Water Quality: Definitions, Characteristics and Perspectives

CHAPTER 1
WATER QUALITY: DEFINITIONS,

CHARACTERISTICS AND
PERSPECTIVES
1
Chapter 1: Water Quality
Prepared by: Nur Ain Bt Mohd Zainuddin
Course Learning Outcome
At the end of this chapter, student should be able to:
Understand hydrological cycle of water
Explain in detail physical, chemical

and biological parameter
Understand how to measure physical,

chemical and biological properties.
Define Standard A and B
2
1.1 Hydrological cycle
3
1.2 Impurities In Water
 Impurities in water caused by;
1. Surface, or nuclei during condensation.
2. Liquid water travels through the remainder of
the hydrologic cycle – contact with other
material in air or an or beneath earth.
3. Human activities – industrial and domestic
waste, agricultural chemical.
 Impurities can be both in suspended and
dissolved form.
 Suspended material consist of particle larger
than molecular size that are supported by
buoyant and viscous force within the water.
4
1.2 Impurities In Water
 Dissolved material consists of molecules or
ions that are held by the molecular structure of
water.
 Colloid are very small particle that technically
suspended but often exhibit many of the
characteristic of dissolved substances.
Figure 1: Size classification of solid in water

5
1.3 Water Quality
 Water pollution is defined as the presence in
water of impurities in such quantity and of such
nature as to impair the use of the water for a
stated purpose.
 Water quality is predicted on the intended use
of the water and a gross determination of the
quantity of suspended and dissolved solid.
 Standard Method for the Examination of
Water and Wastewater – analytical procedures
that quantitatively measure the parameters that
qualitatively reflect the impact of impurities on
water.
6
1.3 Water Quality
 3 categories to describe water quality;
1. Physical parameters: Associated with the
appearance of water
2. Chemical parameter: sometimes evidenced by
their observed reactions. Most often, difference
are not visible.
3. Biological parameter: Very important for
public health. Significant in modifying the
physical and chemicals characteristic of water.
7
1.3.1 Physical Parameters
8
1.3.1.1 Suspended Solids
 Solid suspended in water may consist of
inorganic or organic or of immiscible liquids.
 SOURCES:
i. Natural contaminants resulting from the erosive
action of water flowing over surfaces.
ii. Results from human use of water – domestic
wastewater (organic).
iii.Result from industrial use of water (organic or
inorganic)
iv. Results contain inorganic (clay, silt) or organic
(plant fibers, bacteria)particles, immiscible
liquids (oil and grease)
9
 IMPACT
i. Aesthetically displeasing.
ii. Provide adsorption site for chemical and
biological agents.
iii. May be degraded biologically and produce by-
products.
iv. May include diseases-causing organisms.
 Solids removed by settling and separated from
wash water are called sludge, which may then
be pumped to drying beds or filtered for
extraction of additional water (dewatering). Dry
sludge, known as sludge cake.
10
 MEASUREMENT
i. Total solids (TS) test: Mass remain after
evaporation (104oC) a sample to dryness and
weighing the residue. Unit of mg/L on dry-mass-
of-solids basis.
ii. Suspended solid (SS) test: Filtering the water,
drying the residue and filter to a constant weight
at 104oC and lastly determine the mass of the
residue retained on the filter. Unit of mg/L on dry-
mass-of-solids basis.
iii. Dissolved solid (DS) test: The difference between
TS and SS. Unit of mg/L.
iv. Organic content: Firing the residue, 600oC for 1
hour. Chapter 1: Water Quality
11
 FILTERABLE RESIDUE & NON-FILTERABLE
RESIDUE
 Term used in laboratory analysis to represent
the SS and DS.
 Filterable residue closely related to DS while
non-filterable residue more closely to SS.
 USE
 SS is important parameter for wastewater.
 Measure the quality of wastewater influent.
 Monitor several treatment processes.
 Measure the quality of the effluent.
12
1.3.1.2 Turbidity
 Measure of the light –transmitting properties of
the water due to presence of suspended
material such as clay, organic material, plankton
& other particulate material.
 A measure of the extent to which light is either
absorbed or scattered by suspended material in
water.
 Not a direct quantitative measurement of SS.
13
1.3.1.2 Turbidity
Results from the erosion of colloidal material

such as clay, silt, rock fragments, metal
oxides from the soil.
S
O
Vegetables fiber and microorganism.
U
R
C Household and industrial wastewater.
E
S
Soaps, detergent and emulsifying agents.
14
1.3.1.2 Turbidity
Aesthetically displeasing opaqueness will appear.
Provides adsorption sites for chemicals and

