Hydrological Cycle

Water:
• the most abundant compounds.
• covers the surface of earth.
• 97 % is contained in oceans and saline
bodies.
• not readily usable for human use.
• in a constant state of motion.
• pure in evaporation state, and with
impurities in condensation state.
• More impurities in air, on or beneath the
earth.
 Hydrological Cycle
human activities contribute further impurities.
in the form of industrial and domestic wastes,
agricultural chemicals, and other.
 Hydrological Cycle
Location Volume, 1012 m3 % of total

Freshwater lakes 125 0.009

Saline lakes and inland seas 104 0.008

Rivers 1.25 0.001

Land Areas Soil moisture 67 .005

Groundwater 8,350 0.61

Ice caps and glaciers 29,20 2.14

Total land areas (rounded) 37,800 2.80

Atmosphere (water vapor) 13 0.001

Oceans 1,320,000 97.3

Total locations 1,360,000 100

 f Definition of Water Pollution
Water Pollution may be defined as:
 the presence in water of impurities
 in such quantity
 and of such nature
 as to impair the use of the water for a stated purpose.
 Water Quality Parameters
• Physical Parameters.
• Chemical Parameters.
• Biological Parameters.
 Physical Parameters
1 • Suspended Solids (SS)

2 • Turbidity

3 • Color

4 • Taste & Odor

5 • Temperature
 Chemical Parameters
• Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
1
• Alkalinity
2
• Hardness
3
• Fluoride
4
• Metals (Toxic/Non-Toxic)
5
 Chemical Parameters
6 • Organics (Bio/Non-Biodegradable)

7 • Nutrients (N) and (F)

 Biological Parameters
• Pathogens
• Bacteria
1
• Viruses
2
• Protozoa
3
• Helminths
4
 Physical Water- Quality Parameters
Defines those characteristics of water that
respond to the senses of:
1. Sight
2. Touch
3. Taste
4. Smell
 Suspended Solids (SS)
Sources Impacts
Provides adsorption
Natural contaminants sites.
due to erosive action of Aesthetically
water. displeasing.
Human use of water. Include disease-
causing organism.
 Suspended Solids (SS)
Measurements Use

1. Evaporation to
 USEPA has set a maximum SS
dryness, and the of 30 mg/L for most treated
residue is expressed as wastewater discharges.
(mg/L)
2. Removal of SS by
filtration.
 Turbidity
Turbidity is a measure of the extent to
which light is either absorbed or
scattered by suspended material in
water.
 Turbidity
Sources Impacts
1. Erosion of colloidal 1. Displeasing opaqueness.
material. 2. Provides adsorption sites
2. Vegetable fibers and that cause tastes and odors
3. Interferes with light
microorganisms
penetration and
3. Household and photosynthesis reaction.
industrial wastewaters 4. affects flora and fauna of
4. Soaps / detergents. the stream.
 Turbidity
Measurements Uses
1.Turbidity is measured 1. made on ‘clean’ water.
photochemically by 2. USEPA sets (1 FTU) for
determining the drinking water , while
percentage of light of a AWWA sets a max. of (0.1
given intensity that is FTU)
either absorbed or
scattered.
2.Turbidity meter gives
reading as Formazin
Turbidity Units (FTU)
 Color
Pure water is colorless.
Colored by foreign substances.
1. If color is partly due to suspended matter
(Apparent Color).
2. If color is contributed by dissolved solids
that remain after removal of suspended
matter (True Color).
 Color
Sources Impacts
1. Contact with organic 1. Not accepted to people.
debris. 2. Affects its marketability.
2. Industrial wastes: 3. Reduce the effectiveness
of CHLORINE as a
textiles
disinfectant.
chemicals 4. Produce carcinogens.
mining and refining
slaughterhouses
 Color
Measurements Uses
1. Color comparison 1. TRUE color is only
tubes (TCUs). measured in potable water
analysis.
2. Spectrophotometric
2. Color is not included in
techniques is used for wastewater analysis.
industrial effluents.
3. Samples should be
tested within 72 hr.
 Taste and Odor
Substances that produce an odor in water
will almost impart a taste as well.
The converse is not true as there are many
mineral substances that produce taste but
no odor.
 Taste and Odor
Sources Impacts
1. Minerals and metals when 1. Aesthetically
come in contact with water
(taste/odor).
displeasing.
2. Inorganic (taste). 2. Pose health threats.
3. Organic (taste/Odor). 3. Odors produced by
4. Decomposition of organics
(taste/odor).
organic substances are
5. Species of algae (taste/odor). carcinogenic.
6. Combination of two
materials.
 Taste and Odors
Measurements Uses
1. Gas or Liquid 1. Taste and odor is only
Chromatography. associated with potable
water.
2. Threshold Odor
3. A max. TON of 3 has
Number (TON) been recommended as a
employs human senses guideline.
of taste and smell.
TON = [A+B] / A
 Temperature
Sources:
• Temperature of natural water is
responding to many factors:
• 1. Ambient temperature.
• 2. Shallow bodies of water.
• 3. Dissipation of waste heat.
• 4. Discharge of heated water.
 Temperature
Impacts:
• Increase of temperature in water bodies
can :
• 1. Eliminate some species.
• 2. Accelerate algae growth.
• 3. Reduce dissolved oxygen levels.
• 4. Affects reaction rates and solubility
levels of chemicals.
• 5. Affects physical properties
(density/viscosity)
 Chemical Water- Quality Parameters
Water is called the universal solvent.
 Chemical parameters are related to the
solvent capabilities of water.
 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
 The material remaining in the water
after filtration for the suspended-
solids analysis is considered to be
dissolved, left as solid residue upon
evaporation.
 Constitutes part of the total solids in
water.
 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
Sources Impacts

