3DG C12 015 Pile Foundations

BECHTEL
CIVIL/STRUCTURAL
ENGINEERING DESIGN GUIDE FOR

PILE FOUNDATIONS
3DG C12 015, Rev. 02, 06/94
Prepared by J. Rotz/J. Davie/P. Carrato
Approved by C. Elizondo
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No
1.0 INTRODUCTION 3
1.1 General 3
1.2 Design Approach 3
1.3 Soils and Foundation Engineering 4
2.0 TYPES OF PILES 5
2.1 Timber Piles 5
2.2 Concrete Piles 6

2.3 Steel Piles 14
2.4 Composite Piles 15
3.0 PILE ANALYSIS FOR VERTICAL LOADS 16
3.1 Traditional Dynamic Formulas 16

3.2 Analysis by Wave Equation 16
3.3 Pile Capacity by Static Methods 17
4.0 PILE ANALYSIS FOR LATERAL LOADS 18
4.1 Batter Piles 18

4.2 Laterally Loaded Short Piles 20
4.3 Laterally Loaded Long Piles 20
Page No.
5.0 FACTORS AFFECTING PILE CAPACITY AND

PERFORMANCE 20
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5.1 Negative Skin Friction 20
5.2 Soil Freeze, Relaxation, and Pile Retapping 22
5.3 Pile Heave 24
6.0 PILE TESTS 25
6.1 Pile Tests 25

6.2 Factor of Safety 26
7.0 PILE GROUPING AND SPACING 27
8.0 PILE CAPS 28
9.0 DRIVING AND DRILLING EQUIPMENT 29
10.0 INSPECTION AND REPORTING 30
10.1 Inspection during Construction 30

10.2 Pile Reports 30
10.3 Pile Numbering Plan 31
10.4 General Considerations 32
11.0 INFORMATION PROVIDED TO BIDDERS 33
12.0 REFERENCES 33
LIST OF FIGURES 36
Figure 1 Basic Pile Types 39
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
This Design Guide addresses the design, installation and testing of

structural piles (i.e. piles that undergo axial and lateral loading from
supported structures). Sheet piles, soldier piles and lagging, slurry
walls, etc., are not included.
This Design Guide includes discussions of the various types of

commonly used piles and pile driving and drilling equipment (along
with their advantages and disadvantages) in addition to methods
and procedures for pile and pile cap analysis and design. Typical
design examples and further pertinent discussions can be found in
the many cited references.
1.2 Design Approach
The general approach for the design of pile foundations includes

the following:
A. Evaluation of subsurface data for the site.
B. Determination of the type of foundation and distribution of

load, i.e., mat or individual pile caps.
C. Determination of suitable types of pile(s) and preliminary

design criteria (compression, tension and lateral loads).
D. Static analysis (for compression, tension and lateral loads) to

determine approximate pile diameter and length.
E. Wave equation analysis to determine preliminary driving

criteria and the driving stresses induced in the pile.
F. Evaluation of building code requirements that are in effect at

a given project location.
G. Detailed structural design of piles and pile groups, including

the reinforced concrete caps.
H. Field pile load tests, including a probe pile program to

confirm load per pile for design - may or may not be required
depending on local conditions.
1.3 Soils and Foundation Engineering
Engineers from Bechtel Geotechnical Services (Geotech) should

participate in all phases of the design of pile foundations. The
Project Civil/Structural Group Supervisor or his designee should ask
for assistance from Geotech as required. All key phases of the
design must be approved by the Geotech Soils Group Supervisor or
his designee.
The pile foundation design process shall include Geotech group

support and participation in the following:
A. Conducting and reviewing subsurface investigations and all

pertinent reports.
B. Determining appropriate type(s) of pile(s) and associated

pile design criteria.
C. Performing static and wave equation analyses to determine

preliminary pile size, depth, and driving criteria.
D. Review and approval of project pile foundation technical

specifications.
E. Participation in the piling contract bid evaluation and

approval review.
F. Determination of pile installation criteria.
G. Participation in pile test program, including probe piles.
H. Review of pile calculations done by others, where

appropriate.
2.0 TYPES OF PILES
Piles are classified with respect to their primary load resistance

mode and pile type. Piles which develop most of their resistance
through bearing at their tips are referred to as "end-bearing" or
"point-bearing." Piles obtaining the greater part of carrying capacity
by skin friction are referred to as "friction piles."
The types of piles can be categorized by either the method of
installation or by material composition. Figure 1 shows the basic
types of piles categorized by material composition. The details of
each pile type are described in following subsections.
The major categories of piles, as determined by method of

installation, are summarized as follows:
A. Driven piles: There are many types of driven piles available

for use today. They generally include timber, concrete, steel
or composite piles.
B. Drilled cast-in place piles: Drilled cast-in-place piles are

formed by drilling a hole into the soil and filling with concrete.
C. Vibratory piles: These are usually steel H-Sections that are

vibrated, rather than driven, through granular soil.
D. Specialty piles: There are several types of specialty piles,

such as jacked or screw piles. Screw piles may be steel or
concrete piles which are screwed by rotary means into the
soil. These are not recommended except for highly
specialized structures.
2.1 Timber Piles
Timber piles can be used in heavy construction although their

capacities (generally 10 to 40 tons) are relatively low. They are
commonly used for lightly loaded or waterfront structures.
Timber piles are either untreated or chemically treated. In
waterfront installations, properly treated timber piles may be
preferred over steel or concrete piles. For round timber piles, the
common material specification is ASTM D 25, "Standard
Specification for Round Timber Piles".
Timber piles have a relatively low cost per foot and are easy to
handle. They are best suited as friction piles in relatively loose
granular material. Timber piles are subject to possible damage
during driving, are difficult to splice, and are vulnerable to decay
unless properly treated.
2.2 Concrete Piles
2.2.1 Concrete Pile Types
Concrete piles are classified as either precast or cast-in-place piles.
Cast-in-place piles can be uncased or cased. Uncased piles

consist of the temporary driven casing type, the drilled hole type
(also known as bored piles, drilled piers, caisson piles and drilled
shafts) and the auger injected pile (also known as the augered cast-
in-place pile). Cased piles consist of the dropped-in shell type,
(such as the pressure injected footing), and the driven shell type,
(such as the steel pipe, the monotube, and the mandrel driven
shell).
Precast concrete piles are conventionally reinforced or prestressed

