​EXPERIMENT -6

​FIRE-TUBE BOILER
Introduction​-
A ​fire-tube boiler​​ is a type of ​boiler​ in which hot gases pass from a fire through one or (many)
more tubes running through a sealed container of water. The ​heat​ of the gases is transferred
through the walls of the tubes by ​thermal conduction​, heating the water and ultimately creating
steam​.

The design of fire-tube boilers consists of a bundle of fire tubes contained in a shell and the
evaporating process takes place outside the fire tubes generating steam. Fire-tube boilers are
often characterized by their number of passes, referring to the number of times that the flue gas
flows along the length of the pressure vessel transferring heat to the water. Each pass sends the
flue gas through the tubes in the opposite direction. To make another pass, the gas turns 180
degrees and passes back through the shell. The turnaround zones can be either dryback or
water-back. In dry-back designs, the turnaround area is refractory lined. In water-back designs,
this turnaround zone is water-cooled, eliminating the need for the refractory lining. Their
characteristically large water capacity makes them somewhat slow in coming up to operating
pressure and temperature but, on the other hand, the large amount of heat stored in the water
provides some accumulator action that makes it possible to meet load changes quickly. There are
several fire-tube boiler designs such as the horizontal return tubular boiler (HRT), which is
encased in a brickwork setting to contain the flame, so it was an externally fired boiler and also
two-pass boiler. By enlarging the diameter of the return flue and putting the firing grating inside
this enlarged flue the HRT boiler becomes internally-fired and the furnace is placed inside the
shell and completely surrounded by water. By this way, the boiler has a large heating surface and
a reasonably long gas travel, and does not require external brickwork. Thus, by eliminating the
external brickwork the design converts into a Scotch Marine boiler since it was extensively used
for marine service. Now, the hot gases flow from the fire to the reversing chamber at the rear of
the boiler and then forward again through the fire tubes. All parts are inside the shell and
completely surrounded by water. In earlier days, the basic fire-tube boiler was manufactured at
the factory, and the refractory, insulation, boiler fittings, controls and firing equipment were
installed by others. The modern fire-tube boiler is marketed as a packaged unit, and now the
majority of fire-tube boilers are packaged type firetube boiler. The boiler as supplied by the
manufacturer comes as a completely equipped unit mounted on its own base, ready for operation
as soon as it is placed in the boiler room and hooked up to the various supply and discharge
piping. The diagrams in Figure 1 show the basic gas-flow patterns used today. All use an internal
furnace or firebox as a first pass, then route the gases into various tube layouts. Figure shows a
schematic representation of a typical three-pass fire-tube boiler. 3 Another type of fire-tube
boiler is the vertical fire-tube boiler, which is similar in construction to the horizontal fire-tube
boiler. It is basically made of a round steel drum or shell. Both ends of the shell are closed by flat
plates called tube sheets. The combustion of the fuel takes place in a furnace and the hot gases
travel from the furnace through the fire tubes to the chimney. The water in the boiler shell
surrounds the fire tubes. The gases travel through the boiler in one direction only and for this
reason, this boiler can also be classed as a singlepass boiler. Vertical fire-tube boilers have an
advantage when floor space is limited as they occupy only a small area. Some recent papers have
been published regarding with other aspects of fire-tube boilers [1, 2]. Thus, effects of the
addition of solid surface on carbon monoxide (CO) emission reduction have been investigated in
a combustion chamber of a three pass fire tube water heater [1] and optimization of fire tube heat
recovery steam generators through genetic algorithm has been carried out by moving variables
towards reducing the operational costs of the HRSG, reducing thus the heat loss. Dynamic
modeling and simulation are becoming increasingly important in engineering to analyze the
unsteady operation of complex systems [3]. Several studies of modelling the boiler evaporation
system can be found in the literature, especially for water-tube boilers [4- 7], but barely for
fire-tube boilers. In this work, the modeling of the heat transfer between flue gas and water in a
fire-tube boiler is considered. In the literature, a comprehensive modeling for fire-tube boilers
has not been treated. Generally, the few models found are focused to one aspect of the fire-tube
boiler performance as the gas/fire side or the water/steam side, and normally centered on
nominal operating conditions. However, a simulator must include the gas/fire side and the
water/steam side performance as well as both the nominal operation and the start-up/shut-down
of the fire-tube boiler. CFD models are a powerful tool to model very complicated systems such as
for instance turbulent diffusion flames. CFD predicts flow, mixing, combustion, heat release and
heat transfer. There are some modelling works carried out using CFD code [8-12]. However,
these models are highly dependent on initial and boundary conditions as well as the arrangement
of grid nodes and turbulence model. Therefore, the results are only good as the input data, and
there are still limitations in the physical models in the codes. Thus, for instance, the empirical k-ε
model has been used for many years and has been widely used despite its many known
limitations. Indeed, in turbulence models the magnitudes of two turbulence quantities, the
turbulence kinetic energy k and its dissipation rate ε, are calculated from transport equations
MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 4 solved simultaneously with those
governing the mean flow behavior. Thus, new modeling papers continuously present methods in
order to overcome the assumptions and simplifications followed in boiler modeling by preceding
models. The reliability of CFD analysis depends heavily on the turbulence model employed
together with the wall functions implemented. In order to resolve the abrupt fluctuations
experienced by the turbulent energy and other parameters (many times selected in a heuristic
way, conferring to the modeling a semi-empirical characteristic) located at near wall regions and
shear layers a particularly fine computational mesh is necessary which inevitably increases the
computer storage and runtime requirements. Moreover the dynamic response is very complex to
address by CFD modeling. Thus, the assessment of a fire-tube boiler may be simplified by a
model such as that described in this paper, for practical purposes. In this work, the aim is to
propose a model for simulating the performance of a horizontal packaged fire-tube boiler in a
realistic way, although with simplifications. A simulation tool may be useful to approach the
dynamic performance of a boiler in order to assist the plant engineer and even to train the
technical staff. Furthermore, a simplified model is better in practice if a control system must be
included. Detailed modelling of plants dynamics is not normally efficient for control purposes,
since the plant model should describe the plant dynamics with sufficient accuracy and not
describe the microscopic details occurring within individual plant components [13]. However, in
order to better understand the final model used to simulate the fire-tube boiler performance, first
it is convenient to establish a more rigorous model in order to recognize the simplifications made
after. By means of simulations the plant engineer and operators can evaluate changes in
operating conditions and select in real-time the best way to operate the furnace and evaporation
system. Thus, simulation is useful both for training and assisting in making online decisions. One
of the aims of the dynamic model developed is to achieve reliable predictions on the changes of
the more relevant variables so it could be used, e.g., for the design of the unit control.

