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Article history: In this paper a new method based on multi-objective modified Honey Bee Mating Optimization
Received 8 December 2010 (MHBMO) algorithm is presented to investigate the DFR problem with the consideration effect of the
Accepted 13 June 2011 renewable energy sources (RESs). In the proposed algorithm, a new mating process is suggested to
Available online 20 July 2011
overcome the shortcomings which exist in the original HBMO. During the optimization process, the
proposed algorithm finds a set of non-dominated (Pareto) optimal solutions which are stored in an
Keywords:
external memory called repository. Also a fuzzy clustering technique is utilized to handle the size of the
Modified Honey Bee Mating Optimization
repository in the specified limits. Moreover, a fuzzy-based decision maker is adopted to select the ‘best
(MHBMO)
Distribution feeder reconfiguration (DFR)
compromised’ solution among the non-dominated optimal solutions of multi-objective optimization
Multi-objective optimization problem. In order to evaluate the feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed algorithm, two standard
Fuel cell distribution systems are used as case studies.
Wind energy 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Photovoltaic (PV)
0960-1481/$ e see front matter 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.renene.2011.06.017
214 T. Niknam et al. / Renewable Energy 37 (2012) 213e225
a switching plan is utilized to improve the load balancing in the before, in this method, so much computational resources and many
corresponding loop [10]. In Ref. [11], Debaprya has proposed a new runs are needed to find the optimal solutions and consequently the
approach based on fuzzy theory to solve the MDFR problem suffi- effectiveness of the algorithm will be decreased. In Ref. [16],
ciently. In order to solve the load balancing problem, Baran and Wu Niknam has proposed a new hybrid method to solve the MDFR
have suggested a Mixed Integer Programming (MIP) based method problem while the proposed method results in a single optimal
while the total power losses as the objective function is reduced solution. Thus here again, several satisfying solutions which can be
simultaneously [12]. In Ref. [13], Zhou et al. have suggested a new considered as Pareto optimal solutions are neglected.
algorithm to support the load balancing and service restoration in In fact the discrete nature of the tie and sectionalizing switches
the two feeder networks simultaneously. along with the consideration effect of the RESs make the MDFR
In Refs. [14] and [15] Niknam has proposed a new method based problem a nonlinear complex multi-objective optimization.
on evolutionary algorithms and transformation of MDFR problem Conventional and classical methods such as linear programming,
to solve a single objective optimization problem. As mentioned mixed integer programming, quadratic programming, etc., can be
T. Niknam et al. / Renewable Energy 37 (2012) 213e225 215
used to solve this problem; however, these methods reach local 2.2. Objective functions
minimum and some of them cannot handle the integer problems
[16]. Evolutionary methods owing to independence on the type of - Minimization of the power losses (f1): power losses objective
objectives function and constraints can be used to solve the MDFR function is evaluated as:
problem. Nevertheless, some evolutionary methods neither converge
to global minima nor have short convergence time. Recently, a new X
Nbr
f1 ðXÞ ¼ Ploss ðXÞ ¼ Ri jIi j2 (1)
optimization algorithm based on honey bee mating has been used to
i¼1
solve difficult optimization problems [14]. The original HBMO often
converges to local optima. In order to avoid this shortcoming, where Tiei and Swi are the states of the ith tie switch and sec-
a new method is proposed to improve the mating processing. tionalizing switch respectively. Also in this paper, 0 and 1 are used
Therefore in this paper a new method based on MHBMO algo- to show the states of open and close, respectively.
