Country file Turkey

Country of Origin Information

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with the Romanian National Council for Refugees
within the National Program
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Management of COI Usage and Research processes

SEPTEMBER
2017

This work is destined for general information, in service of professional interest of all practitioners within asylum procedure in Romania. This work
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Contents

General overview ....................................................................................................................... 3

Geography .................................................................................................................................. 4
Population and society ............................................................................................................... 5
Government and Administration ................................................................................................ 6
Security....................................................................................................................................... 7
Economy..................................................................................................................................... 8

Annex: ........................................................................................................................................ 9

Turkish banknote .................................................................................................................... 9

Exchange rates ....................................................................................................................... 9
Turkish passport ................................................................................................................... 10
Turkish flag .......................................................................................................................... 10
Title: Kurdish-Turkish conflict
Source: South Front, Kurdish-Turkish conflict (Map update), 12.01.2017,
https://southfront.org/turkish-kurdish-conflict-map-update/, accessed 09.10.2017
General overview
Turkey, country that occupies a unique geographic position, lying partly in Asia and
partly in Europe. Throughout its history it has acted as both a barrier and a bridge between the
two continents.1
Once the centre of the Ottoman Empire, the modern secular republic was established
in the 1920s by nationalist leader Kemal Ataturk. Straddling the continents of Europe and
Asia, Turkey's strategically important location has given it major influence in the region - and
control over the entrance to the Black Sea. Progress towards democracy and a market
economy was halting after Ataturk's death in 1938, and the army - seeing itself as guarantor of
the constitution - repeatedly ousted governments seen as challenging secular values.2
Under his leadership, the country adopted radical social, legal, and political reforms.
After a period of one-party rule, an experiment with multi-party politics led to the 1950
election victory of the opposition Democrat Party and the peaceful transfer of power. Since
then, Turkish political parties have multiplied, but democracy has been fractured by periods of
instability and military coups (1960, 1971, 1980), which in each case eventually resulted in a
return of formal political power to civilians. In 1997, the military again helped engineer the
ouster - popularly dubbed a "post-modern coup" - of the then Islamic-oriented government. A
coup attempt was made in July 2016 by a faction of the Turkish Armed Forces.3
Turkey joined the UN in 1945 and in 1952 it became a member of NATO. In 1963,
Turkey became an associate member of the European Community; it began accession talks
with the EU in 2005. Over the past decade, economic reforms, coupled with some political
reforms, have contributed to a growing economy, although economic growth slowed in recent
years.4
Turkey intervened militarily on Cyprus in 1974 to prevent a Greek takeover of the
island and has since acted as patron state to the "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus,"
which only Turkey recognizes. A separatist insurgency begun in 1984 by the Kurdistan
Workers' Party (PKK), a US-designated terrorist organization, has long dominated the
attention of Turkish security forces and claimed more than 40,000 lives. In 2013, the Turkish
Government and the PKK conducted negotiations aimed at ending the violence, however
intense fighting resumed in 2015.5
From 2015 and continuing through 2016, Turkey witnessed an uptick in terrorist
violence, including major attacks in Ankara, Istanbul, and throughout the predominantly
Kurdish southeastern region of Turkey. On 15 July 2016, elements of the Turkish Armed
forces attempted a coup that ultimately failed following widespread popular resistance. In
response, Turkish Government authorities arrested, suspended, or dismissed more than
100,000 security personnel, journalists, judges, academics, and civil servants due to their
alleged connection with the attempted coup. Following the failed coup, the Turkish
Government instituted a State of Emergency in July 2016 that has been extended to July 2017.
The Turkish Government conducted a referendum on 16 April 2017 that will, when
implemented, change Turkey from a parliamentary to a presidential system.6

