∈ K(X)´kn©ª§ e!¿…D(R) ∈ K[X]§ KR´

†D(R)kƒÓgê õ‘ª. AO §eD(R) ∈ K§KR ∈ K.

y²µ† •Äš²… œ/§-R = P

Q
§Ù¥P !Q ∈ K[X]∗ …P !Qp
QD(P )−P D(Q)
Ÿ. KD(R) = Q2
∈ K[X]§ Q|P D(Q). duQ!P pŸ§ Q|D(Q)§
D(P )−naP
dÚn8§Q = cX . u´D(R) = n
Q
§Q|(D(P ) − naP ). •ÄD(P ) −
naP "g‘a0 = D(a0 ) − naa0 §dÚn8§a0 6= 0§ Q´"gõ‘ª.
R ∈ K[X]§2dÚn8§deg D(R) = deg R§ R´†D(R)gêƒÓ õ
Ի.

Ún 10. f ∈ K´K(X)¥ LiouvilleÚ§y²∃c ∈ Kcst§¦ f −

cD(X)/X´K¥ LiouvilleÚ.

10
 y²µaquÚn7§Œ±y²f U ¤Xe/ªµ
X D(ai ) X D(Qj )
f = D(R) + ci + dj ,
i∈I
ai j∈J
Qj

Ù¥ci !dj ∈ Kcst §ai ∈ K§Qj ´üüpŸ!ØŒ gêŒu" Ęõ‘

ª. Šâ‘{Ø{§PR = S + P
Q
§D(Qj ) = tj Qj + Pj §Ù¥S!P !Q!Qj ∈
K[X]§tj ∈ K§deg P < deg Q§deg Pj < deg Qj §P !QpŸ…Q´š"Ę
õ‘ª. “\þª
P X D(ai ) X X Pj
f = D(S) + D( ) + ci + dj tj + dj , (3.1)
Q i∈I
a i
j∈J j∈J
Qj
P X Pj X Pj
D( ) + dj ∈ K[X], D(R) + dj ∈ K, (3.2)
Q j∈J
Qj j∈J
Qj
P
Ï©©Û©f©1gêKkD( Q
P
dj Qjj . dÚn5§Q|D(Q)§dÚ
P
)=− j∈J
n8§Q = cX n §c ∈ K. ∀j§b Pj 6= 0§KQj - D(Qj )§=Qj 6= cX n §dQj Ø
Œ § Qj "g‘q0 6= 0§ Q†Qj pŸ§2dÚn5§Qj |Pj §Pj = 0§g
D(Qj )
ñ§ Pj = 0§tj = Qj
= nj a ∈ K§Ù¥nj ´Qj gê. “\(3.2)ª§=
kD(R) ∈ K. dÚn9§R ∈ K. 2“\(3.1)ª§
X D(ai ) X
f = D(R) + ci +( nj dj )a, (3.3)
i∈I
ai j∈J

-c = nj dj §w,kc ∈ Kcst .
P
j∈J f − ca = f − cD(X)/X´K¥
LiouvilleÚ.

3˜‡‡©•K¥§¡v ∈ K \ {0}´u ∈ K •ê§XJ D(v)

v
= D(u)¶K
‡©*•E ¡••ê. §XJ÷vE = K(v)§Ù¥v ∈ E´u ∈ K
•ê.

½n 2.£Liouville5 ½n¤ E = K(v)´K •ê.‡©*•§v´K

þ ‡ §ef ∈ K´E¥ LiouvilleÚ§Kf 7´K¥ LiouvilleÚ.

y²µaqu½n1§ EK ‡©*•K(X)¦ D(X)/X = D(v)/v§

(ÜÚn4§Œ f ´K(X)¥ LiouvilleÚ. dÚn10§•3c ∈ Kcst ¦
D(v) D(X) X D(gj )
f −c =f −c = D(g) + cj ,
v X j∈J
gj

11
Ù¥g!gj ∈ K. ò D(v)
v
= D(u)“\þª§
X D(gj )
f = D(g + cu) + cj ,
j∈J
gj

=f ´K¥ LiouvilleÚ.