rithm is proposed to investigate the MDFR problem while the
effects of the RESs are considered simultaneously. In order to - Minimization of the voltage deviation of the buses (f2):
improve the algorithm, the mating process is corrected so that to voltage deviation objective function is evaluated as:
overcome the two main shortcomings which exist in the traditional
HBMO; that is dependency of the algorithm on the initial param- f2 ðXÞ ¼ devðXÞ ¼ max½j1 Vmin j and j1 Vmax j (2)
eters and, the possibility of being trapped in local optima. During
the optimization process, the set of Pareto optimal solutions which - Minimization of the total cost (f3): the cost objective function
are found by the algorithm would be stored in an external memory is the summation of the cost of power production by the grid
called repository. In addition, to find the ‘best compromised’ solu- and the RESs. The grid cost can be evaluated as follows:
tion among the Pareto optimal solutions, a fuzzy-based mechanism
is introduced and applied to the set Pareto solutions set. Therefore
Csub ¼ price Psub (3)
the main contributions of this paper are as follows: (1) proposing
a new modification process to improve the performance of the The cost of FC power sources is evaluated by [17]:
HBMO algorithm, (2) the use of HBMO algorithm to solve the MDFR
problem for the first time and (3) the use of the idea of the non- PFC;i
dominated solutions in the MDFR optimization problem. Finally, CFC;i ¼ 0:04$=kW h
hi
to see the feasibility and superiority of the proposed method, two Pgi
test systems are used as case studies. PLRi ¼
Pmaxi
if PLRi < 0:050hi ¼ 0:2716
if PLRi 0:050hi ¼ 0:9033 PLR5i 2:9996 PLR4i þ 3:6503 PLR3i
2. Problem formulation
2:0704 PLR2i þ 0:3747 (4)
2.1. Decision variables The cost of PV and wind units is evaluated similarly by Eq. (5).
The cost of generation of each kW h is a function of three param-
eters [18]: (I) investment cost, (II) operation and maintenance cost,
X ¼ Tie; Sw; Pg
(III) fuel cost. Therefore the cost value is evaluated as follows [18]:
CPV;i ¼ a þ b PPV;i
Sw ¼ Sw1 ; Sw2 ; Sw3 .SwNSw
CWind;i ¼ a þ b PWind;i
Capital costð$=kWÞ*CapacityðkWÞ*Gr (5)
Tie ¼ ½Tie1 ; Tie2 ; Tie3 ; .; Tietie a ¼
Life timeðYearÞ*365*24*LF
b ¼ Fuel costð$=kWÞ þ O&M Costð$=kW hÞ
Pg ¼ ½PFC ; PPV ; PWind
Therefore the total cost is as follows:
X
NFC X
NPV X
Nwind
PPV ¼ PPV;1 ; PPV;2 ; .; PPV;NPV f3 ðXÞ ¼ Cost ¼ CFC;i þ CPV;i þ Cwind;i þ Csub (6)
i¼1 i¼1 i¼1
PFC ¼ PFC;1 ; PFC;2 ; .; PFC;NFC - Minimizing the total emission produced (f4): the total
emission of the grid and the RESs is as follows [19]:
PWind ¼ PWind;1 ; PWind;2 ; .; PWind;NWind
P
NFC P
NPV NP
Wind
f4 ðXÞ ¼ Emission ¼ EFC; i þ EPV;i þ EWind;i þEGrid
i¼1 i¼1 i¼1
Xqueen ¼ xq;1 ; xq;2 ; .; xq;N ; N ¼ 2*Ntie þ NFC þ NPV þ NWind kg MW h1
EType;i ¼ NOxType;i þSO2Type;i ¼ K1Type;i þK2Type;i PType;i
lb MW h1
Spi ¼ si;1 ; si;2 ; .; si;N ; i ¼ 1; 2; .; NSp EGrid ¼ NOxGrid þSO2Grid ¼ K1Grid þK2Grid Psub
(7)
Xmut ¼ xmut;1 ; xmut;2 ; .; xmut;N
where Type can be: FC, PV or Wind. The related values of these
parameters are shown in Table 2. It should be noted that the values
Xbrood ¼ xbr;1 ; xbr;2 ; .; xbr;N of K1 and K2 related to Wind and PV units are supposed to be zero in
216 T. Niknam et al. / Renewable Energy 37 (2012) 213e225
this paper. However in some investigations, these two variables (K1 - Bus voltage constraints:
and K2) are considered to get nonzero values. In fact in these
studies, the contamination related to the process of the construc- Vmin V Vmax (12)
tion of the RESs is considered in the evaluations.