1
Encyclopaedia Britannica, Turkey, https://www.britannica.com/place/Turkey, accessed 18.09.2017.
2
BBC, Country Profile. Turkey, last updated March 2017, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17988453,
accessed 18.09.2017.
3
CIA World Fact Book, Turkey, last updated September 2017, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-
world-factbook/geos/tu.html, accessed 18.09.2017.
4
Ibidem,
5
Ibidem.
6
Ibidem.
Geography
Turkey is situated at the crossroads of the Balkans, Caucasus, Middle East, and
eastern Mediterranean. It is among the larger countries of the region in terms of territory and
population, and its land area is greater than that of any European state. Nearly all of the
country is in Asia, comprising the oblong peninsula of Asia Minor—also known
as Anatolia (Anadolu)—and, in the east, part of a mountainous region sometimes known as
the Armenian Highland. The remainder—Turkish Thrace (Trakya)—lies in the extreme
southeastern part of Europe, a tiny remnant of an empire that once extended over much of the
Balkans. Turkey is bounded on the north by the Black Sea, on the northeast
by Georgia and Armenia, on the east by Azerbaijan and Iran, on the southeast
by Iraqand Syria, on the southwest and west by the Mediterranean Sea and the Aegean Sea,
and on the northwest by Greece and Bulgaria. The capital is Ankara, and its largest city and
seaport is Istanbul.7
Because of its geographical location, the mainland of Anatolia has always found favor
throughout history, and is the birthplace of many great civilizations. It has also been
prominent as a centre of commerce because of its land connections to three continents and the
sea surrounding it on three sides.8
Turkey is a predominantly mountainous country, and true lowland is confined to the
coastal fringes. About one-fourth of the surface has an elevation above 1,200 metres, and less
than two-fifths lies below 460 metres. Mountain crests exceed 72,300 metres in many places,
particularly in the east, where Turkey’s highest mountain, Mount Ararat (Ağrı), reaches 5,165
metres close to the borders with Armenia and Iran. Steep slopes are common throughout the
country, and flat or gently sloping land makes up barely one-sixth of the total area.9

Most of the rivers of Turkey flow into the seas surrounding the country. The Firat
(Euphrates) and Dicle (Tigris) join together in Iraq and flow into the Persian Gulf. Turkey's
longest rivers, the Kizilirmak, Yesilirmak and Sakarya, flow into the Black Sea. The
Susurluk, Biga, and Gonen pour into the Sea of Marmara, the Gediz, Kucuk Menderes, Buyuk
Menderes and Meric into the Aegean, and the Seyhan, Ceyhan and Goksu into the
Mediterranean. In terms of numbers of lakes, the Eastern Anatolian region is the richest. It
contains Turkey's largest, Lake Van (3.713 square kilometres), and the lakes of Ercek, Cildir
and Hazar.10
Although Turkey is situated in a geographical location where climatic conditions are
quite temperate, the diverse nature of the landscape, and the existence in particular of the
mountains that run parallel to the coasts cause significant differences in climatic conditions
between regions. While the coastal areas enjoy milder climates, the inland Anatolian plateau
experiences extremes of hot summers and cold winters with limited rainfall.11
The natural resources of Turkey are: coal, iron ore, copper, chromium, antimony,
mercury, gold, barite, borate, celestite (strontium), emery, feldspar, limestone, magnesite,
marble, perlite, pumice, pyrites (sulfur), clay, arable land and hydropower.12