§4 k•‘*¿•¥ ‰ê§,§±95 ½n
!§KL«˜‡A •0 •¶E´Kþ n‘•þ˜m§u´Eþ
‚5C†§^χu (T )L«u Aõ‘ª=χu (T ) = det(T IE − u) ∈ K[T ]§
χu (T )−χu (0)
^Ωu (T ) ∈ K[T ]L«õ‘ª T
§u# L«C†(−1)n−1 Ωu (u). w,§
χu (T )´ngĘõ‘ª§Ωu (T )´n − 1gĘõ‘ª.

Ún 11. A´u3,|Ä.e Ý § K3Ó˜|Ä.e§u# Ý

A ´A
#
Š‘Ý .

y²µ χu (T ) = T n + an−1 T n−1 + · · · + a0 §KA# = Ωu (A) = (−1)n−1

(An−1 + an−1 An−2 + · · · + a1 I). ∀x ∈ K§•Ä‚5C†xI − A9ÙŠ‘Ý
B(x)§k

(xI − A)B(x) = |xI − A|I,

ŒPB(x) = Bn−1 xn−1 + · · · + B1 x + B0 §Ù¥B0 , · · · , Bn−1 ∈ Mn (K)§“\

þªKk

Bn−1 xn + (Bn−2 − ABn−1 )xn−1 + · · · + (B0 − AB1 )x − AB0

=Ixn + · · · + a0 I,

duK¥kÕõ‡ ƒ§ éuKþ õ‘ªf !g9éA õ‘ª¼êf˜!g̃§

ef˜ = g̃§Kf = g. dþªé'x ˆ‘XêŒ

Bn−1 = I;
Bn−2 − ABn−1 = an−1 I ⇒ Bn−2 = A + an−1 ;
Bn−3 − ABn−2 = an−2 I ⇒ Bn−3 = A2 + an−1 A + an−2 ;
..
.
B0 − AB1 = a1 I ⇒ B0 = An−1 + an−1 An−2 + · · · + a2 A + a1 ,

12
òx = 0“\§K (−A)∗ = B(0) = B0 = (−1)n−1 A# . qA∗ = (−1)n−1 (−A)∗ §
¤±kA∗ = A# .

E´K k•‘*•§KEŒÀŠKþ k•‘•þ˜m. ½Âü‡N

µtr : E → K§N : E → KXeµ

tr(x) = tr(mx )§N (x) = det(mx )§

Ù¥mx = y 7→ xyL«éE z‡ ƒ¦±x C†. ¡tr(x)•x ∈ E

,§N (x)•x ∈ E ‰ê.

1. ∀x, y ∈ E!c ∈ K§tr(x) + tr(y) = tr(mx ) + tr(my ) = tr(mx + my ) =

tr(mx+y ) = tr(x + y)¶tr(cx) = tr(mcx ) = tr(cmx ) = ctr(mx ) = ctr(x).
tr´Eþ ‚5C†.
2. ∀x, y ∈ E§kN (xy) = det(mxy ) = det(mx my ) = det(mx ) det(my ) =
N (x)N (y).
3. ∀x ∈ K§mx 3?¿˜|Äe Ý •diagn {x, x, · · · , x}. tr(x) =
nx§N (x) = xn .

éux ∈ E§•Ä‚5C†(mx )# . (−1)n−1 Ωmx (T ) = an T n + · · · +

a1 T + a0 §Km#
x = an mx + · · · + a1 mx + a0 m1 = man xn +···+a1 x+a0 . -
n

x# , (−1)n−1 Ωmx (x) = an xn + · · · + a1 x + a0

÷vx# ∈ E…(mx )# = mx# . w,§éuØÓ x# ∈ E§éA mx# •ØÓ§

÷vT^‡ x# ´•˜ . dÚn11§džmx# x = mx# mx = (mx )# mx =
det(mx )IE = N (x)IE = mN (x) § x# x = N (x)§Ónxx# = N (x).

Ún 12. D´Kþ ê$Ž§éuA = (aij ) =∈ Mn (K)§^D(A)L

«Ý (Dai,j )§KD(det A) = tr(A# D(A)).

y²µPA# = A∗ = (a# #
ij )§Ù¥aij ´aji “ê{fª. òtr(A# D(A))Ð
m§Œ
n
X n X
X n
#
tr(A D(A)) = #
(A D(A))ii = a#
ij D(aji )
i=1 i=1 j=1
Xn Xn
= D(aij )a#
ji , (4.1)
i=1 j=1

13
2òdet(A)Ðm¿¦ §Œ
 
 a11
 ··· a1n 

   .. ... .. 

 a11 · · · a1n  n 
 . . 
.. .. 