The fire-tube boiler developed as the third of the four major historical types of boilers:
low-pressure tank or "​haystack​" boilers, ​flued boilers​with one or two large flues, fire-tube boilers
with many small tubes, and high-pressure ​water-tube boilers​. Their advantage over flued boilers
with a single large flue is that the many small tubes offer far greater heating surface area for the
same overall boiler volume. The general construction is as a tank of water penetrated by tubes
that carry the hot ​flue gases​ from the fire. The tank is usually ​cylindrical​ for the most part—being
the strongest practical shape for a ​pressurized container​—and this cylindrical tank may be either
horizontal or vertical.
This type of boiler was used on virtually all ​steam locomotives​ in the horizontal "locomotive"
form. This has a cylindrical barrel containing the fire tubes, but also has an extension at one end
to house the "firebox". This firebox has an open base to provide a large grate area and often
extends beyond the cylindrical barrel to form a rectangular or tapered enclosure. The horizontal
fire-tube boiler is also typical of marine applications, using the ​Scotch boiler​; thus, these boilers
are commonly referred to as "scotch-marine" or "marine" type boilers.​[1]​ ​Vertical boilers​ have
also been built of the multiple fire-tube type, although these are comparatively rare; most vertical
boilers were either flued, or with cross water-tubes.

Operation

Schematic diagram of a "locomotive" type fire-tube boiler

In the locomotive-type boiler, fuel is burnt in a ​firebox​ to produce hot combustion gases. The
firebox is surrounded by a cooling jacket of water connected to the long, cylindrical boiler shell.
The hot gases are directed along a series of ​fire tubes​, or ​flues​, that penetrate the boiler and heat
the water thereby generating saturated ("wet") steam. The steam rises to the highest point of the
boiler, the ​steam dome,​ where it is collected. The dome is the site of the ​regulator​ that controls
the exit of steam from the boiler.
In the locomotive boiler, the saturated steam is very often passed into a ​superheater,​ back
through the larger flues at the top of the boiler, to dry the steam and heat it to ​superheated
steam.​ The superheated steam is directed to the steam engine's ​cylinders​ or very rarely to a
turbine​to produce mechanical work. Exhaust gases are fed out through a ​chimney​, and may be
used to pre-heat the feed water to increase the efficiency of the boiler.
Draught​ for firetube boilers, particularly in marine applications, is usually provided by a tall
smokestack​. In all steam locomotives since ​Stephenson's​ ​Rocket​, additional draught is supplied
by directing exhaust steam from the cylinders into the smokestack through a ​blastpipe​, to provide
a partial ​vacuum​. Modern industrial boilers use fans to provide forced or induced draughting of
the boiler.
Another major advance in the ​Rocket​ was large numbers of small-diameter firetubes (a
multi-tubular boiler​) instead of a single large flue. This greatly increased the surface area for heat
transfer, allowing steam to be produced at a much higher rate. Without this, ​steam locomotives
could never have developed effectively as powerful ​prime movers​.