(Figure 1). Reinforced piles can be made at the jobsite but are
almost always made in an established plant. Prestressed piles are
plant-manufactured. Conventional reinforced piles generally have a
solid cross section and can be square, round, or octagonal.
Prestressed piles have the same basic shapes, but they may have
a hollow core with solid ends or be cylindrical with open ends.
Prestressed concrete piles can be either pre-tensioned or post-
tensioned, and they can be bedcast, vertically cast, or centrifugally
cast.
2.2.1.1 Cast-in-place Piles
2.2.1.1.1 Uncased Drilled Cast-in-place Concrete Piles
Uncased drilled cast-in-place concrete piles are formed by drilling a

hole with a screw auger or bucket auger to the required depth,
placing the reinforcing steel, and pouring the concrete. These piles
are generally less than 36 inches in diameter; larger diameter drilled
piles are usually referred to as caissons. A belling bucket can be
used to enlarge the shaft or, more commonly, the bottom of the
shaft to increase the bearing area. These piles are completely non-
displacement and are applicable in a wide variety of soil conditions.
There are three basic installation methods: (1) the dry method, (2)
the casing method (often combined with a slurry), and (3) the slurry
displacement method. The dry method is applicable in those soils
where the drilled hole will remain open for the placement of
concrete. When caving or sloughing of the soil can occur, such as
with soft soils of low shear strength, or granular soils with no
cohesion, or below the water table, the casing method is frequently
used. For this method, a temporary casing or liner is installed
through the layer of unstable soil and sealed off in a stratum of
impermeable soil. If the layer of unstable soil is relatively thick, it
may be necessary to use a drilling mud slurry to maintain the hole
until the casing can be set. If soil conditions permit, the slurry is
removed with a bailing bucket after the casing has been set and
normal drilling proceeds. Concrete is placed in the dry by
conventional methods. If the slurry cannot be removed, the slurry
displacement method is used. For this method a drilling mud slurry
is used to maintain the hole until the concrete can be placed. The
drilling mud can be formed by adding bentonite (and water if
necessary) to the drill hole and mixing it by rotation of the auger,
although it is preferable and more common to premix the slurry
before it is pumped into the hole. Under some subsoil conditions, a
natural slurry can be formed with the cohesive soils being drilled.
Concrete is then placed by tremie or pumping methods to fill the
hole from the bottom up to displace the slurry.
Cast-in-place reinforced concrete piles are conventionally

reinforced with a cage of steel reinforcement consisting of several
longitudinal bars and lateral or tie steel in the form of individual
hoops or spirals. Generally, the shaft is reinforced along its full
length. When the bearing material is very dense soil or rock, very
high allowable loads can be achieved and design loads may be
governed by the structural capacity of the pile shaft.
The resulting pile depends on the installation methods and the

quality of workmanship (inspection is generally required). The
bearing surface can be inspected if the diameter of the shaft
exceeds about 30 inches. Care must be taken when extracting the
temporary casing (if used) to prevent voids or necking from
occurring. Also, rebar cages may have to be anchored to prevent
the cage from being pulled out as the casing is withdrawn. Care
should be taken when working in loose granular soil below the
water table to prevent sloughing of the soil and intrusion of water
into the pile. It is very difficult, if not impossible, to construct belled
bottoms in this type of soil and should not be considered. (See
Reference 4 (pages 509-544), Reference 5, and Reference 6 for
further information.)
The other major type of uncased-drilled pile is the auger injected

pile or the augered cast-in-place pile. The augered cast-in-place
pile is installed by drilling a hole to the desired depth using a large
diameter (typically 18 to 36 inches) hollow stem auger. As the
auger is removed, concrete grout under pressure is pumped
through the auger to fill the drill hole. The grout is typically pumped
at sufficient pressure to maintain a head of grout several feet above
the tip of the auger at all times. The grout pumping continues until
it reaches the ground surface. Typically, short reinforcing cages
required for lateral loads are placed after the augers are removed,
but while the grout is still fluid. In cases where high uplift capacity
is required, a single large diameter high strength steel bar can be
inserted in the hollow stem section of the auger prior to placing the
grout. Augered cast-in-place piles typically are not installed within
six pile diameters center-to-center of a pile filled with concrete less
than 24 hours old.
2.2.1.1.2 Cased Driven Steel Shell Cast-in-place Piles
Cased driven steel shell cast-in-place concrete piles are of many

varieties, as shown in Figure 1. In essence, a steel shell is driven
into the ground and then filled with concrete. The piles may be
mandrel-driven, top-driven, base driven, or both mandrel and top-
driven. Mandrel-driven piles include steel pipe piles and corrugated
steel shells. Top-driven piles include both pipe piles and monotube
piles. Piles that are filled with concrete and then driven can also be
considered in this category. Piles that are both top and mandrel-
driven include composite piles where the lower section is a top-
driven pipe pile, and the upper section is a mandrel-driven shell.
Pipe piles can also be base driven, where a drop weight operating
inside the pipe impacts on a closure plug at the bottom of the pipe.
Internal reinforcement for these piles is not usually required for
normal compressive axial loading. Reinforcing is required for
conditions such as uplift, lateral loads (if batter piles are not used)
or long, unsupported lengths.
The driven steel shell cast-in-place concrete piles have some basic
advantages, such as on-the-job length flexibility, internal inspection
after being driven, and protection of fresh concrete. The pile is
capable of being driven to high resistance, commonly to loads of 40
to 100 tons. Mandrel driven piles have the added advantage of
high impedance and stiffness, which results in higher load capacity
than when top driven with the same hammer. They are, however,
difficult to splice after concreting, difficult to redrive (special
precautions need to be taken) and thin shells can be damaged by
driving adjacent piles, or by driving the shell through cobbles,
boulders or fill material.
Bechtel Standard Specification, C-094, Cast-in-Place Concrete

Piles (Reference 39) and applicable ACI Codes, should be referred
to by the design engineer.
2.2.1.2 Precast Concrete Piles
Precast concrete piles are "made to order". Size, length, shape,

strength, and in fact almost every physical dimension and
characteristic, may be designed to meet manufacturing, shipping,
driving, service and exposure conditions. They can be cast at the
job site, but are usually manufactured at a casting yard.
Full-length precast concrete piles can be made and driven, or
sections can be assembled into full pile lengths either during or
before driving. Most of these sectional concrete piles are
assembled during driving through the use of various basic types of
joints or splicing methods. For these basic methods, a considerable
number of special systems have been proposed, many of which are
commercially proprietary (See Reference 1).
Precast piles may be subject to damage during handling,

particularly if they are not prestressed. They frequently have a high
breakage rate during installation which can result in construction
delays and a suspect foundation. However, they can be designed
for high load capacities and good corrosion resistance.
A good standard reference specification may be found in Appendix

VI to Reference 2, entitled: "Specifications for Manufacture and
Driving of Precast Concrete Piles of the Portland Cement
Association." The portion of these specifications dealing with
materials, concrete quality, mixing and placing concrete, forms and
reinforcement should be updated to conform to the latest edition of
"Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACI 318)."
The remaining portions of Reference 2, dealing with handling and
driving, are applicable to all precast concrete piles.
2.2.1.3 Precast Prestressed Concrete Piles
Square, round, octagonal and various other forms of pretensioned

prestressed concrete piles are commonly manufactured. Standard
size and standard capacity piles are readily available in some
localities. See References 1, 2, 5 and 26. Refer also to brochures
of local manufacturers.
2.2.2 Concrete Pile Design
Calculation of stresses and deformation in the pile must consider

the end restraint of the top of the pile and the soil-pile interaction for
the embedded portion. The soil pile interaction, including stresses,
moments and deformation, may be evaluated using a beam-on-
elastic-foundation type computer program, such as COM 624
(Reference 33) with appropriate soil parameters.
For cast-in-place concrete piles subjected to lateral loads, even

though embedded in good soil, the reinforcing cage needs to
extend to a depth where there are no bending stresses in the pile
from lateral loads or from moments applied at the top of the pile.
The required embedment length for the reinforcing steel also needs
to account for tensile loading and should extend to a depth where
there are theoretically no tensile stresses in the pile.
The lateral support for the embedded portions provided by

practically any soil, has been generally found sufficient to prevent
pile failure due to buckling. However, unsupported portions of piles
in extremely soft soils, in water or above ground should be
designed as columns without lateral support.
The design of precast concrete piles requires consideration of

handling, transportation, driving, permanent loads (both axial and
bending), and transient bending loads. Detailed design is usually
performed by the manufacturer. Reference 6 contains general
information on precast concrete pile design considerations, along
with manufacturing practice for prestressed concrete piles.
Reference 2, Appendix VI, contains, "Suggested Specifications for
Pretensioned Concrete Piles".
2.2.3 Precast Pile Anchorage to Pile Cap
For conventional small section precast concrete piles (conventional

reinforcing or prestressed), pile-to-cap connections may take one of
the following forms:
A. Mild-steel dowels are grouted into holes in the pile head.