...
  X
D(det A) =  . =  D(ai1 ) · · · D(ain ) 
 
.
  i=1  .. .. .. 
 an1 · · · ann   . . .


 
 an1 ··· ann 
n X
X n
= D(aij )a#
ji . (4.2)
i=1 j=1

(4.1)ª u(4.2)ª§ D(det A) = tr(A# D(A)).

Ún 13. éKþ n‘•þ˜mE§ D´Eþ ê$Ž…D(K) ⊂ K§

K∀x ∈ E§ktr(D(x)) = D(tr(x)).

y²µ?¿ ½x ∈ E. ½E ˜|Ä•þβ = {e1 , e2 , · · · , en }§

EEþ ‚5C†∆§¦ éz‡ei §∆(ei ) = D(ei )¶ (aij )´mx 3βÄe
Ý x ´Ý
§mD (D(aij ))(½ Eþ ‚5C†. •ÄD(xei )§˜•¡k

D(xei ) = D(x)ei + xD(ei ) = x∆(ei ) + D(x)ei = (mx ∆ + mD(x) )(ei );

,˜•¡k
n
X n
X n
X
D(xei ) = D(mx (ei )) = D(aji ej ) = D(aji )ej + aji D(ej )
j=1 j=1 j=1
n
X
= mD
x (ei ) + ∆( aji ej ) = (mD
x + ∆mx )(ei ),
j=1

éz‡iþ¡üªÑ¤á§ k

mx ∆ + mD(x) = mD
x + ∆mx . (4.3)

é(4.3)ª Òüà ,§

tr(mx ∆) + tr(D(x)) = tr(∆mx ) + D(tr(x)),

ÏLÐmOŽ§´ymx ∆Ú∆mx 3Ý /ªe ,ƒÓ. “\þª§ k

tr(D(x)) = D(tr(x)).

14
 ½n 3. £Liouville5 ½n¤ E´K n‘‡©*•§Kéuf ∈ K§
ef ´Eþ LiouvilleÚ§Kf ´Kþ LiouvilleÚ.

y²µduE´Ã"Ïf‚§ ∀x ∈ E\{0}§ker(mx ) = {0}§=det(mx ) =

N (x) 6= 0, mx k•˜ _C†m−1
x = (mx ) /N (x). é(4.3)ª
#
Òü>Óž
†¦˜‡mx# § nŒ

N (x)∆ + mx# D(x) = (mx )# ∆mx + (mx )# mD

x,

Òü> ,§ n

N (x)tr(∆) + tr(x# D(x)) = N (x)tr(m−1 #

x ∆mx ) + tr(A D(A)),

∆†m−1 −1
x ∆mx ƒq§ tr(∆) = tr(mx ∆mx )§=tr(x D(x)) = tr(A D(A)).
# #

dÚn12§tr(A# D(A)) = D(det A)§ det A = N (x). ktr(x# D(x)) =

D(N (x)). òx# = N (x)/x“\†ª§ n=
 
D(N (x)) D(x)
= tr , ∀x ∈ E \ {0}. (4.4)
N (x) x

∀f ∈ K§f ´Eþ LiouvilleÚ=

X D(fi )
f = D(g) + ci ,
j∈J
f i

g ∈ E!fi ∈ E \ {0}§ci ∈ Kcst . Òü> ,§(ÜÚn13†(4.4)ª n

 
X D(fi ) X D(N (x))
nf = tr(D(g)) + ci tr = D(tr(g)) + ci ,
j∈J
f i
j∈J
N (x)

Ù¥tr(g)!N (x) ∈ K. f ´Kþ LiouvilleÚ.