Solvent action of water on 1. Produce displeasing
solids, liquids, and gases. color, tastes and odors.

1. Organic substances 2. Some chemicals are
(mineral/metals/gases) carcinogenic.

2. Inorganic substances 3. A Tendency to
(decay products of
dissolve pipes and
organic chemicals
/organic gases / plumbing.
vegetation).
 Total dissolved solids (TDS)
Measurements Uses
1. Direct 1. Gross measurement of
measurement: dissolved material is used
for wastewater.
filtration and then
2. Ionic constituents of
evaporation to dryness
TDS are made for potable
(mg/L). water, industrial and
2. Approx. analysis: agricultural supplies.
electrical conductivity
of water (m S/m).
 Alkalinity
 The quantity of ions in water that
will react to neutralize hydrogen
ions.
 A measure of the ability of water to
neutralize acids.
 Constituents of Alkalinity include:
CO3 , OH , HCO3 , NH3 , HS.
 Alkalinity
Sources Impacts

1. Dissolution of mineral 1. Impairs bitter taste.
substances in soil , 2. Reaction with
atmosphere.
certain cations.

2. Phosphates may
3. The precipitate fouls
originate from: detergents,
fertilizers , insecticides. pipes and water-system

3. HS and NH3 products of appurtenances.
microbial decomposition
of organic material.
 Alkalinity
Measurements Uses
1. Titrating water 1. To measure
with an acid and Buffering capacity
determining of natural water.
hydrogen 2. Used as a process
equivalent. control variable in
2. Expressed as WWT.
(mg/L) of CaCo3.
 Hardness
 The concentration of multivalent
metallic cations in solution.
 Is represented by the sum of Ca +
Mg ions.
 Hardness
Sources Impacts
1. The multivalent 1. Economic loss to the
metallic ions most water user.
abundant in water 2. The precipitate stain
are Ca and Mg. clothing and dishes.
2. Other ions 3. The skin may feel
include: Fe , Mn , Sr , rough and
uncomfortable.
Al.
Hardness
Impacts
4. Fouling of water
heaters & hot-water
pipes.
5. Mg + sulfate ion has
a laxative effect.
6. Ca hardness is
beneficial to the human
cardiovascular system.
 Hardness
Measurements Uses
o Spectrophotometric 1. Analysis is made
techniques. on natural, potable
Chemical titration. waters & industrial
To determine the uses.
quantity of Ca + Mg 2. Max. hardness in
ions. drinking water =
500 mg/L
 f Hardness
Acceptability levels according to a customer’s
acclimation to hardness:
 Soft less than 50 mg/L as CaCO3
 Moderately hard 50-150 mg/L as CaC03
 Hard 150-300 mg/L as CaCo3
 Very hard Greater than 300 mg/L as
CaCO3
 f Fluoride
 Associated with sedimentary or
igneous rocks.
 Seldom found in appreciable
quantities.
Appears in groundwater in few
geographical regions.
 f Fluoride
Fluoride is toxic to human and other animals in large quantities,
while small conc. Can be beneficial:

 Conc. Of 1.0 mg/L in drinking water help to prevent dental

cavities in children.
 During formation of permanent teeth, Fluoride combine
chemically with tooth enamel, resulting in harder , strong teeth
and more resistant to decay.
Noticeable discoloration of teeth(Molten) occurs when conc. of
fluoride exceed 2.0 mg/L. But rare if less than 1.5 mg/L.
Conc. Of 5.0 mg/L and more leads to bone fluorosis and skeletal
abnormalities.
 f Metals
 All metals are soluble to some extent in water.
 Excessive amount of any metal present health hazard.
 Metals that are harmful in relatively small amount are
commonly labeled TOXIC.
Other metals fall into NON-TOXIC group.
Example of NON-TOXIC metals: Ca , Mg , Fe , Mn , Al ,
Cu , Zn , Na.
Example of TOXIC metals: As , Ba , Cd , Cr , Pb , Hg ,
Ag
 Metals
Sources Measurement
1. Dissolution from Atomic absorption
natural deposits. spectrophotometry.
2. Discharge of
domestic, industrial
or agricultural
wastewaters.
 f Metals
Impact of NON-TOXIC metals
1. Excessive conc. of Na cause a bitter taste in water and
are a health hazard to cardiac and kidney patients.
2. Na is corrosive to metal surfaces, and is toxic plants in
large conc.
3. small quantities of Fe + Mn cause color problem.
4. Taste and odor problem can result from bacteria usage
of Fe and Mn compounds.
5. Cu and Zn are synergetic. When both are present even
in small quantities may be TOXIC to biological species.
 f Metals
Impact of TOXIC metals
1. They are harmful to humans and other organisms in
small quantities.
Some toxic metals may dissolve in water such as: As , Ba
, Cd . Cr , Pb , Hg , Ag.
3. Cumulative toxins such as: As , Cd , Pb , Hg are
particularly hazardous .
4. These metals are concentrated by the food chain and
posing greater danger to organisms near top of the
chain.
 Organics
 Many organics are soluble in water.
 Dissolved organics are divided into:
1. Biodegradable organics
2. Non- Biodegradable organics
 Biodegradable Organics
 Consists of organics that can:
1. be utilized for food
2.by naturally occurring
microorganism
3. within a reasonable length of time
 Examples are:
starch/fats/proteins/alcohols/ acids
 1. Biodegradable organics
Sources Impacts
1. end product of 1. can cause color,
microbial taste, and odor
decomposition of plant problems
and animal tissue 2. consumes a lot of
2. domestic or oxygen dissolved in
industrial wastewater water
discharges
 1. Biodegradable organics
Use Measurement
1. Aerobic environment: BOD is measured by
oxygen exists/stable & determining O2
acceptable compounds
consumed in:
2. Anaerobic environments:
oxygen absent/unstable & 1. air-tight container
objectionable end product 2. kept in controlled
3. Oxygen consumed is environment
called Biochemical Oxygen 3. For a preselected
Demand (BOD)
period of time
 Non-Biodegradable Organics
 Resistant to biological degradation
(degrades slowly)
 Examples of non-biodegradable
organics:
1. Alkyl Benzene Sulfonate (ABS)
2. Benzene
 2. non- Biodegradable organics
Sources Impacts
Organic pesticides: 1. ABS causes frothing
1.Insecticides and foaming in WWT &
(chlorinated HC) turbidity
example : 2. Some are toxic
aldrin
specially when
2. Herbicides
combined with Cl2
(chlorophenoxys)
3. some are cumulative
Example:
2-4, dichlorophenoxyacetic acid toxins that affect food
chain
 2. Biodegradable organics
Measurement
1. The Chemical
Oxygen Demand
(COD) Test
2. The Total Organic
Carbon (TOC)
3. Gas
Chromatigraphy
 Nutrients
 Elements essential to the growth
and reproduction of plants and
animals.
 The important nutrients are: C, N,
and P.
 N and P are the limiting factors in
aquatic plant growth.
 1. Nitrogen (N2)
Sources Impacts
Proteins and chlorophyll 1. oxidation of NH3 and NH4
Animal wastes, chemical to nitrite and nitrate result in
increase of BOD demands
fertilizer, wastewater 2. Nitrate poisoning in
discharges infants leads to death.
Groundwater 3. Bacteria in the intestinal