These holes may be drilled after driving.
B. For a hinged condition at the pile head, unstressed portions

of the prestressing tendons may be extended into the pile
cap. For design, embedments of 20 to 30 inches are usually
employed for strands, and they are treated as the equivalent
conventional steel reinforcement. For tension piles,
embedments are generally 30 to 40 inches.
C. For a fixed condition at the pile head, the pile head may be
extended up into the cap up to one foot but no less than 6
inches. The surface of the pile head should be roughened
and cleaned before concreting.
D. For hollow core piles, reinforcing steel cages or rolled

structural steel members may be concreted into a plug in the
pile head. The inside surface of the pile head should be
cleaned and roughened, epoxy bonding compound applied,
and low shrinkage concrete placed in the plug.
E. Post-tensioning of the pile head to the cap to achieve a fixed

head condition is technically attractive but infrequently used
because of the need for special equipment and skilled
operators to post tension the tendons.
2.2.4 Driving Induced Stresses
Precast, conventional or prestressed, concrete piles may be

installed by a variety of techniques. These include driving, jetting,
and drilling. Most precast piles are driven.
The stress-wave theory explains many of the observed phenomena

connected with driving precast concrete piles. When a precast
concrete pile is struck by a pile hammer the compression wave
travels at the speed of sound in concrete to the pile tip. If the tip is
on a hard stratum, the reflection wave is compressive; if on a soft
stratum, it is a tensile wave. The toe stress may reach a
compressive stress twice the head stress when driving through
water or a soft layer onto rock. Conversely, when driving into very
soft material, a tensile stress of up to 50% of the compressive head
stress may be reflected. In practice, the condition of soft driving
and reflected tensile waves often proves to be undesirable, and in
some cases damage to conventionally reinforced or even
prestressed concrete piles may occur, with resulting transverse
cracking or breaking of the pile. The wave theory emphasizes the
importance of head cushioning and/or reduced pile hammer energy
to reduce the maximum driving stresses to within tolerable limits.
,
Compressive stresses should be limited to 0.8 f c 1 minus prestress
,
and the tension stresses should be limited to 6 f c 2 plus prestress,
,
where f c 3 is the concrete compressive strength. For additional
discussion, see References 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11 and Section 3.2.
2.2.5 Concrete Piles in a Marine Environment
Concrete piles are generally more resistant to corrosion than steel

piles, and are preferred over wood piles because of invulnerability
to attack by marine organisms, fungi and wood destroying insects.
Concrete piles in a marine environment are subject to three main

causes of deterioration:
A. Freezing and thawing attack on the concrete.
B. Corrosion of reinforcing steel and spalling of concrete

caused by expansion of the steel.
C. Chemical attack on the concrete by sea water.
Deterioration from these causes can be minimized by making the

concrete as impermeable as practical. However, the possibility of
building completely impermeable structures is remote because of
the nature of Portland cement concrete. Selection of the
appropriate cement type and concrete mix can have a significant
effect on the lifespan of concrete piles. As an example, results from
the performance of 12 x 12-inch test piling in a marine environment
show that the useful life of well-made 7-sack air retrained concrete
can be more than 20 years. The useful life of 5-sack concrete is
much less. Further information on the effect of the marine
environment on concrete piles may be found in Reference 12.
2.3 Steel Piles
This category includes those piles for which the sole structural
material is steel, such as H sections, special sections, and pipe not
filled with concrete (See Fig.1). Driving stresses for this type of pile
should be limited to minimize inelastic pile deformations.
H-sections most commonly are rolled (HP shapes) but can be built
up. HP shapes are manufactured in various sizes and weights. If
the piles are built up, they should be of the H-section type, with web
and flanges of the same thickness. Rolled H-sections are produced
in standard mill lengths of 40 to 60 ft. but can be furnished by
special order to lengths of over 100 ft. H-piles can be readily
spliced on the job to whatever lengths are required.
Where the pipe pile is not filled with concrete, the structural material
is entirely steel. Concrete-filled pipe piles were discussed in
Section 2.2. Pipe used for piling is manufactured in various
diameters and wall thicknesses. In this category, pipe piles are
generally driven open-ended, and the soil inside the pipe is not
cleaned out. Typically, large-diameter piles for offshore structures
are in this category.
Steel piles can be fabricated by welding together various structural

shapes such as channels or steel sheet pile sections known as
"box piles." These are not commonly used in the United States.
Advantages of steel piles are:
A. High carrying capacity where driven to a hard stratum.
B. Generally able to withstand hard driving without buckling,

although tip reinforcement may be required.
C. Buckled pile heads are readily replaceable by cutting down

and reshaping or splicing for further driving.
D. H-piles cause relatively small displacement of the soil.
E. Ease of splicing to obtain additional lengths.
Disadvantages of steel piles are:
A. Tip damage may occur with hard driving.
B. H-piles and pipe piles may require a driving shoe for hard
driving.
C. The rapid rate of corrosion in sea water in the splash zone

and in the zones between tides is a major problem.
Significant corrosion can also occur in soils with low pH and
low resistivity, particularly in fill soils above the water table.
D. Protection of steel piling against corrosion by coatings and/or

cathodic protection is difficult and expensive.
E. Steel piles are generally more expensive than concrete piles.
Splices in steel piles are frequently made by welding, although

several prefabricated splices are available on the market today
(Reference 13). Transfer of load from pile cap to pile by means of
steel plates or rebar section welded on top of H-piles is not normally
required. Research has indicated that if the pile is embedded 6-
inches or more in a properly reinforced concrete pile cap of
adequate proportions, a steel load transfer cap is not required (see
Reference 13 and 14).
2.4 Composite Piles
Composite piles consist of a combination of pile construction, such

as a driven shell cast-in-place concrete pile for the upper section,
with a steel H or pipe section, or a timber pile, as the bottom. Each
section is required to be designed individually and particular
attention is required for the design of connections joining the
sections.
3.0 PILE ANALYSIS FOR VERTICAL LOADS
3.1 Traditional Dynamic Formulas
Dynamic formulas are based on the theory of dynamic impact,

which states that the ultimate carrying capacity of a pile is related to
the driving resistance. Such a formula does not take into account
the time dependent effects, group pile action, changes in soil
structure, or hydrostatic conditions. Further, it incorrectly uses the
Newtonian impact theory and does not always account for variables
such as hammer cushion stiffness, and drive head mass. See
Reference 8 for further discussion.
For the above reasons, pile driving formulas are generally not very
reliable. While the Hiley-type formulas have been recommended
for general use (Reference 2), these appear to underestimate the
capacities of very heavy or very long piles. Measured compression
is often less than the computed value due largely to nonuniformity
resulting from wave action in the length of the pile. The wave
equation indicates that stresses in the pile may somewhat exceed
those obtained by the Hiley-type formula. Use of traditional
dynamic formulas is not recommended, except in special situations
where results have been correlated with load tests.
3.2 Analysis by Wave Equation
The wave equation method of analysis provides a rational basis for

the design of driven piles. This analysis predicts the dynamic soil
load resistance that the pile hammer overcomes, and predicts the
stresses in the pile during driving. The results of the analysis are in
the form of the ultimate load capacity of the pile at the time of
driving versus driving resistance in blows/foot or blows/inch and
maximum and minimum stresses in the pile. This ultimate capacity
may be more or less than the static capacity determined in a load
test because of soil freeze or relaxation that occurs after driving.
The stress analysis of the pile is unique to the wave equation
method, and provides basic information for a rational selection of
the pile cross-section itself. The basis of the analysis will not be
discussed here, but it is well documented (References 7, 8, 9, 10
and 11).
The wave equation program, which is used by Bechtel's Geotech