Types of fire-tube boiler

● Cornish boiler
The earliest form of fire-tube boiler was ​Richard Trevithick​'s "high-pressure" Cornish boiler. This
is a long horizontal cylinder with a single large flue containing the fire. The fire itself was on an
iron grating placed across this flue, with a shallow ashpan beneath to collect the non-combustible
residue. Although considered as low-pressure (perhaps 25 pounds per square inch (170 kPa))
today, the use of a cylindrical boiler shell permitted a higher pressure than the earlier "haystack"
boilers of ​Newcomen's​ day. As the furnace relied on natural ​draught​ (air flow), a tall ​chimney​ was
required at the far end of the flue to encourage a good supply of air (oxygen) to the fire.
For efficiency, the boiler was commonly encased beneath by a ​brick​-built chamber. Flue gases
were routed through this, outside the iron boiler shell, after passing through the fire-tube and so
to a chimney that was now placed at the front face of the boiler.

Lancashire boiler

The Lancashire boiler is similar to the Cornish, but has two large flues containing the fires. It was
the invention of ​William Fairbairn​ in 1844, from a theoretical consideration of the
thermodynamics of more efficient boilers that led him to increase the ​furnace​ grate area relative
to the volume of water.
 [2]​
Later developments added ​Galloway tubes​ (after their inventor, patented in 1848),​ crosswise
water tubes across the flue, thus increasing the heated surface area. As these are short tubes of
large diameter and the boiler continues to use a relatively low pressure, this is still not considered
to be a water-tube boiler. The tubes are tapered, simply to make their installation through the
[3]
flue easier.​

Side-section of a Scotch marine boiler: the arrows show direction of flue gas flow; the combustion
chamber is on the right, the smokebox on the left.

water tube boiled

● Scotch marine boiler

The Scotch marine boiler differs dramatically from its predecessors in using a large number of
small-diameter tubes. This gives a far greater heating surface area for the volume and weight. The
furnace remains a single large-diameter tube with the many small tubes arranged above it. They
are connected together through a combustion chamber – an enclosed volume contained entirely
within the boiler shell – so that the flow of flue gas through the firetubes is from back to front. An
enclosed smokebox covering the front of these tubes leads upwards to the ​chimney​ or funnel.
Typical Scotch boilers had a pair of furnaces, larger ones had three. Above this size, such as for
[4]
large ​steam ships​, it was more usual to install multiple boilers.​
 ● Locomotive boiler

A locomotive boiler has three main components: a double-walled ​firebox​; a horizontal, cylindrical
"boiler barrel" containing a large number of small flue-tubes; and a ​smokebox​ with ​chimney​, for
the exhaust gases. The boiler barrel contains larger flue-tubes to carry the ​superheater​elements,
where present. Forced draught is provided in the locomotive boiler by injecting exhausted steam
back into the exhaust via a ​blast pipe​ in the smokebox.

Locomotive-type boilers are also used in ​traction engines​, ​steam rollers​, ​portable engines​ and
some other steam road vehicles. The inherent strength of the boiler means it is used as the basis
for the vehicle: all the other components, including the wheels, are mounted on brackets attached
to the boiler. It is rare to find superheaters designed into this type of boiler, and they are
generally much smaller (and simpler) than railway locomotive types.
The locomotive-type boiler is also a characteristic of the ​overtype steam wagon​, the
steam-powered fore-runner of the ​truck​. In this case, however, heavy girder frames make up the
load-bearing chassis of the vehicle, and the boiler is attached to this.

● Taper boiler
Certain railway locomotive boilers are tapered from a larger diameter at the firebox end to a
smaller diameter at the ​smokebox​ end. This reduces weight and improves water circulation.
Many later ​Great Western Railway​ and ​London, Midland and Scottish Railway​ locomotives were
designed or modified to take taper boilers.

