Settlement

CVG 4108
 Settlement
●
Foundation transfer the load from a
superstructure to the ground.
●
The design requirements normally
stipulate that the deformation of the soil
must not exceed structural tolerances.
●
Deformation is expressed by :
●
movement
●
settlement
●
creep (secondary consolidation)

CVG 4108
 Movement
●
Occurs as a response to an increase of
total stress
●
The result of a transfer of stress to the
soil, occurs as the soil build the necessary
resistance to the applied load (i.e. plat
load bearing test)
●
Movement should not be confused with
settlement.
●
As a term, movement is used when the
involved, or influenced, soil volume
increases as the load increases.
CVG 4108
 Settlement
●
Volume reduction of the subsoil due to an
increase in effective stress.
●
Consists of sum of "elastic" compression
and deformation due to consolidation.
●
As a term, settlement is used when the
total stress is constant and the involved,
or influenced, soil zone stays the same,
while the effective stress increases.

CVG 4108
 Elastic Compression
●
Also called immediate settlement
●
Compression of soil grains (soil skeleton)
& gas present in voids.
●
Occurs quickly and is typically small.

CVG 4108
 Consolidation
Settlement
●
Consolidation is the volume change due
to the compression of the soil structure
associated with expulsion of water.
●
Can take a significant amount of time to
complete.
●
Is associated to decreasing pore water
pressure during the process.

CVG 4108
 Secondary
Consolidation (Creep)
●
It is compression occurring without an
increase of effective stress. Creep does
not usually involve expulsion of water,
but is associated mainly with slow long-
term compression of the soil skeleton.
●
It is usually small, but may in some soils
add significantly to the total deformation
of the soil. It is then acceptable to talk in
terms of settlement due to creep or
"creep settlement"
CVG 4108
 Linear Elastic
Deformation
●
Linear stress-strain behaviour follows
Hooke’s law (“elastic modulus method”):
'
=
where E
ε = induced strain in a soil layer
∆σ ' = imposed change of effective stress in the soil layer
E = elastic modulus of the soil layer
●
Strictly speaking, Young's modulus is for
unconfined deformations (small footing)

CVG 4108
 Constrained Linear
Elastic Deformations
●
For large loaded areas it is more
appropriate to use the constrained
modulus, D,
D 1− 
=
E 1 1−2 
where
ν = poisson's ratio
●
The settlement of the layer, S, is the
strain, ε,times the thickness of the layer,
h: S =∑  h

CVG 4108
 e-Log P Curve

from "An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering”

CVG 4108 by R.D. Holtz, & W.D. Kovacs.
 Non-Linear Elastic
Deformation
●
Most soils deform in a non-linear fashion.
●
The non-linearity cannot be disregarded
for compressible soils such as silts and
clays.
●
Conventionally, modelled by:
Cc 1'
=
1e o   
log
0'
●
If the soil is overconsolidated we use the
equation in the form of:
1' p'
CVG 4108
=
1
  
1e o 
C c log
 p'  
C r log
p'
 Disadvantages of the
Conventional Method
● Two parameters must be provided Cc and
eo to describe the compressibility of the
soil.
● Unfortunately, often only Cc is reported.
●
Other methods such as Janbu and MIT
method use a single parameter approach.
●
The MIT approach uses the compression
Ratio CR, instead of the compression
index Cc. Cc
CR=
1e o 
CVG 4108
 Janbu Tangent Modulus
Approach
●
Developed by Nilmar Janbu in the early 1960s
●
It is referenced by the Canadian Foundation Engineering Manual
●
Combines linear and non-linear stress-strain behaviour.
●
The relation of stress and strain is a function of two non-dimensional
parameteres: the stress exponent, j, and the modulus number, m.
● Derives from the definition of the tangent modulus Mt= δσ/δε, by the
following expression: 1− j
'
M t=


=m r 
r

where
ε = strain induced by increase of effective stress
σ‘ = effective stress
j = a stress exponent
m = a modulus number
σ‘r = a reference stress, a constant, which is
equal to 100 KPa (= 1 tsf = 2 ksf = 1 kg/cm2 = 1 at)
CVG 4108
 Cohesionless soil – j > 0
●
Integrating the previous formula for j > 0, we obtain:
j j