I biological organism that may be harmful or
cause undesirable tastes and odors.
M
P Difficult for disinfection because the solids may
partially shield organisms from disinfectant.
A
C May impart a brown or other color for water.
T
May interfere with light penetration and
photosynthetic reactions in streams and lakes.
May cause sediment deposits that can affect the

flora and fauna of the stream.
15
1.3.1.2 Turbidity
Measured photometrically by determining the
M percentage of light of a given intensity that is either
absorbed or scattered.
E
The original measuring apparatus, called a
A Jackson turbidity meter,
S Absorption mode: for dark substances.
U photometer measure the light intensity on the
side of vial opposite from the light sources.
R
Scattering mode: photometer measures the
E light intensity at 90° from the light source.
M It is usually expressed as nephelometric turbidity
E units (NTU) or as metres depth.
N Other units, formazin turbidity units (FTU) or Jackson
T turbidity units (JTU).
16
1.3.1.3 Color
 Pure water is colorless, but water in nature is
often colored by foreign substances.
 Apparent color: color of water partly due to SS.
 True color: color contributed by DS.
 SOURCES
i. Yellowish-brown – water contact with organic
debris such as leaves, weeds or wood-pick-up
tannins, humic acid and humates.
ii. Reddish – cause by iron oxide
iii. Brown/blackish – manganese oxide
iv. Industrial waste – textile & dyeing operations,
food processing, chemical production.
17
1.3.1.3 Color
Unsuitable for laundering, dyeing,
papermaking, dairy production.
I
Affect the market of domestic and
M industrial company.
P
A Organic compound- reduce the
effectiveness of chlorine as disinfectant.
C
T Carcinogens- Product from combination of Cl
with some color-producing organic.
 Use
 used in potable water analysis (true color) – indirect
measurement of humic substances in the water.
 Usually not included in wastewater analysis. 18
1.3.1.3 Color
 Measurements
i. Comparison with standardized colored materials.
ii. Unit: True color units (TCUs).
iii.1 unit is equivalent to the color produced by 1
mg/L of platinum in the form of chlorplatinate
ions
iv. Special spectrophotometric techniques used for
colors other than yellowish-brown & industrial
waste effluents.
v. Sample should be tested within 72 hours of
collection because biological and chemical
changes occurring during storage may affect
color. Chapter 1: Water Quality
19
1.3.1.4 Taste and Odor
 Sources:
i. Many subtances such as mineral, metals and
salts from the soil end products from biological
reactions and constituents of wastewater which
contact with water may impart taste and odour.
ii. Inorganic substances produce taste.
iii. Alkaline material & metallic salts cause a bitter
taste to water
iv. Organic material contributed to both taste and
odor.
20
 Impacts:
i. Consumer find taste and odor aesthetically
displeasing.
ii. Odor from organic substances may be
carcinogenic.
 Measurements:
i. Direct measurements of materials that produce
taste and odor can be made if the causative
agents are known.
ii. Several type of analysis are available for
measuring-taste producing inorganics.
21
iii. Measurement of taste-and odor causing
organics can be made using GC or LC.
iv. Quantitative test – threshold odor number
(TON).
 Use
Serves as guideline for potable water.
TON of 3 recommended by the Public Health
Service.
22
1.3.1.5 Temperature
 Very important parameter - its effect on
chemical reactions and reaction rates, aquatic
life, solubility of gases and the suitability of the
water for beneficial uses.
 Source:
i. Ambient temperature
ii. Discharge from industry
iii. Removal of forest canopies and irrigation
return flows.
23
1.3.1.5 Temperature
At lower temperatures, the rate of biological activity i.e utilization of food
supplies, growth, reproduction is slower.
If the temperature is increased, biological activity increases.