● Vertical fire-tube boiler

A ​vertical fire-tube boiler​ (VFT), colloquially known as the "vertical boiler", has a vertical
cylindrical shell, containing several vertical flue tubes.

● Horizontal return tubular boiler

 Horizontal Return Tubular boilers from the Staatsbad ​Bad Steben​ GmbH

Horizontal return tubular boiler (HRT) has a horizontal cylindrical shell, containing several
horizontal flue tubes, with the fire located directly below the boiler's shell, usually within a
brickwork setting

● Admiralty-type direct tube boiler

Extensively used by Britain, before and in the early days of ironclads, the only protected place
was below the waterline, sometimes under an armoured deck, so to fit below short decks, the
tubes were not led back above the furnace but continued straight from it with keeping the
combustion chamber in between the two. Hence the name, and considerably reduced diameter,
compared to the ubiquituous Scotch or return tube boiler. It was not a great success and its use
was being abandoned after the introduction of stronger side armouring – “the furnace crowns,
being very near the water-level, are much more liable to over-heating. Further, on account of the
length of the boiler, for an equal angle of inclination, the effect on the water-level is much greater.
Finally, the unequal expansion of the various parts of the boiler is more pronounced, especially at
the top and bottom, due to the increased ratio between the length and the diameter of the boiler;
the local strains are also more severe on account of the comparatively feeble circulation in long
and low boilers.” All these also resulted in a shorter life. Also, the same length of a combustion
chamber was much less effective on a direct tube than on a return tube boiler, at least without

baffling.​[5]

● Immersion fired boiler

The immersion fired boiler is a single-pass fire-tube boiler that was developed by Sellers
Engineering in the 1940s. It has only firetubes, functioning as a furnace and combustion chamber
also, with multiple burner nozzles injecting premixed air and natural gas under pressure. It
claims reduced thermal stresses, and lacks refractory brickwork completely due to its
construction.

Variations

● Water tubes
Fire-tube boilers sometimes have water-tubes as well, to increase the heating surface. A Cornish
boiler may have several water-tubes across the diameter of the flue (this is common in ​steam
launches​). A locomotive boiler with a wide firebox may have arch tubes or ​thermic syphons​. As
firebox technology developed, it was found that placing a baffle of ​firebricks(​ heat-resistant
bricks) inside the firebox to direct the flow of hot flue gasses up into the top of the firebox before
it flowed into the fire tubes increased efficiency by equalizing the heat between upper and lower
fire tubes. To hold these in place, a metal bracket was used, but to prevent these brackets from
burning and eroding away they were built as water tubes, with cool water from the bottom of the
boiler moving upwards by convection as it heated, and carrying the heat away before the metal
reached its failure temperature.
Another technique for increasing the heating surface is to include ​internal rifling​ inside the boiler
tubes (also known as Serve tubes).
Not all shell boilers raise steam; some are designed specifically for heating pressurised water.
 ● Reverse flame
In homage to the Lancashire design, modern shell boilers can come with a twin furnace design. A
more recent development has been the reverse flame design where the burner fires into a blind
furnace and the combustion gasses double back on themselves. This results in a more compact
design and less pipework.

● Package boiler
The term "package" boiler evolved in the early- to mid-20th century from the practice of
delivering boiler units to site already fitted with insulation, electrical panels, valves and gauges.
This was in contrast to earlier practice where little more than the pressure vessel was delivered
and the ancillary components were fitted on-site.
 Kewanee Gas-Fired Packaged Fire-Tube Boiler from 1974 rated at 25 ​horsepower

Safety considerations
Because the fire-flume boiler itself is the pressure vessel, it requires a number of safety features
to prevent mechanical failure. ​Boiler explosion​, which is a type of ​BLEVE​ (Boiling Liquid
Expanding Vapor Explosion), can be devastating.
● Safety valves​​ release steam before a dangerous pressure can be built up
● Fusible plugs​​ over the firebox melt at a temperature lower than that of the firebox
plates, thereby warning the operators by the noisy escape of steam if the water level is
too low to cool the firebox crown safely.
● Stays​​, or ties, physically link the firebox and boiler casing, preventing them from
warping. Since any corrosion is hidden, the stays may have longitudinal holes, called
tell-tales,​ drilled in them which leak before they become unsafe.

The fire-tube type boiler that was used in the ​Stanley Steamer​ automobile had several hundred
tubes which were weaker than the outer shell of the boiler, making an explosion virtually
impossible as the tubes would fail and leak long before the boiler exploded. In nearly 100 years
since the Stanleys were first produced, no Stanley boiler has ever exploded.