§5 Liouville / Ostrowski ½n

Cþ Ð ¼ê§Øî‚/5`§Ò´C m8þ Ð ¼ê£•ê¼

ê!éê¼ê!˜¼ê¤?1k•g\~¦Ø$ŽÚk•gEÜ §¿…•
3)ÛªLˆ ¼ê. w,§dùn‡Ä Ð ¼ê?L˜X A½ C†§

15
Œ±)¤Ð ¼ê•. •ïÄÐ ¼ê•þ ¦ $Ž§é?¿A •"
•K½ÂÙÐ *•.
K ˜‡‡©*•E¡•K Ð *•£½Ð *ܤ§XJ•3E ˜
X f•(Ki )06i6m ÷vµ
K = K0 ⊂ K1 ⊂ K2 ⊂ · · · ⊂ Km−1 ⊂ Km = E§
Ù¥Ki+1 ‡o´Ki k•‘*•§‡o•3vi+1 ∈ Ki+1 ´Ki ¥, ƒ
•ê½éꧦ Ki+1 = Ki (vi+1 ).

Ún 14. éþã E9Ki§? ü‡ƒ •Ki ÚKi+1§Ki+1 ´Ki ‡

©*•.

y²µ^êÆ8B{. D(Ki ) ∈ Ki §y²D(Ki+1 ) ∈ Ki+1 . Äk`

²§éuP ∈ Ki [X]§P D
∈ Ki [X]§ eKi+1 = Ki (vi+1 )´Ki ü*ܧ
KD(Ki+1 ) ⊂ hKi+1 , D(vi+1 )i. , e©n«œ¹µ
. eKi+1 = Ki (vi+1 )§vi+1 ´ui ∈ Ki éê§KD(vi+1 ) = D(ui )/ui ∈
Ki §KD(Ki+1 ) ⊂ Ki (vi+1 )¶
. eKi+1 = Ki (vi+1 )§vi+1 ´ui ∈ Ki •ê§Óþaq•kD(Ki+1 ) ⊂
Ki (vi+1 )¶
. eKi+1 ´Ki k•‘*•§KKi+1 = Ki (v1 , v2 , · · · , vs )§Ù¥v1 §v2 §
· · · §vs ´Ki þ “ê . Ki+1 Œ± ¤Ki+1 = Ki (v1 )(v2 ) · · · (vs )§@ovj ´
Kij , Ki (v1 )(v2 ) · · · (vj−1 )þ “ê §Ki,j+1 = Kij (vj )Œw¤Kij k•‘
*•§f•ó¥ Ki !Ki+1 Œ*¿•Ki1 !Ki2 !· · · !Ki,s+1 . ÏdØ”† ?
ØKi+1 = Ki (v) œ/§Ù¥v´Ki þ “ê .
P ∈ Ki [X]\Ki ÷vP (v) = 0§ü>¦ §=kP 0 (v)D(v)+P D (v) = 0§
Ù¥P 0 ∈ Ki [X]∗ §P D ∈ Ki [X]§ D(v) ∈ Ki (v) = Ki+1 §D(Ki+1 ) ⊂
hKi+1 , D(v)i = Ki+1 .
nþã§D(Ki+1 ) ∈ Ki+1 . duK0 ´‡©•§dêÆ8B{§∀i§Ki '
uEþ fD ¤‡©•. qKcst ⊂ (Ki )cst ⊂ Ecst = Kcst §=(Ki )cst =
(Ki+1 )cst . Ki+1 ´Ki ‡©*•.

(ÜÚn149cn! n‡Liouville5 ½n§·‚N´ eã½nµ

½n 4. £Liouville / Ostrowski½n¤ f áu,‡©•K§E´K Ð

*•§e∃g ∈ E¦ D(g) = f§Kf ´K¥ LiouvilleÚ.

16
 §6 (صexp(x2 )ÃÐ ¼ê
• § !•ÄK = C(T ) œ/§C(T )L«Eê•Cþ kn¼ê•§
Ùþ fD=•©Û¥½Â ê$Ž. ••B†*n)§éuCþ )Û¼
êf §kž^f 0 L«D(f ). dž§þ˜!½Â Ð *•3K = C(T ) œ¹
eCX Cþ¤k Ð ¼ê§=Cþ ,‡Ð ¼ê˜½áuK = C(T )
,‡Ð *•.