I
M Accelerated growth of algae often occurs in warm water.
P
Natural secretion of oil by algae and dead algae cells can result in
A taste and odor problem.
C
Fish are affected by temperature and dissolved oxygen level.
T
Affect chemical reaction rate and solubility levels of chemical.
Solubility of gases decreases at elevated temperatures.
24
1.3.2 Chemical Parameters
25
1.3.2 Chemical Parameters
26
1.3.2.1 Total Dissolved Solids(TDS)
 Materials remaining in water after SS removal.

 Source:
i. Dissolve material result from solvent action of
water on solids, liquids and gaseous.
ii. Organic sources – decayed product of
vegetation, organic chemical and organic
gases
iii. Inorganic sources – minerals, metals, gases
Produce undesirable substances in water (color,
taste, odor, toxicity problem)
27
1.3.2.1 Total Dissolved Solids(TDS)
 Impact:
i. May produce aesthetically deplleasing color,
tastes and odor.
ii. Toxic and carcinogenic.
 Measurement:
i. Direct measurement of TDS can be made by
evaporating to dryness a sample of water
which has been filtered to remove SS.
ii. The remaining residue is weighed and
represent the TDS.
iii. Unit: mg/L of dry-mass basis.
iv. Organic and Inorganic fractions can be
determined by firing the residue at 600°C.
28
1.3.2.2 Alkalinity
 Alkalinity is defined as the quantity of ions in water
that will react to neutralize hydrogen ions.
 Measure of the ability of water to neutralize acids.
 Source:
i. Constituents of alkalinity in water include CO32,
HCO3-, OH-, HSiO3, H2BO3, HPO42- , H2PO42- , HS-
and NH3.
ii. Dissolution of mineral substances in soil and
atmosphere.
iii. Phosphate from detergent ww discharge, fertilizers
and insecticide from agricultural land.
iv. H2S and NH3 product of microbial decomposition of
organic material.Chapter 1: Water Quality
29
1.3.2.2 Alkalinity
 Impact:
i. Bitter taste to waste water.
ii. Reaction can occur between alkalinity and
certain cation in water may produce precipitate.
 Measurement:
i. By titrating the water with and acid and
determine the hydrogen equivalent.
ii. Unit: mg/L of CaCO3.
30
1.3.2.3 Hardness
 Hardness: concentration of multivalent metallic
cations in solution.
 At supersaturated conditions, the hardness cations
will react with anions in the water to form a solid
precipitate.
 Carbonate hardness: hardness that equivalent to
alkalinity.
 Noncarbonated hardness: remaining hardness.
 Source:
i. Abundant-Ca & Mg ions in water.
ii. Little-iron(Fe2+),manganese(Mn2+), strontium(Sr2+)
and aluminum(Al3+)
31
1.3.2.3 Hardness
 Impact:
i. Soap consumption by hard waters is an economic
loss to the water user.
ii. Sodium soap react with metallic cations to form
precipitate, thus losing their surfactant properties.
iii. Hardness-soap precipitate – stick to surface of tubs,
sinks and dishwasher may stain clothing, dishes,
remain in the pore of skin cause feel rough and
uncomfortable.
iv. Boiler-fouling of water heaters and hot-water pipes.
32
1.3.2.3 Hardness
 Measurement:
 To determine the quantity of Ca & Mg ions.
i. Spectrophotometric technique.
ii. Chemical titration-titration using EDTA and EBT as
an indicator.
 Use:
i. For drinking water and domestic uses.
ii. For industrial uses.
33
1.3.2.4 Fluoride
 Naturally found in surface waters and groundwater
cause by a few type of sedimentary and ingenious
rock.
 Toxic in high concentration and beneficial in low
concentration to human and animal.
a. 1 mg/L in drinking water help prevent dental
cavities in children, stronger teeth that
resistance to decay.
b. >2 mg/L discoloration of teeth (mottling).
c. >5 mg/L result in bone fluorosis and other
skeletal abnormalities.
34
1.3.2.5 Metals
 All metals are soluble to some extents in water.
 Excessive amount may present health hazards.
 Toxic metal:harmfull in realtively small amount.
 Sources:
i. Dissolution from natural.
ii. Discharge from domestic.
iii. Industrial and agricultural wastewater.
 Measurement of metal in water usually made by
Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS).
35
1.3.2.5.1 Nontoxic Metals
 Hardness ions: Ca and Mg.
 Commonly found in water :Na, Fe, Mn, Al, Cu & Zn.
 Na is most common & highly reactive with other
elements.
 Salt of Na are very soluble in water, excessive
concentration cause a bitter taste & health hazard
to cardiac & kidney.
 Na is corrosive to metal surface & in large
concentration is toxic to plant.
 Fe & Mn in small amount cause color problem &
present no health hazard.
 Cu & Zn are synergetic & when both present,
maybe toxic to many biological species.
36
1.3.2.5.2 Toxic Metals
 Harmful to human & other organism in small
quantities.
 Ar, Ba, Cd, Cr, Pb, Hg and Ag.
 Cumulative toxins such as Ar,vBa, Cd, Pb & Hg are
particularly hazardous- concentrated by the food
chain, thus posing the greatest danger to organism
near the top of chain.
 Source from mining, industrial & agricultural.
37
1.3.2.6 Organics
 Soluble in water
 Come from natural sources and human activities.
 Natural organic-decay product of organic solids.
 Synthetic organic-Wastewater discharge or
agricultural practice.
 Categories of dissolved organic:
i. Biodegradable
ii. Nonbiodegradable (refractory)
38
1.3.2.6.1 Biodegradable Organics
 Consist of organics that can be utilized for food by

