SOIL MECHANICS II-CCE 2312

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL

ENGINEERING

Dr. George Okwadha

 The effect of cohesion on Active Pressure
• Consider two soils of the
same unit wt., one acting as
a purely frictional soil with
an angle of shearing
resistance ϕ and the other
acting as a c-ϕ soil with the
same frictional resistance, ϕ
and a unit cohesion, c.
• The Mohr circle for the two
soils is shown on the RHS.
• At depth h, both soils are
subjected to the same major
principal stress, σ1=γh
• The minor principal stress • The difference is due to cohesive
for cohesionless soil is σ3 strength c, represented by either
and σ3c for cohesive soil length AB or EF
The effect of cohesion on Active Pressure
 The effect of cohesion on Active Pressure
• Hence, the active pressure, pa at depth h in a soil exhibiting both
frictional and cohesive strength and having a horizontal upper
surface is given by the expression

• This expression is referred to as Bell’s solution, after Bell

(1915).
• The active pressure diagram for such a soil is as shown below.
• The value of pa to a
height hc shows that the
-
zone is in a state of
Suction
• This pa is normally +
Taken as zero in design
 Depth of tension zone
• In the figure above, the depth of the tension zone is given by hc
• If tension cracks develop over this depth, the value of hc is often
required.
ϕ
• If pa in the expression, 𝑝𝑎 = 𝐾𝑎 𝛾ℎ𝑐 − 2𝑐 𝑡𝑎𝑛(45 − ) and Ka is
2
1−𝑆𝑖𝑛ϕ ϕ
given by Ka = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2(45 − ), then
1+𝑆𝑖𝑛ϕ 2
ϕ ϕ
• 𝑝𝑎 = 𝛾ℎ𝑐 𝑡𝑎𝑛2(45 − ) − 2𝑐 𝑡𝑎𝑛(45 − ) is put to zero (in
2 2
2𝑐 ϕ
design), we can obtain , ℎ𝑐 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛(45 − )
𝛾𝐾𝑎 2
1−𝑠𝑖𝑛ϕ 1−𝑠𝑖𝑛0
• When ϕ = 0 (purely cohesive soil), ⇒ Ka = = = 1,
1+𝑠𝑖𝑛ϕ 1+𝑠𝑖𝑛0
2𝑐
and tan45o = 1, then ℎ𝑐 =
𝛾
 The occurrence of tension cracks
• A tension zone and therefore tension cracking can only occur
when the soil exhibits cohesive strength
• Gravels, sands and most silts generally operate in a drained state
and having no cohesion, do not experience tensile cracking
• Clays when undrained can have substantial values of Cu but
when fully drained have effective cohesive intercepts that are
either zero or have a small value which is negligible.
• Tension cracks therefore can only occur in clays in undrained
condition.
• The value of hc therefore varies proportionately as the value of C
• The value of hc becomes smaller as the value of C becomes
smaller.
• As a clay wets up and its cohesive intercept reduces from Cu to
C’, tensile cracks within it tend to close.
 The occurrence of tension cracks
• Rankine’s formula in terms of total stress becomes
2𝐶𝑢 ϕ
ℎ𝑐 = tan(45 + )
𝛾 2
(for compacted silts and clays with both cohesive and frictional
strength)
2𝐶𝑢
• And ℎ𝑐 = (for clays i.e. ϕ = 0)
𝛾
• But the Code of Practice for Earth Retaining Structures (BS
8002: 2015 and Eurocode 7) suggests that
2𝐶𝑢 ϕ 𝐶𝑤
• ℎ𝑐 = tan(45 + ) 1+ for a c-ϕ soil (silts and gravels)
𝛾 2 𝐶𝑢
and
2𝐶𝑢 𝐶𝑤
• ℎ𝑐 = 1 + for clays and some silts
𝛾 𝐶𝑢
 The occurrence of tension cracks
• Rankine’s formula in terms of total 2𝐶𝑢 𝐶𝑤
• ℎ𝑐 = 1+ for clays
stress becomes 𝛾 𝐶𝑢
2𝐶𝑢 ϕ and some silts (ϕ = 0)
ℎ𝑐 = tan(45 + )
𝛾 2
• Where Cu = the undrained
(for compacted silts and clays with unit cohesion (i,.e. value of
both cohesive and frictional cohesion with respect to
strength), and total stress)
2𝐶𝑢
ℎ𝑐 = (for clays i.e. ϕ = 0) • ϕ = angle of shearing
𝛾
resistance with respect to
• But the Code of Practice for Earth
total stress
Retaining Structures (BS 8002:
2015 and Eurocode 7) suggests • Cw = the undrained unit
that cohesion between the wall
and the soil.
2𝐶𝑢 ϕ 𝐶𝑤
• ℎ𝑐 = tan(45 + ) 1+
𝛾 2 𝐶𝑢
for a c-ϕ soil (silts and gravels)
 Passive pressure in Cohesionless soil
• Rankine’s theory (Soil surface horizontal)
– In this case, the vertical pressure due to the weight of the soil, γh is
acting as a minor principal stress, σ3. That is σ3 = γh
– The Mohr circle diagram representing these stress conditions are
shown below (a) in usual position and (b) in correct orientation
 Rankine’s theory (Soil surface horizontal)
• The major principal stress, σ1 = Kpγh