3. Modeling of the RESs
2.3. Limits and constraints
3.1. Fuel cell
- Limits associated with distribution lines:
Among different kinds of RESs, FC has developed into one of the
most important and influential devices in the current power
Line
Pij;min < PijLine < Pij;max
Line
(8) systems especially in the voltage level of distribution. Simple
structure and operation [8], high efficiency while having the ability
of following load variations [3,4], high reliability and cleanness
- Distribution power flow equations: [20,21] are some of the attractive characteristics of this type of
RESs. In recent years, the knowledge of construction of FCs has
improved profitably in a way that the efficiency of some kinds of
NP
bus the FCs has become near twice that of the conventional power
Pi ¼ Vi Vj Yij cos qij di þ dj
i¼1 plants [22].
(9)
P
Nbus
Qi ¼ Vi Vj Yij sin qij di þ dj
i¼1 3.2. Photovoltaic
Fig. 1. Modeling of RESs. a) PQ model with simultaneous three-phase control. b) PQ model with independent three-phase control. c) PV model with simultaneous three-phase
control. d) PV model with independent three-phase control.
T. Niknam et al. / Renewable Energy 37 (2012) 213e225 217
3.4. Modeling of the RESs grid directly. In the variable speed type, firstly, by the use of
synchronous or a double-fed induction generator the wind
In order to have an appropriate model for the RESs, two subjects energy is converted to the electrical energy and then by the use
should be considered precisely: (I) the operation of the RESs, (II) the of power electronic devices, the generated electrical energy is
type of connection of the RES to the grid. changed to the grid compatible AC power [25]:
8
- Fuel cells (FCs): the connection of these chemical sources of < 0 wt w1 or wt w3
t
energy into the grid is done via power electronic devices based PWT ¼ j wt w1 wt w2 t ¼ 1; 2; .; T (17)
:
on rectifier and inverter. The output power can be modeled PWT w2 wt w3
as [24]:
With the above explanation, it can be deduced that the
connection of the RESs to the grid is done via: 1) power electronic
PFC ¼ VFC IFC (13) devices and/or 2) synchronous/asynchronous electric machines. In
the first case (via power electronic devices), the RESs should be
Considering the inner resistance for the FC (R), the total power modeled with regard to the characteristics of the interface control
produced by the FC is as follows: circuit. In the second case (direct connection via electric machines),
the RESs should be modeled according to the operation of the
2 2
PtotalFC ¼ PFC þ RIFC ¼ VFC IFC þ RIFC (14) electric machines. These models are explained in the following:
The regulation related to the active power production of a FC is a. Power electronic interface: as mentioned above, in this case,
defined as: the RESs are modeled according to their control circuit. If the
control circuit is designed to control P and V independently, the
PtotalFC ¼ KP ðE0 VFC Þ2 (15) RESs can be modeled as a PV bus. On the other hand, when it is
designed to control P and Q independently, the model is
- Photovoltaic (PV): the connection of this type of RESs to the considered as a PQ bus.
grid is done in a similar way as FCs. The output power and the b. Induction generator model: the active and reactive powers of
solar radiation are related to each other as follows [25]: induction generators are usually supposed to be function of the
slip [26]:
8 2
>
> Gt PIG ¼ PIG VbusIG ; s
>
< t (18)
Psn 0 < G < Rc QIG ¼ QIG VbusIG ; s
PPV Gt ¼ Gstd Rc t ¼ 1; 2; .; T (16)
>
> t
>
: Psn G Gt >Rc If the weak relationship between the slip and the reactive power
Gstd
is neglected and also PI-G is supposed to be constant then Eq. (18) is
Note it that in this equation, the relationship of photovoltaic cell reduced as:
temperature and PPV is neglected.
PIG ¼ constant
(19)
QIG ¼ f VbusIG
- Wind turbines: This kind of RES is divided into two categories
of fixed and variable speed. In the fixed speed type, the rotor of In the steady state condition which the values of the bus volt-
the squirrel cage induction generator is rotated by the propeller ages can be supposed to be near 1 p.u.; the induction generators
through gear box while the induction motor is connected to the can be modeled as PQ buses.