é/Xy = f eu ¼ê£f ∈ C(T )§u ∈ C(T ) \ C¤§• ½ÙkÃÐ

¼ê§kXe Liouville O{µ

½n 5.£Liouville O{¤ f ∈ C(T )§u ∈ C(T )\C§@of eu 3C(T )

,‡Ð *•¥k ¼ê …= ∃g ∈ C(T )¦ f = g 0 + gu0 . ¡f = g 0 +
gu0 •Liouville Oª.

y²µ1. 7‡5µef = g 0 + gu0 §Kf eu = g 0 eu + g(eu )0 = (geu )0 §w

,geu ∈ C(T )(eu )§ f 3C(T ) Ð *•¥k ¼ê.
2. ¿©5µef eu 3C(T ) ,‡Ð *•¥k ¼ê§dLiouville/Ostro-
wski½n§f eu ´C(T )(eu )¥ LiouvilleÚ. e5y²©üÚ?1.
v0
(i) v ∈ C(T )3C(T )¥kéêu§= v = u0 . Ï•CA •0§¤±kn¼
êƒ ⇔knªƒ . Œ u = u1 (t)/u2 (t)§v = pr11 (t) · · · pri i (t)/q1s1 (t) · · ·
s
qj j (t)§Ù¥u1 !u2 ∈ C[X]pŸ§p1 · · · pi §q1 · · · qj ∈ C[X]•pØƒÓ ØŒ
õ‘ª§r1 , · · · , ri , s1 , · · · , sj ∈ N. “\†ªÐm§(ÜÚn5=ku2 |u02 §
u´u2 ∈ C§v|v 0 §? v ∈ C.
(ii)y²eu ´C(T )þ ‡ . b eu ´C(T )þ “ê §dÚn1§•
3C(T )þ 4 õ‘ªP ¦ P (eu ) = 0. PX•C(T )þ Ę˜gõ‘
ª§ ªü>£égCþ¤¦ § D(P (eu )) = (u0 P 0 X + P D )(eu ) = 0§
u´P |u0 P 0 X + P D . dudeg P > deg(u0 P 0 X + P D )§ u0 P 0 X + P D =
kP §k ∈ C(T ). w,eu 6= 0§ P 6= cX n §=P ¥ˆg‘Xê– k2‡Ø•
"§ ùü‡Xê•ig‘Xêai Újg‘Xêaj£i > j¤. é'P Úu0 P 0 X +
D(e(i−j)u ) D(aj /ai )
PD i!jg‘Xê§ n= e(i−j)u
= aj /ai
. d f5Ÿ30 §e(i−j)u ∈
C(T ). e(i−j)u 3C(T )¥kéê(i − j)u§d(i)§e(i−j)u ∈ C§w,gñ.
eu ´C(T )þ ‡ .

17
 (iii) EC(T ) ‡©*•C(T )(X)§…D(X)/X = u0 §KT‡©•†
13! ‡©•a.ƒÓ. dÚn4§•3C(T )(X) C(T )(eu ) g,Ó σ§
…σ(D(X)) = D(eu ). duf eu ´C(T )(eu )¥ LiouvilleÚ§éLˆªü>?
1σ −1 C†=Œ f X´C(T )(X)¥ LiouvilleÚ. aquÚn10 y²§Œ±
†(3.3)ªaq ªf
X D(ai ) X
f X = D(R) + ci +( nj dj )u0 ,
i∈I
ai j∈J

Ù¥R ∈ C(T )(X)§ci !ai !dj ∈ C(T ). ÏdD(R)´C(T )þ ˜gõ‘ª§d

Ún9§R´C(T )þ ˜gõ‘ª. R = gX + c§g!c ∈ C(T )§“\þªé
'"g‘= f X = D(gX). Ðm§=kf = g 0 + gD(X)/X = g 0 + gu0 .
2
y3Œ±?ؼêy(t) = et ¼ê . -f = 1§u = t2 §“\Liouville
Oª§Kk1 = g 0 + 2tg. w,g 6= 0§ògw¤Cþ knª§ g =
p/q§p!q ∈ C[X]∗ …pŸ§“\ ü>¦±q

pq 0
q = p0 − + 2tp,
q

q|pq 0 §dup!qpŸ§ q|q 0 . u´q ∈ C§g ∈ C[X]. , deg(g 0 + 2tg) =

2
deg(2tg) > 1§ et Liouville OªØ¤á§d½n5g, eã(ص
2 R 2
½n 6. et ¼êØ•3uC(T ) ?ÛÐ *•¥§= et dtØ´Ð
¼ê.

18