• And passive pressure 𝑝𝑝 = 𝐾𝑝 γℎ

ℎ ℎ2
• The passive thrust on the wall is 𝑃𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝 = 𝐾𝑝 γ
2 2
 Rankine’s theory (Soil surface sloping at angle β)
• In this case, the direction of the principal stresses are not
known but the passive pressure is assumed to act parallel to
the surface of the slope.
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽+ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 β−𝑐𝑜𝑠2 ϕ
• The analysis gives 𝐾𝑝 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛽
𝑐𝑜𝑠β− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 β−𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ϕ
ℎ ℎ2
• And 𝑃𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝 = 𝐾𝑝 γ
2 2
• Note that Rankine’s assumption of a smooth wall is not
valid for a passive case since there could be very high
friction between the wall and the soil. Thus Kp is
underestimated
 The Coulomb’s Theory
• With the assumption of a plane failure surface leading to a
wedge failure, Coulomb’s expression for Kp for granular
soil is given by
The effect of cohesion on passive pressure
• The Rankine’s Theory
– Rankine’s theory for the case of a frictional-cohesive soil was
developed by Bell (1915) for a soil with a horizontal surface, and
is given by
ϕ ϕ
𝑝𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 45 +
2 + 2𝑐 𝑡𝑎𝑛(45 + )
2
• The Coulomb’s Theory
– Bell’s equation can also be developed for passive pressure
considering the effect of wall friction and adhesion, and is given by
– 𝑝𝑝 = 𝐾𝑝 γℎ + cKpc where
– c is operating value of cohesion
 Earth Pressure at rest
• It has been shown that active pressure is associated with lateral
expansion of the soil and is a minimum value and passive
pressure is associated with lateral compression of the soil and is
a maximum
• The active and passive pressures may be referred to as limit
pressures
• If the lateral strain in the soil is zero, the corresponding lateral
pressure is called the earth pressure at rest and is usually
expressed in terms of effective stress by the equation
• 𝑝𝑜 = 𝐾𝑜 𝛾ℎ 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝐾𝑜 = 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛ϕ′ (Jacky, 1944)
 Earth Retaining Structures
• Earth retaining structures are structures commonly used to support
soils and structures to maintain a difference in elevation of the ground
surface
• The main earth retaining structures commonly used in Civil
Engineering are:
– Mass construction gravity walls
– Reinforced concrete walls
– Crib walls
– Gabion walls
– Sheet pile walls
– Diaphragm walls
– Reinforced solid walls
– Anchored earth walls
• Read and make notes with sketches on the above earth retaining
structures
 Design of Earth Retaining Structures
• Traditional approach involved
– Establishing the ratio of the restoring moment (or force) to the disturbing
moment (or force)
– This ratio is referred to as the Factor of safety which should be high
enough to allow for any uncertainties in the soil parameters used in the
analysis (The factor of safety approach)
– The limit state approach is currently widely used (BS 8002, 2015 and
Eurocode 7, Geotechnical design)
– In the limit state design approach, partial factors are applied to
characteristic values of actions and ground properties to yield the design
values of each.
– Limit state design approach allows for the effects of uncertainties in the
magnitudes of the characteristic values.
– Actions include soil weight, stresses in the ground, surcharges, pore
water pressures and seepage forces and are categorized as either
permanent (e.g. dead loads) or variable (e.g. imposed loads). The
characteristic value is multiplied by partial factor to give the design value
 Design of Earth Retaining Structures
• Limit state design approach cont’
– Ground properties are c, c’ and tanϕ. The characteristic value of the
property is divided by the appropriate partial factor to give the
design value.
– To satisfy the requirements of both the ultimate and serviceability
limit states, the design soil strength values are obtained from the
consideration of the representative values of peak and ultimate
strength.
– The design values are taken as the lower of:
• The soil strength mobilized as a strain acceptable for serviceability
and is expressed as the peak strength reduced by a mobilization
factor, M
• The soil strength which would be mobilized at collapse following
significant ground movements, and can generally be taken as the
critical state strength
Limit state design approach cont’
Limit state design approach cont’
 Design of gravity walls
• Limit States -The following limit states are considered
1. Slip of the surrounding soil. This effect occur in cohesive soils and can
be analysed as for a slope stability problem
2. Bearing failure of the soil beneath the structure. The overturning
moment from the earth’s thrust causes high bearing pressures at the toe
of the wall. These values must be kept within safe limits usually not
more than one-third of the supporting soil’s ultimate bearing capacity.
3. Overturning. For a wall to be stable, the resultant thrust must be within
the middle third of the base
4. Forward sliding – is caused by insufficient base friction or lack of
passive resistance in the front of the wall
5. Structural failure caused by faulty design, poor workmanship,
deterioration of materials etc
6. Excessive deformation of the wall or ground such that adjacent
structures or services reach their ultimate limit state
7. Unfavourable seepage effects and the adequacy of any drainage system
provided
 End

Thank you