Table 1 where here X is the control variable of making decision. Also n is the
Specifications of RESs (test system 1). number of objective functions.
Capacity (kW) Type Location In fact in MOP, the idea of optimality is replaced with that of
RES 1 350 FC 8 Pareto optimality or non-dominated solution. This characteristic is
RES 2 350 FC 11 due to the ability of MOP in finding the set of Pareto optimal
RES 3 350 PV 18 solutions. Pareto optimal solution is the optimal solution which
RES 4 350 Wind 25
cannot be improved in one of the objective functions unless dete-
riorate the performance of the solution in at least one of the rest.
Thus X* is called a Pareto optimal solution if it is impossible to find
a solution X in U such that X dominates X* ˛ U. U is the set of all the
c. Synchronous generator model: according to the structure of
vectors (X) which observe the constraints and limitations. In defi-
the excitation system, the synchronous machines are divided
nition the solution X1 dominates X2 if the following two conditions
into the following two categories [27]:
are satisfied:
c-1- regulating excitation voltage: this type itself is divided into the
following two categories: 1Þ c j˛f1; 2; .; ng; fj ðX1 Þ fj ðX2 Þ
voltage control mode (constant terminal voltage); which the (23)
2Þ d k˛f1; 2; .; ng; fk ðX1 Þ < fk ðX2 Þ
RES can be modeled as PV bus.
power factor control mode (constant power factor); which the 5. Fuzzy-based clustering
RES can be modeled as PQ bus.
c-2- fixed excitation voltage:, the reactive power for a round rotor 5.1. Keeping the size of the repository
synchronous generator can be evaluated as:
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi As mentioned before, the set of Pareto optimal solutions which
u !
u E2 2 2
Vbus are found during the optimization process are stored in an external
t q 2
Qin ¼ Pin SY
(20) memory (or repository). Since the repository size is constant, the
Xd Xd
number of the Pareto solutions should not exceed a specified
number. Therefore a fuzzy-based clustering technique is utilized
Considering Pin as a constant value, Eq. (20) is simplified to:
here to control the size of the repository. The membership function
Pin ¼ constant assigned to each objective function is as follows:
(21)
Qin ¼ f VbusSY 8
>
> 1 for fi ðXÞ f min
>
< 0 for f ðXÞ fimax
Similarly to Eq. (19), here RES can be supposed as a PQ bus. i
Therefore the RESs can be modeled as PV or PQ buses. mfi ðXÞ ¼ f max f ðXÞ i (24)
>
> i
On the other hand, since the division of the loads in the distri- > i
: f max f ðXÞ fi
min
fi ðXÞ fimax
i i
bution networks is unbalanced, the operation and control of the RESs
can be implemented in two forms: (1) simultaneous three-phase The values of fkmin and fkmax are evaluated by single optimization
control, (2) independent three-phase control (single phase control). of the kth objective function. Finally, the Pareto solutions are sorted
Therefore according to the model of the RES and the type of control according to the following equation:
which is utilized, four models are defined for the RESs (Fig. 1) [8]: Pn
i ¼ 1 ui mfl Xj
Nm ðjÞ ¼ Pm Pn (25)
i ¼ 1 ui
PQ model with simultaneous three-phase control. j¼1 mfl Xj
PQ model with independent three-phase control.
PV model with simultaneous three-phase control. where n is the number of the objective functions and m is the
PV model with independent three-phase control. number of the Pareto solutions in the repository.
Table 2
Emission factors related to NOx, CO2 and SO2.