7
See note 1.
8
Consulate General Republic Of Turkey, Michigan, Geographic Profile,
http://www.turkishconsulategeneral.us/abtturkey/cypr/geog.shtml, accessed 18.09.2017.
9
See note 1.
10
See note 8.
11
Ibidem.
12
See note 3.
Population and society
Turkey's population is growing at a slow but steady rate, according to the latest figures
from the Turkish Statistical Institute (TurkStat). Figures for 2015 indicate a growth rate of
13.4, higher than the 13.3 of the previous year. The population grew by 1.45 million people in
the past year to 78,741,053, according to official records. The most densely populated city in
Turkey is, of course, Istanbul, where 18.6 percent of the total population is concentrated with
more than 14.6 million people. The city is also the most crowded, with the total number of
people per square kilometer of 2,821.13
The population density of Turkey is 98 people per kilometer square. The population is
mainly comprised of the Turkish people, who make up 75% of the total population, while
Kurdish make up 18%. Other ethnic groups take up the remaining 17% of the total population.
The languages spoken by the majority are Turkish and Kurdish, while minority groups speak
other languages.14 According to the Turkish constitution, the word “Turk,” as a political
term, includes all citizens of the Republic of Turkey, without distinction of or reference to
race or religion. More than nine-tenths of the population is Muslim. Nevertheless, Turkey is a
secular country. In a 1928 constitutional amendment, Islam was removed as the official state
religion, and since that time the state has found itself periodically at odds with religion.15
The literacy rate of the population is fairly high - about 87%. The male literacy rate is
almost 95%, while the female literacy rate is almost 79%. Almost 70% of the total population
live in urban areas. The rate of urbanization is 1.7% per year. The total fertility rate is around
2.13 children born/woman.16
The population is fairly young with almost 27% ranging from 0 to 14 years of age,
while 67% are 15 to 64 years old. Only around 6% are above 64 years of age. The largest city
in Turkey is Istanbul, which has a total of 10.38 million people. The second largest city is
Ankara, which is also the capital and has almost 3.86 million in population.17
The pace of societal change in Turkey over the past two decades has been astonishing,
and Turkish civil society has reflected those wider changes in the country. There has been a
roughly 50 percent increase in civil society organizations’ membership and activity since
2000, driven by Turkey’s economic boom and further integration with Europe. Today there
are nearly 130,000 CSOs in Turkey, and roughly 13 percent of the Turkish population is a
member of an association—the most common legal status for CSOs. Despite the shuttering of
1,500 CSOs in the wake of the July 2016 coup attempt, there is still tremendous diversity,
complexity, and capacity among Turkish civil society. While the vast majority of civil society
organizations in Turkey are professional associations, sport clubs, or religious organizations,
there are more than 23,000 CSOs that are dedicated to researching or advocating on political
and social issues such as education, gender rights, or environmental justice, or to delivering
social services—particularly, in recent years, for refugees.18

13
Daily Sabah, Turkey’s population expanding, Istanbul still most crowded city, last updated January 2016,
https://www.dailysabah.com/turkey/2016/01/28/turkeys-population-expanding-istanbul-still-most-crowded-city,
accessed 18.09.2017.
14
World Population Review, Turkey population 2017, http://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/turkey-
population/, accessed 18.09.2017.
15
Encyclopaedia Britannica, Turkey. Settlement pattern, https://www.britannica.com/place/Turkey/Settlement-
patterns#toc44467, accessed 18.09.2017.
16
See note 14.
17
Ibidem.
18
Center for American Progress, Istanbul Policy Center, and Istituto Affari Internazionali, Trends in Turkish
civil society, July 2017, p-10, available at: https://www.stiftung-
mercator.de/media/downloads/3_Publikationen/2017/August/Trends_in_Turkish_Civil_Society.pdf, accessed
18.09.2017.
Government and Administration
Following a period of authoritarian one-party rule under the first president of the
republic, Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk; 1923–38), and his successor, İsmet İnönü (1938–50),
multiparty democracy was instituted in 1950. Parliamentary democracy has for the most part
remained in force since that date, although it has been interrupted by brief periods of military
government at times when civilian rule was perceived as ineffective. After each military
interlude (1960–61, 1971–73, 1980–83), power was returned to civilian hands under a revised
constitution.19
Turkey’s head of state was formerly elected by the parliament, but an amendment was
adopted in 2007, and the responsibility now rests with the citizens. The president is required
to be over 40 years of age and be a holder of a bachelor’s degree. The President is mandated
to oversee the implementation of the constitution, and represents the country’s unity. The
president represents the state internationally and ratifies international treaties. The President
promulgates laws, sends bills back to parliament for reconsideration or submits them to
referendum, and calls for new parliamentary elections. The president also appoints and
receives the resignation of the Prime Minister, and appoints or dismisses ministers with the
advice from the Prime Minister.20
Turkey’s Prime Minister serves as the head of government. The Prime Minister is
mandated to form the government, and he/she appoints ministers. He/she heads the Council of
Ministers who oversees various sectors such as agriculture, environment, labor, and tourism.
Each minister is responsible for their individual jurisdiction and accountable to the Prime
Minister who can submit a proposal for a particular minister to be dismissed by the
President.21
The Judicial power in the country is vested upon a network of independent courts and
supreme judiciary institutions. Examples of supreme courts are the Constitutional Court,
Court of Jurisdictional Conflicts, Supreme Court of Appeal, and the Supreme Military Court
of Appeal. Criminal and civil courts serve the country’s citizens.22