=
1
mj [    ]
1'
r '
−
0'
r'
●
In the case of a dense coarse grained soil (such as gravel, glacial till),
j = 1: 1 1
=   1 ' − '
0  = '
m r ' m r '

since =   ' then 1 = 1

E E m r '
E
m=
r '

CVG 4108
Sandy or silty soil - j=0.5
●
In the case of “transitional” materials,
j=0.5. j j
1  1 '
=
 0 '
mj [    ]
r '
−

0.5
r'
0.5

=
1
m 0.5 [    ]
1 '
r '
−
0'
r '

1
=   1 ' −  0 ' 
0.5   r ' m

●
If the soil is overconsolidated:
1 1 1
CVG 4108
=
[
0.5   r ' m
   1 ' −  p '      p ' −  0 ' 
mr ]
 Cohesive Soil — j = 0
●
Integrating the tangent modulus equation
yields:
1 1 '
= ln
m  
0'

●
In the case of an overconsolidated clay
we then obtain:
1 1' 1  p'
= ln
m  
 p'
 ln
mr  
0'

CVG 4108
 Typical Values of m

from “The Red Book”

by Bengt Fellenius.

CVG 4108
 Comparison with
Conventional Methods
●
Janbu with j=1 is identical to the Elastic
Modulus approach.
●
Janbu with j=0 is identical to the e-log P
method, where: (1+e 0 ) (1+e 0 )
m=ln (10) =2.3
Cc Cc
●
Janbu j=0.5 usable for silty sands and
sandy silts does not have an equivalent in
the conventional methods.
●
Janbu is easy to use. A single parameter
is required for clays.
CVG 4108
Obtaining Consolidation
Properties
●
Settlement properties of soils are
obtained from oedometer tests.
● They provide, Cc & Cr, or m and mr, as well
as cv.
●
oedometer specimens are typically 1 in
thick by 2.5 in diameter

CVG 4108
 Typical Results
●
For a specimen of 1 inch height, these are
the results of an oedometer test.
Stress Δh
(kPa) (mm)
0 0
25 0.03
50 0.11
100 0.29
200 0.88
400 1.78
800 3.1
1600 4.66
3200 6.01

CVG 4108
 To Use Janbu
●
To apply the Janbu method, we need to
tabulate strain ε=(Δh/ho).
●
We can also use the Tangent Modulus,
M=Δσ/Δε, to determine p'c.
Stress Δh ε Δσ Δε M
(kPa) (mm) (kPa) (kPa)
0 0 0.00%
25 0.03 0.12% 25 0.12% 21166.67
50 0.11 0.43% 25 0.31% 7937.5
100 0.29 1.14% 50 0.71% 7055.56
200 0.88 3.46% 100 2.32% 4305.08
400 1.78 7.01% 200 3.54% 5644.44
800 3.1 12.20% 400 5.20% 7696.97
1600 4.66 18.35% 800 6.14% 13025.64
3200 6.01 23.66% 1600 5.31% 30103.7

CVG 4108
 To Use Conventional
Method
●
To apply the Terzaghi method, we need to
tabulate void ratio.
Stress Δh ε e
(kPa) (mm)
0 0 0.00% 1.01
25 0.03 0.12% 1.01
50 0.11 0.43% 1.00
100 0.29 1.14% 0.99
200 0.88 3.46% 0.94
400 1.78 7.01% 0.87
800 3.1 12.20% 0.76
1600 4.66 18.35% 0.64
3200 6.01 23.66% 0.53

CVG 4108
 To Use Conventional
Method
●
To apply the Terzaghi method, we need to
tabulate void ratio.
Stress Δh ε e V V V T −V S V T
(kPa) (mm) e o= = = −1
0 0 0.00% 1.01 VS VS VS
25 0.03 0.12% 1.01
50 0.11 0.43% 1.00 
100 0.29 1.14% 0.99 H ring⋅ D 2ring
200 0.88 3.46% 0.94 4
e o= −1
400 1.78 7.01% 0.87 VS
800 3.1 12.20% 0.76 MS
1600 4.66 18.35% 0.64 S = =w⋅G S
3200 6.01 23.66% 0.53 VS
MS
V S=
 w⋅G S

CVG 4108
 To Use Conventional
Method
●
To apply the Terzaghi method, we need to
tabulate void ratio.