Economics and efficiencies

Excessive cycling
Each time a boiler cycles off and on, it loses efficiency. Excessive cycling can be minimized
● Modulating boilers can run longer (at firing rates that match the loads) than the
non-modulating boilers (which operate at the full firing rate).
● By using condensing modulating boilers.
● By using non-condensing modulating boiler.
● By setting the controls (thermostats or controller with temperature
sensors) with greater temperature differentials between STOP and
START.
 ● At Non-Condensing Boilers make provisions so that minimum return water
temperature of 150 °F (66 °C) to the boiler to avoid fireside corrosion.
● By setting the MINIMUM OFF times at 8 to 15 minutes. For comfort
heating loads, short time intervals do not usually trigger occupant
complaints.

Common provisions are to provide a primary piping loop with pump(s) and a secondary piping
loop with pump(s); and either a variable speed controlled pump to transfer water from the
primary loop to the secondary loop, or a 3-way valve to divert water from the secondary loop to
the primary loop.

Fireside corrosion in non-condensing boilers

The minimum return water temperature of 150 °F (66 °C) to the boiler to avoid corrosion.

Condensing boilers
Condensing Boilers can be 2+% more efficient at lower firing rates
Condensing boilers have a seasonal efficiency of 84% to 92%. Noncondensing boilers have a
seasonal efficiency of roughly at 70% to 75%. The seasonal efficiency, which is the overall
effectiveness of the boiler over the entire season.

Maintenance
An intensive schedule of maintenance is needed to keep a boiler in safe condition. A typical
regime will involve regular external inspections (including the inside of the firebox), ​washouts
(with an internal inspection), periodic detailed examination and a general overhaul.

Daily inspection
The tube plates, the ​fusible plug​ and the heads of the firebox stays should be checked for leaks.
The correct operation of the boiler fittings, especially the ​water gauges​ and ​water feed
mechanisms​, should be confirmed. Steam pressure should be raised to the level at which the
safety valves​ lift and compared with the indication of the pressure gauge.
Washout

Cutaway of locomotive boiler. Note the narrow water spaces around the firebox and the "mudhole" for
access to the crown sheet: these areas require special attention during washout

The working life of a locomotive boiler is considerably extended if it is spared from a constant
cycle of cooling and heating. Historically, a locomotive would be kept “in steam” continuously for
a period of about eight to ten days, and then allowed to cool sufficiently for a hot-water boiler
[10]​
washout. The schedule for express engines was based on mileage.​ Today's preserved
locomotives are not usually kept continuously in steam and the recommended washout interval is
[11]
now fifteen to thirty days, but anything up to 180 days is possible.​

The process starts with a ​“blowdown”​ while some pressure remains in the boiler, then the
draining away of all the boiler water through the “mudholes” at the base of the firebox and the
removal of all the “washout plugs”. ​Scale​ is then jetted or scraped from the interior surfaces using
a high-pressure water jet and rods of soft metal, such as copper. Areas particularly susceptible to
scale buildup, such as the firebox crown and narrow water spaces around the firebox, are given
special attention. The inside of the boiler is inspected by sighting through the plug holes, with a
particular check paid to the integrity of the firetubes, firebox crown and stays and absence of
pitting or cracking of the boiler plates. The gauge glass cocks and tubes and fusible plug should be
cleared of scale; if the core of the fusible plug shows signs of calcination the item should be
replaced.
On reassembly care should be taken that the threaded plugs are replaced in their original holes:
the tapers can vary as a result of rethreading. The mudhole door gaskets, if of ​asbestos​, should be
renewed but those made of ​lead​ may be reused; special instructions are in force for the disposal
of these harmful materials.At large maintenance facilities the boiler would have been both
washed and refilled with very hot water from an external supply to bring the locomotive back to
service more quickly.
Periodic examination
Typically an annual inspection, this would require the removal and check of external fittings,
such as the injectors, safety valves and pressure gauge. High-pressure copper pipework can suffer
from ​work hardening​ in use and become dangerously brittle: it may be necessary to treat these by
annealing​ before refitting. A hydraulic pressure test on the boiler and pipework may also be
called for.

General overhaul
In the UK the specified maximum interval between full overhauls is ten years. To enable a full
inspection the boiler is lifted from the locomotive frame and the ​lagging​ removed. All firetubes
are removed for checking or replacement. All fittings are removed for overhaul. Before returning
to use a qualified examiner will check the boiler’s fitness for service and issue a safety certificate
valid for ten years