The country is divided into 81 provinces for administrative purposes. Among the
criteria used to create provinces are public service requirements and geography. The
provinces are further subdivided into 923 districts which further disintegrate into towns and
villages. Local administration is the system of administration established to meet the common
needs of the people living in a specific region and managed as a result of the cooperation of
bodies elected by these people and appointed by the central government. Local administrative
agencies are authorized by the central government agencies to introduce rules and meet
financial obligations on matters related to the region. Municipalities and provincial
administrations are two main pillars of local administration operating in Turkey.23

19
See note 15.
20
WorldAtlas, What Type Of Government Does Turkey Have?, http://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-type-
of-government-does-turkey-have.html, accessed 18.09.2017.
21
Ibidem.
22
Ibidem.
23
Consulate General Republic Of Turkey, Michigan, Local Administration,
http://www.turkishconsulategeneral.us/abtturkey/govt/loca.shtml, accessed 18.09.2017.
Security
Turkey, as a founding member of the UN, member of NATO and all European leading
institutions, and a negotiating country with the EU for full membership, has pursued a
proactive foreign policy to develop friendship and cooperation in its region and beyond.24
The Turkish military remains focused on the threats emanating from the Syrian civil
war, Russia's actions in Ukraine, and the PKK insurgency; primary domestic threats are listed
as fundamentalism (with the definition in some dispute with the civilian government),
separatism (Kurdish discontent), and the extreme left wing. Ankara strongly opposed
establishment of an autonomous Kurdish region in Iraq.25
The situation has calmed following an attempted coup on 15 to 16 July 2016. But the
security environment remains potentially volatile and a state of emergency is in place. In
some busy areas, especially Istanbul, the Turkish authorities are stopping members of the
public to conduct ID checks. There’s also a larger than usual number of police checkpoints on
main roads across Turkey. Terrorists are very likely to try to carry out attacks in Turkey.
Terrorist groups, including Kurdish groups, Daesh (formerly referred to as ISIL) and far left
organisations, continue to plan and carry out attacks. Further attacks are likely and could be
indiscriminate. Attacks are most likely to target the Turkish state, civilians and
demonstrations. Nevertheless, it’s likely that some attacks will also target western interests
and tourists from western countries, particularly in the major cities. The Turkish authorities
have successfully disrupted attack planning in the recent past and have said that security has
been tightened in response to recent attacks.26
Additional attacks in Turkey could occur at major events, tourist sites, restaurants,
nightclubs, commercial centers, places of worship, and transportation hubs, including aviation
services, metros, buses, bridges, bus terminals, and sea transport. Foreign and U.S. tourists
and expatriates have been explicitly targeted by terrorist organizations in Turkey for
kidnapping and assassination. Under the state of emergency, security forces have expanded
powers and the government has, at times, restricted internet access and media content.27
Turkey has launched a military drill featuring tanks close to the Iraqi border
and dispatched military vehicles to its southern border with Syria where several warring sides
are jockeying for position in the face of Daesh losses. The military exercises began in the
Silopi-Habur region in the country's south, close to northern Iraq, a week before Iraq's
Kurdish region holds a vote on possible secession.28
Generally crime levels are low, but street robbery and pick-pocketing are common in
the major tourist areas of Istanbul. Passports have been stolen from rented villas, even when
they have been kept in the villa safe. This is a particular problem in Didim, Kas, Kalkan and
the Fethiye/Hisaronu/Ovacik areas.29