Group, was developed by Goble, Rausche and Likens for the U.S.
Department of Transportation. It has a simple input and flexible
output and is primarily for production runs. Diesel hammers are
accurately modeled. It includes a residual force analysis option that
is particularly critical for axially flexible piles. Bechtel Geotech has
a PC version of the most current updated version, entitled
GRLWEAP (Reference 15).
The wave equation analysis of pile driving provides a rational

method for engineers to analyze and control pile foundation
construction, when used in conjunction with full-scale pile load
tests, dynamic field measurements, and proper inspection
procedures. The analysis can lead directly to the selection of a
hammer-cushion-pile system for a given project, in advance of
construction. As a result, the expense of jobsite delays due to
inadequate equipment or undriveable piles can be minimized.
3.3 Pile Capacity by Static Methods
Calculation of pile capacity by static methods is, under almost all
circumstances, an approximation. It should only be used for
preliminary estimates of load capacity and pile length. The wave
equation analysis, probe piles, dynamic pile measurements and pile
load tests must be used in the final analysis to verify that the pile
design loads have been achieved with an adequate factor or safety.
Calculation of pile capacity by static methods is based on the

principles of soil mechanics. This enables allowable loads to be
estimated by considering soil characteristics and type of pile. Static
methods of calculating the ultimate carrying capacity of a pile are
predicated on the theory that the ultimate carrying capacity is equal
to the sum of the ultimate resistance of the base of the pile, plus the
ultimate skin friction over the embedded shaft length of the pile
when considering a single pile. Several methods are available,
most of which can be found in standard textbooks on soil
mechanics and foundation engineering, (e.g., Reference 16).
Reference 17 gives an excellent discussion on the calculation of
static pile capacity for both cohesive and cohesionless soils. In
addition, a computer program, "Pile Analysis Routines (PAR)",
(Reference 32) is also used by the Geotech Group for static pile
analysis.
4.0 PILE ANALYSIS FOR LATERAL LOADS
Structures supported by piles and subjected to lateral forces must

be designed so that neither the structural adequacy of the pile (or
pile/pile cap connection) nor the allowable deflection of the pile
under applied loading will be exceeded. Lateral resistance may be
developed by bending of the pile (soil-pile interaction), batter piles,
tiebacks, deadmen, or thrust surfaces. When more than one
method of resistance is used in design, the resistance-deformation
characteristics must be considered.
4.1 Batter Piles
Batter piles are used where earthquake forces do not control and
where lateral loads exceed the lateral capacity of vertical piles.
Other methods such as passive soil pressures against the cap or
mat are typically used to resist high lateral seismic loads.
It is usually assumed that a batter-pile has the same axial load

capacity as a vertical pile of the same size driven to the same
stratum. In the design of a batter-pile foundation, the sum of the
horizontal components of the allowable axial capacities must equal
or exceed the applied lateral loads including a suitable factor of
safety.
A convenient method of analysis is to assume a batter for the piles

and check the corresponding pile reactions by means of a force
polygon as shown in Figure 52, page 5-85, of "Structural
Engineering Handbook" by Gaylord and Gaylord (Reference 29).
Pile batters can range from 1-horizontal to 12-vertical to 5-
horizontal to 12-vertical with 1-horizontal to 5-vertical probably
being the most common. When the batter exceeds 1-horizontal to
3-vertical, the driving may require special equipment.
It is common practice to assume that the batter piles carry all the
lateral loads. In fact, all the piles in a group will carry some of the
lateral forces if there is any continuity in the pile cap; hence, there
will be both bending and axial stresses in the pile. When there are
both vertical and batter piles in a group subjected to both horizontal
and vertical loads (or when the loads on the group are eccentric), a
group analysis should be performed to determine the loads carried
by each pile.
The distribution of load between vertical and batter piles under

retaining walls may be determined graphically. One of the simplest
methods known is Culmann's Method which is demonstrated in
References 2 and 27 and assumes that all piles are axially loaded.
A further assumption is that all piles are either vertical or with not
more than two common angles of batter. Additional methods of
analysis for pile groups with battered and vertical piles are
explained in Reference 27. These methods also assume that batter
piles carry all the lateral loads axially.
A more exact method, which requires the use of a computer for the
solution of a pile group with batter piles, is presented in Reference
30 and also in Reference 27 with an example problem. This
method of pile-group analysis is based on the following
assumptions:
A. The load carried by any pile is proportional to the

displacement of the pile head. This displacement consists of
an axial displacement, a transverse displacement, and a
rotation.
B. All piles behave similarly.
C. The pile cap is a completely rigid body and is pinned to the

piles.
D. The pile cap undergoes only small displacements.
The above method shows that proper consideration of the

supporting capacity of the soil will result in optimum economy for a
pile foundation and provide a more realistic factor of safety than can
be obtained by a method ignoring soil-pile interaction.
An additional method for the solution of a pile group with batter

piles is demonstrated in Reference 30. This is a general method of
analysis that considers direct stiffness of three-dimensional pile
foundations for static loading or dynamic response. The method
presented assumes a rigid pile cap, and elastic behavior of the
system. This method of analysis is suitable for computer or hand
computation and is more versatile than the other methods
described above.
4.2 Laterally Loaded Short PilesError! Reference source not found.
The design of laterally loaded short (and long) piles can be

performed in accordance with procedures developed by Broms
(References 36, 37, and 38). The Broms procedures determine the
lateral resistance and the working load deflections of single piles
and of pile groups based on pile dimensions, strength, and
flexibility, and on the deformation characteristics of the surrounding
soil. The soil characteristics are modeled based on a horizontal
coefficient of subgrade reaction. The coefficient of subgrade
reaction increases linearly with depth in the case of cohesionless
soils and is constant with depth for cohesive soils.
Computer solutions using COM 624 (Reference 33) and PAR

(Reference 32) are available for use for design of laterally loaded
piles, and use non-linear stress strain curves to model soils in each
subsurface stratum.
4.3 Laterally Loaded Long Piles
Long piles subjected to lateral loads may be analyzed as infinite
beams embedded in an elastic medium. For this type of analysis a
modulus of horizontal subgrade reaction must be established. It is
recommended that strain-dependent stiffness of the soil be included
(p-y approach) to estimate lateral resistance of piles, and to
calculate moments, etc.
Reference 41 provides an excellent discussion of the general

problem of laterally loaded long piles. Non-dimensional curves are
presented that enable rapid analysis of laterally loaded piles where
the soil modulus is assumed to vary linearly with depth. Reference
34 follows the procedures developed by Reese and Matlock and
presents various tables and graphs that provide a ready solution for
determining maximum deflection, maximum bending moment and
point of zero deflection of laterally loaded piles.
A simplified analytical approach for long or short piles is given in