instructions have been the source of inspiration for the human Goswami [31] 143.69 0.93781964 s7,s9,s14,s32,s37
Vanderson Gomes [32] 139.53 0.93781964 s7,s9,s14,s32,s37
beings during the years. The honey bees’ society is consisted of
McDermott et al. [33] 139.53 0.93781964 s7,s9,s14,s32,s37
three groups in general: 1) the queen or female, 2) the drones or PSOeSFLA [34] 139.53 0.93781964 s7,s9,s14,s32,s37
males and 3) the workers. Each of these groups has a special task MSFLA [35] 139.53 0.93781964 s7,s9,s14,s32,s37
which should be implemented in such a way that the total condi- DPSO [14] 139.53 0.93781964 s7,s9,s14,s32,s37
tion of their society improves effectively. HBMO algorithm simu- DPSOeHBMO [14] 139.53 0.93781964 s7,s9,s14,s32,s37
PSOeACO [15] 139.53 0.93781964 s7,s9,s14,s32,s37
lates each of the phases of the natural mating process so that to give DPSOeACO [16] 139.53 0.93781964 s7,s9,s14,s32,s37
a satisfying algorithm which would be profitable in the optimiza- HBMO [29] 139.53 0.93781964 s7,s9,s14,s32,s37
tion applications. The mating process between the queen and each Shirmohammadi [36] 140.26 0.93781964 s7, s10, s14, s32,s37
of the drones is implemented probabilistically with an annealing The proposed 139.53 0.93781964 s7,s9,s14,s32,s37
function as follows [28]: algorithm
Df
probðDÞ ¼ exp (26)
SðtÞ
xmut;j ; if 41 42
After each mating process, the queen speed decreases. If the xbrood1;j ¼
x ; otherwise
mating process is successful, the corresponding drone sperm is queen;j
xmut;j ; if 43 42 (30)
added to the queen spermatheca, else it is discarded and the next xbrood2;j ¼
xj ; otherwise
drone is chosen for mating. The speed of the queen after each
mating process is updated as follows: Xbrood;3 ¼ h Xqueen þ a Xqueen SP Irand;SP
Fig. 4. Single line diagram of 32-bus test system after DFR. a) Single optimization of f1 evaluated by the proposed method considering RESs. b) Single optimization of f2 evaluated by
the proposed method considering RESs. c) Single optimization of f3 evaluated by the proposed method considering RESs. d) Single optimization of f4 evaluated by the proposed
method considering RESs.
222 T. Niknam et al. / Renewable Energy 37 (2012) 213e225
Fig. 5. 3-D plot of the Pareto optimal solutions considering RESs for 3-objective function (test system 1).
T. Niknam et al. / Renewable Energy 37 (2012) 213e225 223
Table 7
Specifications of the RESs (test system 2).
Table 6
Some of the non-dominated solutions found for MDFR problem (test system 1). Table 8
Comparison of objective functions evaluated by different methods considering RESs
Power losses Voltage deviation Cost ($) Emission (test system 2).
(KW) (p.u.) (kg)
Objective function Method Best solution States of the switches
1 076.984 0.052854 156.923 14,081.05
2 090.550 0.049126 155.642 16,402.84 Power losses GA 88.4282 s70,s71,s11,s58,s61
3 088.137 0.048260 156.235 15,955.57 [kW] HBMO 87.2016 s70,s71,s14,s58,s61
4 085.580 0.048357 156.179 15,747.99 PSO 86.2222 s70,s71,s13,s55,s61
5 093.921 0.049159 155.364 17,287.72 The proposed 85.2230 s70,s71,s14,s56,s61
6 077.404 0.044224 156.934 14,110.31 algorithm
7 106.265 0.056111 154.964 18,512.59
Voltage deviation GA 0.0580294 s70,s71,s72,s54,s61
8 099.280 0.051258 155.403 17,260.70
[p.u.] HBMO 0.0572424 s70,s71,s72,s58,s61
9 101.437 0.056263 154.931 18,566.69
PSO 0.0572262 s70,s71,s14,s58,s61
10 101.162 0.051158 155.347 17,722.32
The proposed 0.0572147 s70,s20,s11,s58,s61
11 091.196 0.050928 156.959 15,147.87
algorithm
12 132.036 0.062519 154.405 21,312.95
13 095.416 0.060376 155.035 17,761.61 Cost [$] GA 158.21158 s42,s13,s11,s58,s61
14 134.018 0.062111 154.168 22,016.35 HBMO 157.28998 s70,s13,s11,s58,s74
15 086.276 0.051784 156.909 14,825.49 PSO 157.07320 s70,s71,s11,s58,s74
16 084.314 0.048066 156.978 14,656.03 The proposed 156.05831 s70,s71,s12,s58,s61
17 077.280 0.044228 156.941 14,074.58 algorithm
18 091.875 0.049822 156.083 15,900.95
Emission [kg] GA 7,211.096 s42,s19,s72,s58,s21
19 101.470 0.053645 155.336 17,826.48
HBMO 7,078.044 s35,s13,s72,s58,s68
20 102.815 0.056175 155.364 17,525.11
PSO 7,186.769 s40,s13,s72,s54,s62
Best compromised 084.314 0.048066 156.978 14,656.03 The proposed 7,026.466 s70,s71,s11,s58,s62
solution algorithm
224 T. Niknam et al. / Renewable Energy 37 (2012) 213e225
Table 9 one. This deduction can also be inferred from Fig. 5 which shows
Some of the non-dominated solutions in four-objective DFR problem (test system 2). the 3-D plot of the objective functions with regard to each other.