naturally occurring microorganism within a
reasonable length of time.
 Organic material exist in dissolved form consist of
starches, fats, proteins, alcohols, acids, aldehydes
and esters – maybe the end product of microbial
decomposition of plant or animal tissue or from
wastewater (domestic / industrial) discharges.
 Microbial utilization of dissolved organic can be
accompanied by oxidation or reduction process.
 Oxidation: addition of oxygen to or deletion of
hydrogen from , element from the organic molecule.
39
1.3.2.6.1 Biodegradable Organics
 Reduction: addition of hydrogen to or deletion of

oxygen from , elements of the organic molecule.
 Biochemical Oxygen Demand(BOD): Amount of O2
consumed during microbial utilization of organics.
 BOD test: determine the O2 consumed from a
sample placed in an airtight contained in controlled
environment for a preselected period of time.
 Standard test– 300 ml bottle, incubated at 20oC, 5
days in dark room (prevent algae growth – produce
O2).
40
Example 1: Determining BOD5
The BOD of w/water is suspected to range from 50 to
200 mg/L. Three dilutions are prepared to cover this
range. The procedure is the same in each case. First
the sample is placed in the standard BOD bottle and is
then diluted to 300 mL with organic-free, oxygen-
saturated water. The initial DO is determined and the
bottles tightly stoppered and placed in the incubator at
20oC for 5 days, after which the DO is again
determined. Given:
41
1.3.2.6.2 Nonbiological Organic
 Some organics materials are resistant to biological
degradation – tannic & lignic acid,cellulose,phenols.
 Molecules with extremely strong bond such as
polysaccharides (strong bond) and benzene (ringed
structures) are also nonbiodegradable e.g
detergent surfactant compound ABS. ABS causes
frothing & foaming.
 Many of the organic associated with petroleum &
with its refining & processing also contain benzene.
 Some organic are nonbiodegradable because they
are toxic to organism such as organic pesticides,
some industrial chemical, and hydrocarbon that
combined with chlorine.
42
 Insecticide, herbicide, pesticide accumulate to top

food chain, can cause extinction of animal species
 Organic insecticide are usually chlorinated
hydrocarbons.
 Measurement : usually by Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD) test or estimated from Total Organi
Content (TOC) test.
 Specific organic compounds can be identified and
quantified through analysis by GC.
 Higher than BOD (because more compounds can
be chemically oxidized than can be biologically
oxidized).
43
 For wastewaters with ratios higher than 3, it is