24
Republic of Turkey, Ministery of Foreign Affairs, Turkey’s Perspectives and Policies on Security Issues,
http://www.mfa.gov.tr/i_-turkey_s-security-perspective_-historical-and-conceptual-background_-turkey_s-
contributions.en.mfa, accessed 18.09.2017.
25
See note 3.
26
UK Government, Travel Advice, Turkey, https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/turkey , accessed
18.09.2017.
27
U.S. Passports & International Travel, US Departament of State. Bureau of Consular Affairs, Turkey Travel
Warning, https://travel.state.gov/content/passports/en/alertswarnings/turkey-travel-warning.html, accessed
18.09.2017.
28
PressTv, Turkey sends tanks near Iraqi and Syrian borders, last updated 18 September 2017,
http://www.presstv.ir/Detail/2017/09/18/535564/Turkey-military-vehicles-Syria-border, accessed 18.09.2017.
29
See note 26.
Economy
After Turkey experienced a severe financial crisis in 2001, Ankara adopted financial
and fiscal reforms as part of an IMF program. The reforms strengthened the country's
economic fundamentals and ushered in an era of strong growth averaging more than 6%
annually until 2008. An aggressive privatization program also reduced state involvement in
basic industry, banking, transport, power generation, and communication. Global economic
conditions and tighter fiscal policy caused GDP to contract in 2009, but Turkey's well-
regulated financial markets and banking system helped the country weather the global
financial crisis, and GDP growth rebounded to around 9% in 2010 and 2011, as exports and
investment recovered following the crisis. Since 2014, productivity and growth has slowed to
reveal persistent underlying imbalances in the Turkish economy. In particular, Turkey’s low
domestic savings and large current account deficit means it must rely on external investment
inflows to finance growth, leaving the economy vulnerable to destabilizing shifts in investor
confidence. The economy contracted in the third quarter of 2016 for the first time since 2009,
in part due to a sharp decline in the tourism sector, and growth is likely to remain below
potential in 2017. Other troublesome trends include rising unemployment and elevated
inflation, which is likely to increase in 2017 given the Turkish lira’s recent depreciation
against the dollar. Although government debt remains low at about 32% of GDP, bank and
corporate borrowing has almost tripled as a percent of GDP during the past decade, outpacing
its emerging-market peers and prompting investor concerns about its long-term
sustainability.30
Turkey’s economy has maintained overall macroeconomic stability despite ongoing
political turmoil. Fiscal policy has been fairly prudent and has kept budget deficits and public
debt under control, but inflationary pressures have increased. The financial sector remains
stable and competitive. However, prospects for economic growth in Turkey have been notably
affected by political developments since the second half of 2016. Critical challenges include
lack of transparency in government and erosion of the rule of law. The judicial system has
become more susceptible to political influence.31
Turkey's largely free-market economy is driven by its industry and, increasingly,
service sectors, although its traditional agriculture sector still accounts for about 25% of
employment. The automotive, petrochemical, and electronics industries have risen in
importance and surpassed the traditional textiles and clothing sectors within Turkey's export
mix. However, the recent period of political stability and economic dynamism has given way
to domestic uncertainty and security concerns, which are generating financial market
volatility and weighing on Turkey’s economic outlook. Turkey remains highly dependent on
imported oil and gas but is pursuing energy relationships with a broader set of international
partners and taking steps to increase use of domestic energy sources including renewables,
nuclear, and coal. The joint Turkish-Azerbaijani Trans-Anatolian Natural Gas Pipeline is
moving forward to increase transport of Caspian gas to Turkey and Europe, and when
completed will help diversify Turkey's sources of imported gas.32
Economic growth is projected to edge up to around 3½ per cent in 2017 and 2018.
Consumer price inflation is back in double digits and disinflation is projected to be slow.33

30
See note 3.
31
2017 Index of Economic Freedom, Turkey, http://www.heritage.org/index/country/turkey, accessed
18.09.2017.
32
See note 3.
33
OECD, Turkey, Economic forecast summary (June 2017), last updated June 2017,
http://www.oecd.org/economy/turkey-economic-forecast-summary.htm, accessed 18.09.2017.
Annex:

Turkish banknote:34

Exchange rates:35

34
https://www.banknoteworld.com/turkey/, accessed 09.10.2017.
35
National Bank of Turkey,
http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/wps/wcm/connect/tcmb+en/tcmb+en/main+page+site+area/today, accessed 13.09.2017.
Turkish passport:36

Turkish flag:37

36
Daily Sabah, Turkey to start issuing biometric passports in line with EU deal, 31 October 2016,
https://www.dailysabah.com/turkey/2016/10/31/turkey-to-start-issuing-biometric-passports-in-line-with-eu-deal,
accessed 09.10.2017.
37
Turkish flag, https://www.shutterstock.com/video/search/turkish-flag, accessed 09.10.2017.
Published by:
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Mircea BABĂU – Director DAI Lavinia TEIOȘANU

NATIONAL EXPERT: COMPILER:

Felix DAVID Andrei ROȘCA

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