Reference 35. Various graphical solutions are provided that result
in quick but accurate design solutions for laterally loaded vertical
piles.
Methods for calculating ultimate lateral resistance and deflections of

long piles are presented in three articles by B. Broms, References
36, 37 and 38. These articles contain many useful diagrams and
charts. Comparisons are also made with available test data.
As with lateral loading of short piles, computer programs COM 624

(Reference 33) and PAR (Reference 32) are available for analyzing
laterally loaded long piles.
5.0 FACTORS AFFECTING PILE CAPACITY AND PERFORMANCE
5.1 Negative Skin Friction
Negative friction (downdrag) which can produce additional

compressive loads on the pile typically results from the
consolidation of soft upper soil layers through which the pile
extends. Downdrag is usually caused when additional loads, such
as a recently placed fill being applied at the ground surface or from
lowering of the ground water table, causes the soft soils to
consolidate. Under negative friction conditions, the critical section
of the pile may be located at the surface of the permanent bearing
stratum. The magnitude of this downdrag load is limited by factors
such as shearing resistance between the pile surface and the soil,
the internal shear strength of the soil, the pile shape, and the weight
of the fill or surcharge causing the downdrag. Negative skin friction
can overstress the pile and cause settlement if not properly
considered. Geotech should be consulted whenever fills are to be
placed around pile foundations or when it is expected that a
negative skin friction load will occur.
5.2 Soil Freeze, Relaxation, and Pile Retapping
Some cohesive soils exhibit a decrease in shear strength when

being remolded and disturbed by pile driving, but then regain
strength with time after pile driving stops. This is known as "soil
freeze" or "setup." During driving, the penetration resistance is
relatively low, and a specified penetration resistance based upon a
dynamic formula or a wave equation analysis is not applicable for
determining static capacity. Under freeze conditions, the
application of dynamic driving formulas, including the wave
equation, should be on the basis of retap data. The occurrence of
soil freeze can be checked by retapping piles some time after final
driving. The driving resistance (blows per foot) will show a sharp
increase. The amount of soil freeze and the rate at which it occurs
can vary over a wide range. Some soils show substantial soil
freeze in a matter of hours, but others may require days or even
weeks to regain full strength.
"Relaxation" is a term applied to a decrease of the final pile

penetration resistance with time. It can develop when driving piles
into dense, fine, submerged sand, inorganic silt, or stiff, fissured
clay or when driving point-bearing piles into a friable shale or a
claystone. Where soil conditions indicate that relaxation could
occur, some piles should be retapped after adjacent piles have
been driven. A reasonable program would be to retap the first pile
driven in each group after all piles in that group have been driven.
As part of this program, to check for long-term relaxation, the last
pile driven each day can be retapped at the start of the next
workday. Upon retapping, if it is observed that the driving
resistance has decreased, all piles should be retapped, and further
checks should be made to verify that penetration resistance and/or
depths of penetration are satisfactory. Under certain soil
conditions, relaxation may be compensated for by driving the piles
initially to a resistance greater than that normally required, provided
the pile is not overstressed. The feasibility of this procedure and
the extent of overdriving required can be determined
experimentally. When piles are driven to friable shale and
relaxation occurs, the piles should not be overdriven or subjected to
prolonged hard driving. Prolonged hard driving could aggravate
and continue the relaxation due to progressive breakup of the
shale. Driving should stop as soon as the tip encounters sound
shale.
When it is necessary to redrive or retap piles to a specified

penetration resistance because of soil freeze or relaxation, the work
should be done with the same drive system that was used for initial
driving, or an equivalent system, except as noted below for
concreted shell piles. Particular attention should be given to the
type and condition of the pile cushion and to confirming that the
driving system is operating at full efficiency. If the hammer is not
fully warmed up, particularly a diesel hammer, the first few hammer
blows may not be indicative of the actual driving resistance.
In situations such as soil freeze or relaxation where it is necessary

to retap the piles to accurately determine capacity, the pile driving
analyzer (PDA) can be used. The PDA measures the energy that is
being transferred from the hammer into the pile, and thus, in
conjunction with a wave equation analysis, permits an accurate
determination of pile capacity from the blowcount versus movement
record.
If soil freeze has occurred, and all other factors are equal, the retap
penetration resistance will be higher than the final resistance
measured during initial driving. In some cases, the pile may refuse
to penetrate further. In other cases, prolonged redriving may break
the soil freeze, and then the pile will drive more easily. If retapping
is done only to ensure an adequate penetration resistance or to
check on soil freeze, it is not necessary to continue redriving until
the soil freeze is broken. Retapping or redriving of uncased cast-in-
place piles should not be permitted. Redriving of concreted shell
piles is permissible only if the proper reinforcement and hammer-
pile cushion systems are used. For pipe or monotube piles not
originally driven with an internal mandrel, the concrete filling
provides a much stiffer pile with higher impedance, and results in a
more effective transmission of hammer energy. A wave equation
analysis will show the comparable final resistances for the loads
involved.
5.3 Pile Heave
When displacement-type piles are driven in soft, saturated,
cohesive soils, ground heave adjacent to the pile may occur,
especially when such piles are closely spaced. Under such
conditions the possibility of pile heave should be checked. This can
be done by taking accurate elevation readings on the tops of
installed piles before and after adjacent piles have been driven. For
corrugated pile shells, such check-level readings should be taken
both on the top of the shell and on a telltale pipe resting on the
closure plate at the pile point. Upward movement of the tops of
such shells may be caused by stretching the shell and may not be a
problem.
When problematic pile heave is observed, piles should be redriven,

as specified, after pile driving has progressed beyond the pile
heave range. Cast-in-place concrete should be placed in pipe,
monotube, or shell piles only after heave has stopped and heaved
piles have been redriven. In the case of piles not suitable for
redriving (for example, uncased, unreinforced, cast-in-place
concrete piles), if heave should occur, the driving sequence and/or
methods of installation must be modified to minimize heave.
Heaved piles may need to be replaced, and the pile type changed.
The specifications may limit the amount of pile heave that can occur
before redriving is required, or they may specify that all heaved
piles be redriven. The specifications may require that piles be
redriven to the original penetration resistance or tip elevation or
both. Point-bearing piles should be reseated, but for friction piles,
heave may not be critical. If ground or pile heave occurs, the
effects on existing adjacent structures should be observed. Pile
heave can be controlled or eliminated by predrilling through the soft
material, by increasing the pile spacing, or by installing
nondisplacement-type piles. The inspector should record the
results of heave-level readings and all redrive data.
6.0 PILE TESTS AND FACTORS OF SAFETY
6.1 Pile Tests
Pile load tests are performed to determine or verify capacity for one
or more of the following reasons:
A. As a test to verify that failure does not occur before a
selected load is reached. This load is the minimum required
factor of safety times the working load. Typical factors of
safety range from 2.0 to 3.0.
B. To determine the ultimate bearing capacity to verify dynamic

or static estimates.
C. To verify soil parameters that will enable other piles to be

designed.
D. To determine the load-settlement behavior of a pile,

especially in the region of the anticipated working load.
These data can be used to predict group settlements and
settlements of other piles.
E. To indicate the structural soundness of the pile.
The most common type of test is a compression test, although