Stress Δh ε e H ring⋅ D 2ring
(kPa) (mm) 4
eo= −1
0 0 0.00% 1.01 MS
25 0.03 0.12% 1.01
50 0.11 0.43% 1.00  w⋅G S
100 0.29 1.14% 0.99
200 0.88 3.46% 0.94
400 1.78 7.01% 0.87 
800 3.1 12.20% 0.76 H ring⋅ D 2ring⋅w⋅G S
4
1600 4.66 18.35% 0.64 e o= −1
3200 6.01 23.66% 0.53 MS

ASSUMING GS=2.67, and Measuring MS = 106.88 g, eo= 1.01

CVG 4108
 In Summary
●
Using Janbu instead of the Conventional
Method implies only requiring knowledge
of the "height" of the specimen.
●
Conventional methods not only requires
all dimensions to be known, but also
Mass, and Specific Gravity, Gs (also known
as "relative density" in all fields of science
and engineering other than geotechnical
engineering)

CVG 4108
 Preconsolidation
Pressure
●
Can be determined from e-log P or ε-log P
curve.
●
Janbu recommended using the Tangent
Modulus vs. Stress.

CVG 4108
 p'c from e-Log P

from “The Red Book”

by Bengt Fellenius.

CVG 4108
 p'c from e-Log P

from “The Red Book”

by Bengt Fellenius.

CVG 4108
p'c from Modulus vs Stress

from “The Red Book”

by Bengt Fellenius.

CVG 4108
 Example 1

1m
●
A square footing 36 m x 36 m Sandy Silt

4m
ρ = 2000 kg/m³

carrying a load of 250 kPa is

underlain by the following profile
(assume σ'p=150 kPa).
Soft Clay

17m
●
Calculate the stress ρ = 1700 kg/m³
Cc=0.371
distribution within the profile. Cr=0.0371

(use 2:1 stress distribution) e0=1.01

●
Calculate the Settlement of
the Soil using the Terzaghi Silty Sand

6m
ρ = 2100 kg/m³

and Janbu methods Assuming

mid-stresses to be
representative of the entire
Glacial Till

∞
ρ = 2200 kg/m³

CVG 4108
layer.
 Example 1 - Solution
Z zmid Δz Soil Type γ σo u σo' qz σ1 u σ1'
(m) (m) (m) (kN/m³) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa)
0 0 0 0 250 250 0 250
0.5 1 Sandy Silt 19.62 10 243 253 0 253
1 20 0 20 237 256 0 256
2.5 3 Sandy Silt 19.62 49 219 268 15 253
4 78 29 49 203 281 29 252
12.5 17 Soft Clay 16.677 220 108 138 358 113 245
21 362 196 166 100 462 196 266
24 6 Silty Sand 20.601 424 90 514 226 288
27 486 255 231 82 567 255 312

For the clay layer, assume we are using the results from the oedometer test:
e o =1.01 m=12.47
Cc=0.371 mr =124.7
Cr=0.0371
We can assume typical values for silty soils as per the table from the "Red Book".
m=50 mr =135 For the sandy silt.

m=200 mr =250 For the silty sand.

CVG 4108
 Example 1 - Solution

' '

ε=
1
[ ( )
(1+e o )
σp
( )]
σ1
C r log 10 ' +C c log 10 '
σ0 σp

1 150 245
ε=
(1+1.01) [
0.0371 log 10 ( )
108 ( )]
+0.371 log 10
150

ε=4.20×10−2

Δ h=4.20×10−2×17 m
Δ h=0.715 m
Δ h=715 mm

CVG 4108
 Example 1 - Solution
(1+e 0 ) (1+1.01)
m=ln (10) =2.3 =12.47
Cc 0.371
(1+e 0 ) (1+1.01)
mr =ln (10) =2.3 =124.7
Cc 0.0371

CVG 4108
 Example 1 - Solution

' '
1 σp 1 σ1
ε=
mr ( ) ( )
ln ' + ln '
σ0 m σp
1 150 1 245
ε=
124.7
ln ( ) +
108 12.47
ln ( )
150
−2
ε=4.20×10

Δ h=4.20×10−2×17 m
Δ h=0.715 m
Δ h=715 mm

CVG 4108
 Example 1 - Solution

' '