Power losses Voltage deviation Cost ($) Emission However the little difference which exists in the results of the
(KW) (p.u.) (kg) single optimization of f2 and f4 separately, roots in the difference
1 085.223 0.0572319 159.3069 12,587.71 which exists in the power production of the RESs. Actually, the
2 092.913 0.0572259 161.8965 12,576.07 single optimization of f4 has selected the best operating point for
3 113.798 0.0700551 157.2814 21,293.49
the FC1 (on bus 8), FC2 (on bus 11), PV and Wind plant to be
4 088.460 0.0585779 162.2050 11,629.81
5 091.024 0.0572147 165.6285 07,029.07 350 MW equally, while the single optimization of f2 has preferred to
6 102.611 0.0586040 159.6404 16,570.59 reduce the power production of FC1 by 6MW to 344 MW. The effect
7 103.141 0.0572385 156.7690 21,598.31 of this power production management on the values of the other
8 090.412 0.0572165 164.4271 08,581.18 objective functions can be seen in Table 6. The similarity of the
9 091.337 0.0572149 165.5630 07,199.97
10 099.266 0.0572464 156.1511 22,798.47
behavior of f2 and f4 can be deduced from this table too. In Table 6,
11 093.994 0.0572356 159.7799 16,654.01 a set of the Pareto optimal solutions which are evaluated by the
12 121.537 0.0700697 157.9254 21,278.96 multi-objective optimization of the four objective functions is
13 105.148 0.0586094 156.4227 22,723.45 shown. It can be seen that the best solutions which are evaluated by
14 086.000 0.0572289 162.1507 12,608.01
single optimization in Table 5 are considered as the Pareto solutions
15 099.267 0.0572466 156.0583 22,934.94
16 119.139 0.0736479 159.4350 18,500.87 in the multi-objective optimization in Table 6. It could already be
17 088.853 0.0572158 164.7303 08,006.55 deduced too. In fact since each of these solutions are the best with
18 104.265 0.0572419 156.3078 22,889.30 regard to the corresponding objective function, thus there could
19 090.580 0.0572247 165.6108 07,026.46 not be found any solution that can dominate these solutions and
20 086.276 0.0572269 162.9434 11,393.48
therefore omit them from the repository. Each of the solutions in
Best compromised 090.412 0.0572165 164.4271 08,581.18 Table 6 can be a satisfying solution depending on the preferences of
solution
the decision maker. However in order to offer the best compro-
mised solution to the decision maker, by the use of fuzzy clustering
deduced from Table 5 too. In fact this result shows that these two technique (as explained in Section 5.2), the best compromised
objective functions have a similar behavior in decreasing and solution is evaluated and shown in the last row of Table 6. In Fig. 7,
increasing in a way that in a wide range of variation, the the 3-D plot of the Pareto optimal solutions is depicted while each
improvement of one will result in the improvement of the other figure belongs to the multi-objective optimization of three of the
Fig. 7. 3-D plot of the Pareto optimal solutions considering RESs for 3-objective function (test system 2).
T. Niknam et al. / Renewable Energy 37 (2012) 213e225 225
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