contamination by N2 tract convert nitrate to
from animal feedlots, nitrite.
4. Nitrite then absorbed into
septic tanks
the blood stream
 1. Nitrogen (N2)
Impacts
5. Nitite has a greater affinity
for hemoglobin than O2
6. Nitrite replaces O2 in the
blood complex.
7. O2 starvation result in bluish
discoloration of the body.
8. Nitrite poisoning is called
(Blue Baby Syndrome).
9. Correct name is
(Methemoglobinemia)
Measurement
Analysis for NH3 , NH4 ,
NO3 , organic N
Expressed as (mg/l)
Tests for NH4 and
organic N are common
for wastewater
Test for NO3 is common
for clear water and
treated wastewater
 2. Phosphorus (P)
Sources
Constituent of soil
Used as a fertilizer
Constituent of animal waste
Runoff from agricultural areas
and municipal wastewater
Condensed phosphate is used
as builders in detergents
Constituents of body waste
and food residue
Impacts
1. when P is increased,
rapid growth of aquatic
plants occur with severe
consequences.
2. interfere with water
treatment processes.
3. P conc. Of 0.2 mg/l
interfere with chemical
coagulation of turbidity.
 Biological Water- Quality Parameters
A body of water:
1. Hosting large numbers of species
2. Well-balanced numbers of individuals
3. Considered to be a healthy system
 Pathogens
From the perspective of human use and
consumption, the most important biological
organisms in water are PATHOGENS,
1. Those organisms capable of infecting or
transmitting diseases to humans.
2. They are not native to aquatic system.
3. Usually require an animal host for growth
and reproduction.
 Pathogens
4. Able to survive in water and maintain their
infectious capabilities for significant period of
time.
5. These PATHOGENS include:
o Bacteria
o Viruses
o Protozoa
o Helminths
 Bacteria
1. Single-cell microorganism
2. Usually colorless
3. The lowest form of life capable of
synthesizing protoplasm from the
surrounding environment.
 Bacteria
Sources Impacts
Overcrowding and poor 1. Gastrointestinal
sanitary conditions disorders.
outbreaks some diseases 2. Cholera diseases
caused by bacteria. (vomiting/diarrhea).
Temporary lapses in good
3. Symptoms of Typhoid
sanitary practices
(gastrointestinal
outbreaks some diseases
caused by bacteria. disorders, high fever,
ulceration of the
intestine, nerve damage)
 Viruses
1. The smallest biological structures known.
2. Contain all the genetic information
necessary for their own reproduction.
3. Obligate parasites that require a host in
which to live.
 Viruses
Sources Impacts
Most disease cases result 1. Disorders of the
from persons eating nervous system.
shellfish contaminated 2. Cause Polio-myelitis
by viruses from polluted and infectious
water. hepatitis.
Poor sanitary facilities
and water-supply
protection.
 Protozoa
1. The lowest form of animal life.
2. Unicellular organisms.
3. More complex in their functional activity
than bacteria or viruses.
4. Widely distributed in natural waters.
5. A few aquatic protozoa are pathogenic.
 Viruses
Sources and Impacts
1. Characterized by Gastrointestinal disorders
of a milder order than bacteria.
2. Drinking water contaminated with by sewage
containing protozoa cause epedemic.
3. Form cysts that are difficult to deactivate by
disinfection, but could be removed by
filteration.
 Helminthes
1. Sometimes called Parasitic Worms.
2. The life cycle involve two or more animal
host, one of which can be human.
3. Contamination may result from human or
animal waste that contain helminthes.
4. Snails or insect could be another source of
contamination.
 Helminthes
Impacts
1. Direct contact with untreated wastewater
containing helminthes cause hazards.
2. The most affected persons are:
o sewage plant operators
o Swimmers in recreational lakes polluted by
sewage runoff storm water.
 Engineered System
for Water Purification
Objectives:
• Preparing water to be potable
(suitable as drinking water) .
• Removal of excessive harmful salts
(Mn/ Fe).
• Removal of pathogens (bacteria).
 Methods of Water Purification