ε=
1
[ ( )
(1+e o )
σp
( )]
σ1
C r log 10 ' +C c log 10 '
σ0 σp

1 150 245
ε=
(1+1.01) [
0.0371 log 10 ( )
107 ( )]
+0.371 log 10
150
ε=4.20×10−2

Δ h=4.20×10−2×17 m
Δ h=0.715 m
Δ h=715 mm

CVG 4108
 Example 1 - Solution

' '

ε=
1
[ ( )
(1+e o )
σp
( )]
σ1
C r log 10 ' +C c log 10 '
σ0 σp

1 150 245
ε=
(1+1.01) [
0.0371 log 10 ( )
107
+0.371 log 10 ( )]
150
ε=4.20×10−2
−2 The Solution by both the conventional Terzaghi
Δ h=4.20×10 ×17 m approach and Janbu's yields the same results.
Δ h=0.715 m
Δ h=715 mm

CVG 4108
 Example 1 - Solution

' '

ε=
1
[ ( )
(1+e o )
σp
( )]
σ1
C r log 10 ' +C c log 10 '
σ0 σp

1 150 245
ε=
(1+1.01) [
0.0371 log 10 ( )
107
+0.371 log 10
150 ( )]
ε=4.20×10−2 An important assumption was made in the solution:

Δ h=4.20×10−2×17 m
Δ h=0.715 m
Δ h=715 mm

CVG 4108
 Example 1 - Solution

' '

ε=
1
[ ( )
(1+e o )
σp
( )]
C r log 10 ' +C c log 10 '
σ0 σp
σ1

1 150 245
ε=
(1+1.01) [
0.0371 log 10 ( )
107
+0.371 log 10
150 ( )]
ε=4.20×10−2 An important assumption was made in the solution:

Δ h=4.20×10−2×17 m The nonlinearity of the consolidation equations as well as

the stress distribution with depth (finite loaded area) was
Δ h=0.715 m ignored, otherwise we should have used multiple samples
accross the layer.
Δ h=715 mm

CVG 4108
 For the Sandy Silt
Layer:
(for the 1 m sublayer above the GWT... assuming same density of dry and sat... quick calc)

' j ' j ' j ' j

ε=
1
mr⋅j
σ
σ r (( ) ( ) ) (( ) ( ) )
σ
− σp
r
0
+
1 σ
m⋅j σ r
1σ
− σ
r
p

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

1 150 10 1 253 150
ε= (( ) ( ) )
135⋅0.5 100
−
100
+ (( ) ( ) )
50⋅0.5 100
−
100

ε=2.81×10−2
Δ h=2.81×10−2 ×1 m
Δ h=28 mm

CVG 4108
 For the Sandy Silt
Layer:
(for the 3 m sublayer below the GWT... assuming same density of dry and sat... quick calc)

' j ' j ' j ' j

ε=
1
mr⋅j
σ
σ r (( ) ( ) ) (( ) ( ) )
σ
− σp
r
0
+
1 σ
m⋅j σ r
1σ
− σ
r
p

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

1 150 34 1 253 150
ε= (( ) ( ) )
135⋅0.5 100
−
100
+ (( ) ( ) )
50⋅0.5 100
−
100

ε=2.41×10−2
Δ h=2.41×10−2 ×3 m
Δ h=53 mm

CVG 4108
 For the Sandy Silt
Layer:
Δ h=53 mm+ 28 mm
Δ h=81 mm

CVG 4108
For the Silty Sand Layer:

j j

    
' '
1 1  0
= −
mr⋅ j r r
Verify if this should be mr or m

0.5 0.5
1 299 209
ε=
250⋅0.5 100(( ) ( ) ) −
100

ε=2.27⋅10−3
Δ h=2.27⋅10−3×6 m
Δ h=14 mm

CVG 4108
For the Silty Sand and
Sandy Silt:
Sandy Silt Layer Silty Sand Layer

Δ h=81 mm Δ h=14 mm

Conventional approaches do not consider these transition materials.

In practice, they would be treated using either elastic modulus (most
likely for sand) or with the consolidation approach if it consisted
mostly of fines.

CVG 4108
 Time Rate of
Consolidation
●
Consolidation takes time, and this is
important in construction scheduling.
●
It is usually necessary to calculate the
time rate of consolidation for various
design objectives.
where
2
H t = the time required to achieve a certain degree of
t =T v consolidation,
cv Tv = a dimensionless time coefficient.
cv = coefficient of consolidation
H = length of longest drainage path.