assumed that some oxidizable material in the
sample is not biodegradable.
Differences Between BOD and COD
44
1.3.2.7 Nutrients
 Essential element for growth of plant, animal and
aquatic species.
 For aquatic species, the most required is carbon,
nitrogen and phosphorus.
 In most cases, nitrogen and phosphorus are
nutrients that are limiting factors in aquatic plant
growth.
45
1.3.2.8 Nitrogen
 Because nitrogen is an essential building block in
the synthesis of protein, nitrogen data will be
required to evaluate the treatability of wastewater
by biological processes.
 Oxidation of ammonia and ammonium to nitrate by
aquatic microbes results in additional BOD.
 Test for nitrogen in water commonly include
analysis for ammonia, nitrate and organic nitrogen.
 Where control of alga growth in the receiving water
is necessary to protect beneficial uses, removal or
reduction of nitrogen in wastewaters prior to
discharge may be desirable.
 Unit: mg/L. 46
1.3.2.9 Phosphorus
 Phosphorus is typically the limiting nutrient in lakes
and algae growth is linked to phosphorus inputs.
 Problems
i. Taste and odor in drinking water.
ii. Can be toxic, especially to farm animals.
iii. Phosphate concentration as low as 2 mg/L
interfere with the chemical coagulation of
turbidity.
 Sources – fertilizers and detergents.
 Can exist in a variety of chemical forms, so total P
is normally measured.
47
1.3.3 Biological Water-Quality
Parameter
 The environmental engineer must have

considerable knowledge of the biological of waste
water because it is a very important characteristics
factor in wastewater treatment.
 The main microorganisms of concern in
wastewater treatment are Bacteria, Fungi, Algae,
Protozoa, Viruses, and pathogenic microorganisms
groups. Chapter 1: Water Quality
48
1.3.3.1 Bacteria
 Types: Spheroid, rod curved rod, spiral, filamentous.
 Some important bacteria:
i. Pseudomonas: reduce NO3 to N2, important in
biological nitrate removal in treatment works.
ii. Zoogloea: helps through slim production in the
formation of flocs in the aeration tanks.
iii. Sphaerotilus natuns:Causes sludge bulking in the
aeration tanks.
iv. Bdellovibrio: destroy pathogens
v.Acinetobacter: Store large amounts of phosphate
under aerobic conditions and release it under an
anaerobic condition so, useful in phosphate removal.
49
1.3.3.1 Bacteria
vi. Nitrosomonas: transform NH4 into NO2-.
vii. Nitrobacter: transform NO2- to NO3-.
viii. Coliform bacteria:The most common type is E-
Coli or Echerichia Coli, (indicator for the
presence of pathogens.
Pseudomonas Zoogloeaar Sphaerotilus natuns
50
1.3.3.1 Bacteria
Bdellovibrio Acinetobacter
Nitrosomonas Nitrobacter Coliform bacteria

51
1.3.3.2 Fungi, algae, protozoa
 Fungi: Important in decomposing organic matter to
simple forms.
 Algae:
i. Cause eutrophication phenomena. (negative
effect).
ii. Useful in oxidation ponds. (positive effect).
iii. Cause taste and problems when decayed. (negative
effect).
 Protozoa: Feed on bacteria so they help in the
purification of treated waste water. Some of them
are pathogenic.
52
1.3.3.3 Viruses
 Viruses are a major hazard to public health. Some
viruses can live as long as 41 days in water and
wastewater at 20ºC. They cause lots of dangerous
diseases.
 Diseases – disorder of the nervous system,
poliomyelitis, infectious hepatitis.
53
1.4 Water Quality Requirement
 Vary according to the proposed use of the water.
 Represent a known or assumed need & based on
prior experience of the water user.
 WQS – set by governmental agency
54
1.5 Water Quality Index
 Give info on water quality conditions & trends.
 To measure the degree of water pollution and a tool
in water quality classification.
 Reflect changes in physio-chemical quality of
surface water & indicator of ecological change.
 Easiest method to explain the pollution level of
water especially to public – using ranges between
excellent, good, medium, bad and very bad.
 Is used to relate a group of variables to a common
scale.
 Varies with changes in parameters values that would
be indicative of changes in the quality of waters.
55
1.5 Water Quality Index
 WQI system and parameters vary from country to
country.
 Measures general water quality conditions and does
not reflect the presence of toxic compounds or
specific toxic conditions.
56
1.6 Fifth Schedule
ACCEPTABLE CONDITIONS FOR DISCHARGE OF INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENT OR MIXED EFFLUENT OF STANDARDS A AND B
Parameter Unit Standard
A B
(1) (2) (3) (4)
(i) Temperature oC 40 40
(ii) pH Value - 6.0-9.0 5.5-9.0
(iii) BOD at 20oC mg/L 20 50
(iv) Suspended Solids mg/L 50 100
(v) Mercury mg/L 0.005 0.05
(vi) Cadmium mg/L 0.01 0.02
(vii) Chromium, Hexavalent mg/L 0.05 0.05
(viii) Chromium, Trivalent mg/L 0.20 1.0
(ix) Arsenic mg/L 0.05 0.10
(x) Cyanide mg/L 0.05 0.10
(xi) Lead mg/L 0.10 0.5
(xii) Copper mg/L 0.20 1.0
(xiii) Manganese mg/L 0.20 1.0
(xiv) Nickel mg/L 0.20 1.0
(xv) Tin mg/L 0.20 1.0
(xvi) Zinc mg/L 2.0 2.0
(xvii) Boron mg/L 1.0 4.0
(xviii) Iron (Fe) mg/L 1.0 5.0
(xix) Silver mg/L 0.1 1.0
(xx) Aluminium mg/L 10 15
(xxi) Selenium mg/L 0.02 0.5
(xxii) Barium mg/L 1.0 2.0
(xxiii) Fluoride mg/L 2.0 5.0
(xxiv) Formaldehyde mg/L 1.0 2.0
(xxv) Phenol mg/L 0.001 1.0
(xxvi) Free Chlorine mg/L 1.0 2.0
(xxvii) Sulphide mg/L 0.50 0.50
(xxviii) Oil and Grease mg/L 1.0 10
(xxix) Ammoniacal Nitrogen mg/L 10 20
(xxx) Colour ADMI* 100 200
57
1.7 Sixth Schedule
SIXTH SCHEDULE
[Paragraph 11(1)(a), Regulations 12 and 13]
LIST OF CATCHMENT AREAS WHERE STANDARD A APPLIES
1. The catchment areas referred to in these Regulations shall be the areas upstream of
surface or above subsurface water supply intakes, for the purpose of human consumption
including drinking water.
2. For the purpose of these Regulations, the water supply intake points shall include the
public water supply intakes specified such as below:
Location of Water Intake Name of River/ Reservoir/Well Water Supply Scheme
(1) (2) (3)