uplift, lateral, and even torsion load tests are performed. The
type(s) of test(s) required depend on the direction of loading on the
working pile. A variety of test procedures have been developed for
carrying out pile load tests. Detailed test procedures are outlined in
Reference 20.
It is now common practice to take pile tests to over two times the
design capacity, holding each incremental load for a shorter period
of time than in the standard test. Telltales and/or strain gages at
the bottom and sometimes at the middle of the pile provide an
accurate picture of the stress and movements in the pile at those
sections. Skin friction distribution and the amount of skin friction
versus end bearing can be deduced from the readings. These test
results used in conjunction with the PDA can provide a reliable
basis for pile driving criteria for production piles.
It must be emphasized that in many cases, the results of a test on a

single pile cannot be extrapolated directly to predict the behavior of
pile groups or other piles. The volume of soil influenced by a single
pile is much less than that of a large group, and thus the influence
of deep seated compressible layers may not be apparent in a single
pile load test, although such layers may critically affect the behavior
of a group. Pile load tests should, therefore, be preceded by a
detailed site investigation to define accurately the entire soil profile
within the depth of interest.
Load tests can be made prior to or early in production pile driving.
Usually this decision depends on the number of piles being
installed, the design load, and the variability of the soil conditions.
In most cases, probe piles should be installed at designated
locations to determine the pile length to be ordered or verify or
establish the installation criteria. Pile load tests may be conducted
on selected probe piles. Probe piles, test piles, and production
piles should all be installed with the same equipment, methods, and
techniques. Accurate records of probe pile installation, including
complete details of the equipment used, must be kept. Special
dynamic measurements may also be required to verify hammer
energy, pile stresses, and dynamic capacity. Typical pile test
programs performed by Bechtel are given in References 21, 22, 23,
24 and 25.
6.2 Factor of Safety
The factor of safety used is dependent in part upon the type of

structure, the character of the soil, the ratio of live load to dead
load, the magnitude of the load, the assumed soil parameters and
extent of available soil data, the number of load tests and the
method used to calculate capacity. When the pile capacity is
calculated by static methods the factor of safety usually ranges
from two to three for both skin friction and end bearing. In practice
the actual factor of safety can vary greatly depending on the soil
conditions and the methods of analysis and construction.
Selection of the factor of safety requires experience, judgment, and

a knowledge of current practices and code requirements.
Estimates of pile capacity supported by dynamic measurements,
retap programs and pile tests require a smaller factor of safety than
for static pile analysis or wave equation analysis. In cases where
load factors are used, the factored loads must be compared to the
estimated ultimate capacity of the pile, and an adequate reserve
capacity provided.
7.0 PILE GROUPING AND SPACING
Pile spacing is an important factor affecting the successful

installation of piles, group capacity and pile settlement. As a
general rule, standards adopted in the past have allowed pile
spacing to be too close for optimum pile loading. Proper spacing
reduces danger of settlement, materially reduces heaving, and
permits the tips of subsequently driven piles to reach desired tip
elevations. In most cases, proper spacing provides higher load
carrying capacities for piles in a group, thus reducing the number of
piles required. Pile spacing less than three pile diameters center-
to-center should be avoided.
No reduction due to grouping occurs for end-bearing piles. For

groups having both end-bearing and friction components, only the
portion taken in friction is reduced. Various "efficiency formulas"
are available for assigning reductions to carrying capacities of piles
in groups. These formulas give reductions in values per pile as a
function of the size and shape of pile group, and the size, spacing
and length of the piles. Efficiency formulas are discussed in detail
in References 2, 27, and 28.
It should be noted that the various efficiency equations predict a

wide range of results and any particular equation should be used
with care. An alternative method proposed by Terzaghi and Peck
(Reference 14) is recommended as a check.
8.0 PILE CAPS
Pile caps (typically of reinforced concrete) should always be

dimensioned to accommodate piles that may be out of position by a
few inches (typically ± 4 inches). It is virtually impossible to drive or
drill piles exactly vertically or to the prescribed batter. Unless a
single pile is used, a cap is necessary to spread the vertical and
horizontal loads, and overturning moments, to all the piles in the
group. The pile cap design should consider the column loads and
moments, the reactions of the piles, any soil overlying the cap (if it
is below the ground surface) and the weight of the cap.
Special consideration should be given to the possibility that during

the pile driving phase, one or more of the piles might have to be
rejected because of serious damage or because the required pile
capacity cannot be attained. If past pile driving records and a study
of the soils investigation results indicate this possibility, the
engineer, with the advice of Geotech soils engineering specialists,
should endeavor to make some provision for this contingency.
The structural design of a pile cap is similar to the design of a

reinforced concrete footing, with sections for bending moment and
shear, as defined in Chapter 15 of the ACI 318 Code. Thick pile
caps may behave in a manner similar to that of a deep beam or
deep bracket (Reference 44). In this case the "strut and tie"
concept discussed in Reference 45 should be considered when
detailing reinforcing. Section 10.7 of ACI 318 and Reference 46
can be used as a guide in determining if deep beam/bracket effects
need to be reviewed.
Pile caps should have at least 6 inches of concrete beyond the

outside face of exterior piles. The pile should be embedded at least
6 inches into the cap, with the reinforcing bars located 3 inches
above the top of the pile. According to the ACI Code, the minimum
thickness of the footing pile cap above the reinforcing bars must be
12 inches. If tension is expected, tension-transfer connectors may
be required on the piles. A pile-head embedment on the order of
12 inches is required for "fixed-head" conditions. Additional
reinforcing should be placed around the pile head when fixed-head
conditions are required.
9.0 DRIVING AND DRILLING EQUIPMENT
The types of pile driving equipment are numerous. Fairly complete

listings of pile hammers are contained in References 1, 15 and 27.
Typically, driving hammers can be divided into two major
categories, steam/air hammers and diesel hammers. Hydraulic
hammers are also commimg into use. The steam/air hammers use
either pressurized steam (rare nowadays) or compressed air to
drive the ram. On single acting hammers, the steam/air is used to
raise the drive ram to a set height and then the ram is allowed to
free fall to drive the pile. On double acting hammers the air/steam
is used to both raise the hammer and then add additional energy on
the down stroke to drive the pile. The diesel hammers operate by
injecting diesel fuel into a combustion chamber at the point where
the ram impacts the anvil. The impact of the ram striking the anvil
both drives the pile downward and causes the diesel fuel to explode
and drive the ram upward to restart the process. On each upward
stroke, additional fuel is injected into the combustion chamber. On
the single acting hammers, which are also known as open-ended
hammers, the stroke on the ram is variable and is dependent of the
amount of fuel injected into the combustion chamber and the driving
resistance of the pile. If the pile is being driven in soft ground, the
rebound of the ram off the anvil is very low and the upward stroke is
at a minimum. If the pile is driving hard, the rebound off the ram
and explosion of the fuel gives the hammer its maximum stroke.
On a double acting diesel hammer, or a closed-end hammer, a
second combustion chamber at the top of the hammer is used to
drive the ram downward.
The pile hammer is typically supported in long leads from a crane.