• Storage
1
• Precipitation
2
• Filteration
3
• Helminths
4
 1. Storage
Advantage Disadvantage
1. Reduction of 1. 1. Acceleration of
organic content. algae and
2. Precipitation of mosquito growth.
microbes and 2. 2. Requirement
suspended for large surface
materials. areas.
 2. Precipitation
Chemical Physical
Precipitation Precipitation
1. By adding aluminum 1. Depends on many
sulphate. factors such as:
2. A precipitate that o Particle size
adsorb suspended o Weight
material o Form
(mud/microbes). o Water velocity
o Temperature
 3. Filteration
Water losses:
1. Most of its bacteria.
2. Suspended material.
3. Some organic dissolved materials.
How ?
By adsorption on layers of sand or other
porous materials.
Types of filters used for purification:
4. Slow filters
5. Quick filters 3. Pressurized filters
 4. Disinfection
Why ?
To secure potable water from the health
point of view.

Accomplished by:
1. Chemicals (ozone / chlorine / iodine /
halzone tablets).
2. Desalination.
3. Boiling.
 Engineered System
for Water Treatment
Constituents of Sewage Wastewater:
1. More than 99 % water.
2. Total organic & inorganic solids
(organics are utilized as food for
microorganisms).
3. Microorganisms (gastrointestinal
bacteria) 0.5 -20.0 million/ml
4. Microbes and viruses
Why untreated sewage is discharged
directly from pumping stations to
the sea ?

1. Overloads.
2. Failures.
3. Diversion for construction
purposes.
5 % of raw sewage reaches the sea
through this way.
 Objectives or aims of Sewage
Wastewater Treatment
1. Removal of SS.
2. Elimination of a high percentage
of pathogens.
3. Stabilization of organic materials.
4. Utilization in irrigation or
injection of ground water.
5. Production of by-products (soil
fertilizer/source of energy).
 Criteria for Siting a STP
1. Location should not be in the
dominant wind direction.
2. Pumping operations should be in
minimum.
3. Location is far to minimize the
effect of odors on residential area.
4. Allocation of adequate areas.
5. Location is close to the sea.
 Types of
Wastewater Treatment Processes
1 • Preliminary Treatment
• Primary Treatment
2
• Secondary or Biological Treatment
3
• Tertiary Treatment
4
• Sludge Treatment
5
 Preliminary Treatment
1. Large volume of solids and
floating materials are captured.

Primary Treatment
2. Floating materials are removed.
3. Inorganic materials are removed.
4. Negligible amount of organic
materials are removed
Secondary or Biological Treatment
1. Suspended solids of an organic
origin, chemical compounds, and
pathogens are treated and
precipitated to inorganics.