CVG 4108
 Example 2
●
If the clay sample of Example 1 has a
coefficient of consolidation of cv=7×10-4
cm2/s, and only 25 mm settlement is
acceptable after construction is
completed for the loading of Example
1:How long will it take for sufficient
settlement to occur to reach this
objective?

CVG 4108
 Tv vs Uavg
●
From Holtz and Kovacs:
For U < 60% Uavg T
2
U%
π
4
2
T= U = π
4 100 ( ) 0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.008
0.031
0.071
0.126
0.5 0.197
For U > 60% 0.6 0.287
0.7 0.403
T =1.781−0.933⋅log 100−U % 0.8 0.567
0.9 0.848
or 0.95 1.163
1.0 ∞
T =−0.085−0.933⋅log(1−U )

CVG 4108
 Example 2
●
If the clay sample of Example 1 has a
coefficient of consolidation of cv=7×10-4
cm2/s, and only 10 mm settlement is
acceptable after construction is
completed:How long will it take for
sufficient settlement to occur to reach
this objective?

CVG 4108
 Example 2: Solution
17 m
H dr = =8.5 m
2

cm2 1 m 2 86400 s 365.25×day 1 yr

c v =7×10 −4
s
× ( )
100 cm
×
day
×
yr
×
12 month

m2
c v =0.184×
month
715 mm−25 mm 690 mm
U= = =96.5%
715 mm 715 mm

T =−0.085−0.933⋅log(1−U )=−0.085−0.933×log 10 ( 1−0.965 )

T =1.2734

CVG 4108
 Example 2: Solution
H2
t =T v
cv
(8.5 m)2
t=1.2734 2
m
0.184
month
t=500 months The time to reach consolidation is unacceptably long.
Typically a delay of 3 months, or 6 months are common,
t=41.7 years although delays of a year are not unheard of for some
aspects of construction (it all depends on the scale of the
project and the number of components).

Often, surcharges are used to shorten the delay.

CVG 4108
 Example 2: Solution
●
Assuming a time of 6 months has been
set to achieve 96.5% consolidation, a
surcharge must be chosen so that the
settlement achieved corresponds to the
settlement required within 6 months.
S required=715 mm−25 mm=690 mm
H dr 2
t acceptable=6 months=T acceptable
cv
cv 0.184 m2 / month
T acceptable=t acceptable 2
=6 months× 2
H dr (8.5 m)
T acceptable =0.01528
CVG 4108
 Example 2: Solution
T=π U
2
4
4T 4×0.01528
U= π = √π √
Since 13.95% < 60% , ∴ we used the
U =0.1395 correct formula.

The next step is to figure out what total settlement of the clay layer would be required to
achieve for 13.95% of it to be equal to 690 mm.

690 mm
U=
S surcharge
690 mm 690 mm
S surcharge= = =4946 mm or about 5 m
U 0.1395

CVG 4108
 Example 2: Solution
●
The next step in the design would then be
determining the height and width of
surcharge required to achieve this level of
settlement (keep in mind that we would
only require 690 mm to be completed to
remove it).
●
When the size of the surcharge is
impractical other means of accelerating
the consolidation must be found (we will
cover this in ground improvement)
CVG 4108
 Three-Dimensional
Consolidation
●
In many practical cases lateral flow
occurs and Terzaghi's formula
underestimates the rate of settlement
●
The approximate solutions of Davis and
Poulos (1972) may be used to estimate
the degree of settlement for 2 and 3 d
drainage.

CVG 4108
 Three-Dimensional
Consolidation
● cv can be modified to approximate 3D
conditions (Poulos, 2000):
c ve =R f c v
● cv=1-D coefficient of consolidation
● cve=modified coefficient of consolidation
● Rf= modification factor to account for 3D
effects

CVG 4108
 Three-Dimensional
Consolidation

Strip Foundation Circular/square Foundation

●
PT=permeable top surface
●
PB=permeable bottom surface
●
IF=impermeable foundation
●
IB=impermeable base
CVG 4108
 References
Davies, E.H, and Poulos, H.G. (1972). Rate of
settlement under three-dimensional conditions.
Géotechnique, 18(1):67-91
Poulos, H.G. (2000). Foundation settlement analysis –
Practical prodecures versus modern research. The
Eighth Spencer J. Buchanan Lecture, College
Station, Texas, 34 pp.

CVG 4108