The leads are also used to support the pile during driving to
maintain it at the correct batter or in a vertical position.
The two most common drilling methods for cast-in-place piles are
augers and rotating buckets. These are best suited in soil free of
tree roots, cobbles and boulders. For soil that is difficult to
excavate, a grab type rig is often used.
Water jetting may be used with caution to aid pile driving. The
influence of jetting on soil properties and the consequent interaction
of soil and pile after installation must be carefully considered from
the soil mechanics aspect. Predrilling is sometimes used to
facilitate pile placement. Excellent descriptions of pile driving and
drilling equipment are contained in References 2, 18, and 19.
10.0 INSPECTION AND REPORTING
10.1 Inspection During Construction
The Supervising Engineer or his designee and the Soils Engineer

should hold a joint meeting with the Pile Inspector, Superintendent,
Field Engineers and Pile-Driving Contractor prior to initiation of pile
driving to review procedures and furnish additionally required
information. The Soils and Foundation Investigation Report should
be reviewed in detail as well as any available information from test
piles and pile loads. Type and length of pile, and size of hammer,
as selected by utilizing the wave equation, should also be
discussed, as well as the proposed pile driving rig. Problems that
may occur in the field should be mentioned, such as handling piles,
overdriving, obstructions, misalignment, retardation of stroke,
cushioning material, sequence of driving and other problems
peculiar to the site. If pile capacity versus hammer blow count
curves have been prepared, these are especially useful to the Pile
Inspector. A competent inspector should observe all pile driving. In
many cases the Soils Engineer will also be the Pile Inspector.
10.2 Pile Reports
It is required that continuous records be kept during installation of
all piles. The pile driving inspector will maintain a complete driving
record of each pile driven. The following information, as a
minimum, shall be included:
A. Date and start and stop time of driving
B. Type and size of hammer and hammer blows per minute at

the specified force, along with complete data on the driving
system, including hammer cushion, pile cushion, etc.
C. Location or description of foundation and pile
D. Designation of pile section by identification number
E. Length of pile taken into the leads, any splices made, and
additional lengths added
F. Tip elevation when driving is completed
G. Cut-off or final elevation of the top of each pile installed
H. Number of blows per foot for each pile driven for the full
length of the pile
I. Number of blows per inch for the last 6 inches of penetration
J. The number and location of any piles retapped or redriven

and the time required
K. The number and location of any additional piles not shown

on the drawings
L. Description of any pile driving problem and action taken,

including notifying the Engineer.
After all piling is completed the Soils Engineer should issue a final
report certifying that the piles as installed satisfy the installation
criteria.
10.3 Pile Numbering Plan
A pile numbering plan is essential to the Pile Inspector's reports
and one should be prepared by the Civil/Structural Group. A pile
driving record form should be prepared prior to driving. Pile driving
data should be entered on the reports in the order driven, so the
sequence of driving is preserved for future evaluation.
10.4 General Considerations
The items listed below are of a general nature, but are included as
a further aid to the Pile Inspector.
A. Drawings, specifications and pertinent sections of contracts

or subcontracts relating to pile inspection should be updated
during the construction period.
B. Procedures for handling, storing, splicing, cutoff, and related

pile operations should be established prior to construction.
C. Precautions should be taken prior to driving piles relative to

guides, centering the hammer, use of driving caps, etc.
D. The behavior of the pile during driving is indicative of the

resistance encountered and should be carefully evaluated,
typically by comparison of driving characteristics with strata
shown on the boring log.
E. Allowable tolerances for all phases of pile driving should be

carefully reviewed and all deviations immediately reported to
the Engineer. Misalignment caused by relocation of piles or
piles driven out of position should also be reported. If a pile
needs to be relocated, the Engineer should be notified as
soon as possible. Any resulting modification to the structure
should be approved by the Engineer.
F. Careful consideration should be given to the procedure for

replacing damaged piles.
G. Check plumbness in hollow or cored piles by lowering lamps,

or utilizing sunlight or headlights reflecting on a mirror. In
extreme curvatures, an inclinometer or electronic plumb bob
may be used.
H. Evaluate possible loss of driving force on batter piles due to
inclination of hammer.
I. Give special consideration to such items as underwater
driving, soil lubrication and jetting, heaving, protection and
pouring of concrete, concrete test cylinders, permissible
shell damage, inspection of drilled piles, and any specific
items peculiar to the site.
J. The Engineer should be notified immediately of any

problems of a unique nature occurring during the course of
construction. This will enable the Engineer to evaluate the
problem and, if necessary, request the Soils Engineering
Specialist to visit the site and conduct an onsite evaluation.
11.0 INFORMATION PROVIDED TO BIDDERS
In addition to the information concerning materials and types of

piles, it is important that all available factual information pertaining
to the soils and foundation conditions at the site be presented to the
prospective bidders. Test boring locations, boring logs, and soils
test results should be shown on the listed documents furnished with
the specification for information to bidders.
The specification should contain a statement to the effect that

information and data 72 included on subsurface characteristics are
not intended as representations or warranties, but is only furnished
for the Bidder's use for estimating pile lengths, determining
potential driving problems, and for provision of the same information
to the Bidders as is available to the Purchaser and Engineer.
Bidders shall form their own opinions and conclusions from the data
available and from such other information as they deem necessary
to obtain.
12.0 REFERENCES
1. Fuller, F.M., Engineering of Pile Installations, McGraw-Hill,

1983.
2. Chellis, R.E., Pile Foundations, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill,

1961.
3. Behavior of Deep Foundations, American Society for Testing

and Materials, STP 670, Edited by Lundgren, June 1978.
4. Recommendations for Design, Manufacture, and Installation
of Concrete Piles, Reported by ACI Committee 543, Journal
of ACI, No. 8, Proceedings V 70, August 1973.
5. Standard Prestressed Concrete Piles, Square and

Octagonal, STD-112. Prestressed Concrete Institute, 205
Wacker Dr., Chicago, Illinois 60606.
6. Woodward, J., S. Gardner, and D. M. Green, Drilled Pile

Foundations, McGraw-Hill, 1972.
7. Anderson, R., and E. Maustafa.Dynamic Driving Stresses in

Prestressed Concrete Piles, Civil Engineering, ASCE,
August 1971.
8. Davisson, M.T., and D.M. Rempe, Wave Theory Simplified,

Pile Talk Seminar, New Jersey, 1974.
9. Hirsut, T.J., L.L. Lowery, H.M. Coyle, and C.H. Samson, Pile
Driving Analysis by One Dimensional Wave Theory: State of
the Art, Highway Research Record No. 333, Pile
Foundations, 1970.
10. Smith, E.A.L, Pile Driving Analysis by the Wave Equation,

Transactions, ASCE, 1962, Vol. 127, pp 1145 - 1193, 1962.
11. An Introduction to Wave Mechanics, Goble, Rausche,

Likens, and Associates, Inc., 1984.
12. Symposium on Concrete Construction in Aqueous

Environments, ACI Publication SP - 8.
13. Hunt, H.W., Design and Installation of Driven Pile

Foundation, Associated Pile and Fitting Corp., 1979.
14. Terzaghi, K., and R.B. Peck, Soil Mechanics in Engineering

Practice, John Wiley & Sons, 1967.
15. Wave Equation Analysis of Pile Driving, GRLWEAP, Goble,

Rausche, Likins & Assoc., May 1990.
16. Design Manual - Foundation and Earth Structures, No.