Longitude Latitude
(East) (North)
101° 43' 05'' 2° 46' 45'' Sg. Labu Sepang
101° 44' 20'' 2° 53' 20'' Sg. Semenyih/Empangan Semenyih Sepang
101° 25.2' 15.9'' 3° 23.2' 19.9'' Batang Berjuntai/Sg. Selangor Kuala Selangor
101° 26' 20.5'' 3° 23' 10.2'' Batang Berjuntai/Sg. Selangor Kuala Selangor
101° 38' 7.7'' 3° 30' 30.4'' Rasa/Sg. Selangor Kuala Selangor
101° 44' 10'' 2° 53' 30'' Sg. Semenyih Sepang
101° 42' 50'' 2° 53' 23'' Sg. Semenyih Sepang
101° 48' 10'' 3° 09' 15'' Sg. Ampang Gombak
101° 41' 56'' 3° 28' 45'' Sg. Batang Kali Hulu Selangor
101° 20' 05'' 3° 40' 50'' Sg. Bernam Sabak Bernam
101° 26' 48'' 3° 44' 30'' Sg. Bernam Hulu Selangor
58
Tutorial
2.4, 2.8, 2.24, 2.31, 2.43 and 2.44
59

Water Quality: Definitions, Characteristics and Perspectives

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Water Quality: Definitions, Characteristics and Perspectives

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CHAPTER 1

WATER QUALITY: DEFINITIONS,

At the end of this chapter, student should be able to:

Understand hydrological cycle of water

Explain in detail physical, chemical

Understand how to measure physical,

Figure 1: Size classification of solid in water

Results from the erosion of colloidal material

Provides adsorption sites for chemicals and

May cause sediment deposits that can affect the

If the temperature is increased, biological activity increases.

Solubility of gases decreases at elevated temperatures.

 Materials remaining in water after SS removal.

 Consist of organics that can be utilized for food by

 Reduction: addition of hydrogen to or deletion of

 Insecticide, herbicide, pesticide accumulate to top

 For wastewaters with ratios higher than 3, it is

 The environmental engineer must have

Pseudomonas Zoogloeaar Sphaerotilus natuns

Nitrosomonas Nitrobacter Coliform bacteria

(1) (2) (3)

2.4, 2.8, 2.24, 2.31, 2.43 and 2.44

You might also like