Tertiary Treatment
2. Micro SS (organic & inorganic)
are treated.
3. Effluents are reused in irrigation.
 Sludge Treatment
1. Sludge is precipitated in parallel
with tertiary treatment.
2. Sludge contains millions of
bacteria and living
microorganisms.
3. Treated in a special units.
4. Converted to a useful and
harmless byproduct.
 Classification
Of Sludge Treatment
• Sludge Thickening
1
• Sludge Digestion
2
• Sludge Conditioning
3
• Sludge Drying and Dewatering
4
 Sludge Thickening
1. Increasing the concentration of
solid materials in the sludge.

Sludge Digestion
2. Done by using aerobic or
anaerobic bacteria.
3. Stabilized sludge is produced.
4. Easily dried and disposed.
 Sludge Conditioning
1. Done by adding chemicals.
2. Condense the solid materials
exists in the sludge.
3. Facilitate its drying and
dewatering.

Sludge Drying and Dewatering

4. Sludge is dewatered completely
by sand and mechanical filters.
 Objectives
of Chemical Treatment
1. Protection of water from high
alkalinity or acidity by adjusting
PH values.
2. Removal of toxic metals and
unrequired chemicals.
3. Addition of some nutrients for
growth of useful bacteria.
4. Removal of pathogens by
disinfection of treated water.
5. Removal of floating particulates.
 Chemical Compound Formula Ranges of Use

Oxygen O2 Aeration

Aluminium Sulphate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3 .XH2O Coagulation – Phosphorus Precipitation

Calcium Ca Coagulation – Alkalinity Adjustment

Sodium Bicarbonate NaHCO3 PH Adjustment

Sulphuric Acid H2SO4 PH Adjustment

Ammonia NH3 Nutrient Addition – Disinfection with Chloramines

Chlorine Cl2 Disinfection

Activated Carbon C Odor Control

Chlorine Dioxide ClO2 Odor Control

 Methods
of Chemical Treatment
1. Coagulation and Flocculation.
2. Phosphorus Precipitation.
3. Neutralization (PH adjustment)
and Recarbonation.
4. Nutrient addition.
5. Disinfection.
 Types of Pollutants
Related to a STP
• Gaseous Pollutants and Odor
1 Control

• Liquid Pollutants
2
• Solid Pollutants
3
 1. Gaseous Pollutants and Odor Control
Gases causing malodorous smell:
CH4 / H2S / NH3 .

Control Methods:
1. Alleviating odor production.
2. Alleviating odor transmission.
3. Masking.
4. Collecting and treatment.
 2. Liquid Pollutants
Treated wastewater could be utilized as a
source for the followings:

1. Water for light & heavy industry.

2. Drinking water in poor countries.
3. Injection of ground water.
4. Landscape irrigation.
5. Washing roads.
 3. Solid Pollutants
Sludge can be utilized as:

1.Organic fertilizer.
2.Source of land filling.
3.Source of fuel.
 3. Solid Pollutants
Problems associated with using sludge:
1. Groundwater pollution with NO3-N.
2. Disease transmission to animals and
then to humans.
3. High Cadmium (Cd) absorption by
agricultural soil. Cd has an effect on
human kidney.
4. Decrease of agricultural products due
to high conc. of some heavy metals
(Pb / Ni / Zn / Cu).
Contaminant Unit operation, unit process, or treatment system

Suspended solids Sedimentation

Screening and comminuting
Filtration variations
Flotation
Chemical-polymer addition
Coagulation/sedimentation

Biodegradable Organics Activated-sludge variations

Fixed-film; trickling filters
Fixed film; rotating biological contactors
Lagoon and oxidation pond variations
Intermittent sand filtration
Physical-chemical systems
 

Pathogens Chlorination
Hypochlorination
Ozonation
 

Nutrient - Nitrogen Suspended-growth nitrification and denitrification variations

Ammonia stripping
Ion exchange
Breakpoint chlorination
 

Nutrient - Phosphorus Metal-salt addition

Lime coagulation/sedimentation
Biological-chemical phosphorus removal