NAVFAC DM-7.2,Dept. of the Navy, Naval Facilities
Engineering Command, Alexandria, VA., May 1982.
17. Meyerhof, G.G., Bearing Capacity and Settlement of Pile
Foundations, ASCE Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering
Division, No. 102 GT3, 1976.
18. Tomlinson, M.J., Foundation Design and Construction, 5th

Edition, Longman Scientific and Technical, 1986.
19. A Pile Inspector's Guide to Hammers, First Edition, Deep

Foundations Institute, 1979.
20. ASTM D 1143, Piles Under Static Axial Compressive Load,

ASTM D 3689, Individual Piles Under Static Axial Tensile
Load; ASTM D 3966, Piles Under Lateral Loads.
21. Report on Pile Test Program - Todd San Pedro Expansion,

Bechtel Corporation, May 28, 1970.
22. Willow Glen - Unit No. 5 - Pile Driving Procedure, Bechtel

Job 8985.
23. Production Pile Load Test Report, Greenwood Energy

Center, Bechtel Job 9425, February 1973.
24. Pile Load Test Report, Belle River Plant Area, Belle River
Units 1 and 2, Bechtel Job 10539, February 1978.
25. Report on Cooling Tower Pile Driving, Grand Gulf Unit 2,

Bechtel Job 9645, April 1985.
26. Gerwick, B.C., Jr., Prestressed Concrete Piles, Journal of

the Prestressed Concrete Institute, Vol. 13, No. 5, October
1968.
27. Bowles, Joseph E., Foundation Analysis and Design, 2nd

Edition, McGraw-Hill, 1977.
28. Moorehouse, D.C., and J.V. Sheehan, Predicting Safe

Capacity of Pile Groups, Civil Engineering-ASCE, October
1968.
29. Gaylord, E.H. and C.N.Gaylord, Structural Engineer

Handbook, McGraw-Hill, 1968
30. Aschenbrenner, R, Three Dimensional Analysis of Pile
Foundations, Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, Vol.
93, ST1, February 1967.
31. Saul, W.E., Static and Dynamic Analysis of Pile

Foundations, Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, Vol.
94, ST5, May 1968.
32. Pile Analysis Routines (PAR), Version 1.02 PMB
Engineering Inc., 1988
33. Reese, L.C., and W. R. Sullivan, Computer Program for

Analysis of Stresses and Deflections for Laterally Loaded
Piles, (COM 624), Dept. of Civil Engineering, University of
Texas, Austin, Texas, August 1980
34. Singh, A., R. Hu, and D. Cousineau, Lateral Load Capacity

of Piles in Sand and Normally Consolidated Clay, Civil
Engineering - ASCE, August 1971.
35. Davisson, M.T., Lateral Load Capacity of Piles, Highway

Research Record 333, Pile Foundations, 1970.
36. Broms, B.B., Lateral Resistance of Piles in Cohesive Soils,
Journal of Soils Mechanics and Foundations Div., ASCE,
Vol. 90 SM2, March 1964.
37. Broms, B.B., Lateral Resistance of Piles in Cohesionless

Soils, Journal of Soils Mechanics and Foundation Div.,
ASCE, Vol. 90 SM3, May 1964.
38. Broms, B.B., Design of Laterally Loaded Piles, Journal of

Soils Mechanics and Foundation Div. ASCE, Vol. 91 SM3,
May 1965.
39. Bechtel Standard Specification, C-094, Cast-in-Place

Concrete Piles.
40. Ferguson, P.M., Reinforced Concrete Fundamentals, Third

Edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1973.
41. Non-Dimensional Solutions for Laterally Loaded Piles with

Soil Modulus Assumed Proportional to Depth, L. C. Reese
and H. Matlock, Proceedings, Eighth Texas Conference on
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Austin, Texas,
ASCE, 1956.
42. Suggested Design and Construction procedures for Pier

Foundations. ACI Committee 336, 1985
43. Reese, L.C., and W.R. Sullivan, Analysis of Stresses and

Deflections for Laterally Loaded Piles Including Generation
of p-y Curves, Documentation of Computer Program COM
624, University of Texas, August, 1980, Rev. December
1984.
44. Pile Caps - Theory, Code, and Practice Gaps, CRSI

Professional Members' Structural Bulletin No. 2, February
1978.
45. Adebar, P., D. Kuchman, and M. Collins, Strut-and-Tie
Models for the Design of Pile Caps: An Experimental Study,
ACI Structural Journal, January-February 1990.
46. Czerniak, E., Design Criteria for Embedment of Piers,

Reprinted from Consulting Engineer, March 1958.
47. Czerniak, E., Resistance to Overturning of Single, Short

Piles, Journal of the Structural Division, Proceedings of the
ASCE, Vol. 83, ST2, March 1957.
Figure 1. Basic Pile Types

3DG C12 015 Pile Foundations

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3DG C12 015 Pile Foundations

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BECHTEL

ENGINEERING DESIGN GUIDE FOR

2.0 TYPES OF PILES 5

2.1 Timber Piles 5

2.2 Concrete Piles 6

3.0 PILE ANALYSIS FOR VERTICAL LOADS 16

3.1 Traditional Dynamic Formulas 16

4.0 PILE ANALYSIS FOR LATERAL LOADS 18

4.1 Batter Piles 18

5.0 FACTORS AFFECTING PILE CAPACITY AND

6.0 PILE TESTS 25

6.1 Pile Tests 25

7.0 PILE GROUPING AND SPACING 27

8.0 PILE CAPS 28

9.0 DRIVING AND DRILLING EQUIPMENT 29

10.0 INSPECTION AND REPORTING 30

10.1 Inspection during Construction 30

11.0 INFORMATION PROVIDED TO BIDDERS 33

Figure 1 Basic Pile Types 39

This Design Guide addresses the design, installation and testing of

This Design Guide includes discussions of the various types of

1.2 Design Approach

The general approach for the design of pile foundations includes

A. Evaluation of subsurface data for the site.

B. Determination of the type of foundation and distribution of

C. Determination of suitable types of pile(s) and preliminary

D. Static analysis (for compression, tension and lateral loads) to

E. Wave equation analysis to determine preliminary driving

F. Evaluation of building code requirements that are in effect at

G. Detailed structural design of piles and pile groups, including

H. Field pile load tests, including a probe pile program to

1.3 Soils and Foundation Engineering

Engineers from Bechtel Geotechnical Services (Geotech) should

The pile foundation design process shall include Geotech group

A. Conducting and reviewing subsurface investigations and all

B. Determining appropriate type(s) of pile(s) and associated

C. Performing static and wave equation analyses to determine

D. Review and approval of project pile foundation technical

E. Participation in the piling contract bid evaluation and

F. Determination of pile installation criteria.

G. Participation in pile test program, including probe piles.

H. Review of pile calculations done by others, where

2.0 TYPES OF PILES

Piles are classified with respect to their primary load resistance

The major categories of piles, as determined by method of

A. Driven piles: There are many types of driven piles available

B. Drilled cast-in place piles: Drilled cast-in-place piles are

C. Vibratory piles: These are usually steel H-Sections that are

D. Specialty piles: There are several types of specialty piles,

2.1 Timber Piles

Timber piles can be used in heavy construction although their

2.2 Concrete Piles

Concrete piles are classified as either precast or cast-in-place piles.

Cast-in-place piles can be uncased or cased. Uncased piles

Precast concrete piles are conventionally reinforced or prestressed

2.2.1.1.1 Uncased Drilled Cast-in-place Concrete Piles

Uncased drilled cast-in-place concrete piles are formed by drilling a

Cast-in-place reinforced concrete piles are conventionally

The resulting pile depends on the installation methods and the

The other major type of uncased-drilled pile is the auger injected

Cased driven steel shell cast-in-place concrete piles are of many

Bechtel Standard Specification, C-094, Cast-in-Place Concrete

2.2.1.2 Precast Concrete Piles