Aluminium Database - On - Defects PDF

StaCast - New Quality and Design Standards for Aluminium Alloys Cast Products
FP7-NMP-2012-CSA-6 - PROJECT N. 319188

www.stacast-project.org
COORDINATION AND SUPPORT ACTION

(SUPPORTING)
Call: FP7-NMP-2012-CSA-6
Support for standardisation needs
New Quality and Design Standards

Project full title: for Aluminium Alloys
Cast Products
Project acronym: StaCast
Co-ordinator name Franco BONOLLO

Co-ordinator organisation name University of Padova – DTG
Co-ordinator email and fax bonollo@gest.unipd.it +39 0444 998889
Co-ordinator phone + 39 0444 998743
DELIVERABLE D2.1
Database on Defects
AUTHORS:
F. BONOLLO, G. TIMELLI, E. FIORESE (UNIVERSITY OF PADOVA – DTG)
E. GARIBOLDI, P. PARONA (ITALIAN ASSOCIATION OF METALLURGY – AIM)
L. ARNBERG (UNIVERSITY OF TRONDHEIM – NTNU)
Date: March 29th, 2013
StaCast: New Quality and Design Standards for Aluminium Alloys Cast Products – Deliverable D2.1: Database on Defetcs
Authors: F. Bonollo, G. Timelli, E. Fiorese, E. Gariboldi, P. Parona, L. Arnberg
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Database on Defects
1. Introduction
Defects are intrinsically generated by casting processes, due to several reasons. The final properties
and in-service behaviour of castings are always related to microstructural features and to defects:
both microstructure and defects are the results of process stages, alloys properties and dies & tools
design. As an example, it should be considered that in HPDC filling stage extreme conditions are
established: complexity of components leads to complex dies, and the high production rates
required (up to 120 shots/h) lead to very high filling velocities for the molten alloy (up to 40 m/s)
with strong generation of turbulence in the flow. Solidification takes place in few seconds, and the
die is first in contact with a molten alloy at more than 700°C and, after 30-40 seconds, with a
sprayed lubricant at room temperature. For these reasons HPDC (as well as other Aluminium alloys
casting processes, such as permanent mold casting process) can be considered a “defect generating
process”. Not only an average 5-10% scrap is typically produced, but the type, size and severity of
defects are varying.
From these considerations, it seems that the potential of high-pressure die-casting and permanent
mold casting processes will be completely exploited only when the quality level will be perfectly
optimised. In this regard, the analysis of defects allows the foundry to monitor the products quality
respect to a quality standard. Further, the analysis of defects provide to the foundry useful
correlations between defects type/distribution and their origin, so that it could be possible to define
process modification for improving the quality.
One of the current targets of the StaCast project is the compilation and dissemination of common
tools to allow foundries to define a proper, comparable, quality standard. The first tool to be
proposed is a common basis of language, i.e. a terminology and classification of defects in order to
help die-casting foundries to face with increased confidence and ability the defect-related issues, to
assure quality and reliability of their products.
2. The path towards a new Standard on Defect Classification

2.1. Previous classifications of defects
There are three main approaches for defects classification of cast components proposed in literature
or currently adopted by foundries:
- Cocks approach based on defects geometry/location
- Campbell approach based on defects metallurgical origin/causes
- NADCA approach based on defects morphology.
The first approach was proposed by Cocks and discerns between surface and internal defects (Table
1). The surface defects are visible by naked eye and impact both on the product aesthetics and
functionality. On the other hand, the internal defects influence only the in-service properties of the
component.
As shown in Table 2, the second approach, proposed by Campbell, classifies defects on the basis of
their metallurgical origin/causes (casting geometry, cast alloy, die characteristics, die lubrication,
process parameters, etc.). The main advantage offered by this classification is the opportunity to
design and adopt strategies to improve products quality. The main disadvantage of this approach is
that the origin/causes of the defect must be defined concurrently to defect identification and that a
single defect can be due to several concurring factors. Further, this approach is less suitable for
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direct application in foundries with respect to geometry/position-based approaches, where specific

inspections can be proposed to reveal different defect groups.
The third approach was proposed by NADCA (North America Die Casting Association) and is
based on defects morphology. NADCA suggested seven defects categories, that are indicated by a
letter (Table 3). Each category is divided into groups, that are divided into subgroups.
Category Class Type

1-General
2-Splash and shotting
1-Cold shut
3-Vortex
Cocks classification
4-Lamination
1-Surface defects 1-Blisters
2-Smooth irregularities 2-Sinks
3-Lakes
1-Drag marks
3-Rough surface
2-Solder
1-Hydrogen
1-Gas porosity
2-Oxidizing gases
2-Internal defects 1-Gross
2-Shrink porosity 2-Intergranular
3-Cracks - hot tears
Table 1. Classification of casting defects according to Cocks.
Gas in solution (hydrogen)

classification
Gas porosity Gas entrapment during filling (air)

Campbell
Binder breakdown (core gases)

Macro-porosity
Shrinkage porosity
Micro-porosity (interdendritic)
Hot tearing, cracks
Table 2. Classification of casting defects according to Campbell.
Category
A-Metallic projection
classification
B-Cavities
NADCA
C-Discontinuities
D-Defective surface
E-Incomplete casting
F-Incorrect dimension or shape
G-Inclusion or structural anomalies
Table 3. Classification of casting defects according to NADCA.
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2.2. Proposal of new classification of defects

Recently, the AIM (Italian Association of Metallurgy), after a 2-years survey carried out involving
about 50 Al-alloys foundries, suggested a new classification approach, based on a 3-levels defects
individuation:
I) morphology/location of defects (internal, external, geometrical);
II) metallurgical origin of defects (e.g. gaseous porosity, solidification shrinkage, etc.);
III) specific type of defects (the same metallurgical phenomenon may generate various defects).
The level I is based on morphology/location of defects, with reference to the investigation

techniques suitable for their detection (visual inspections and controls involving the bulk material):
there are internal and external (or surface) defects. Sub-surface defects (i.e. so close to the surface
that they can affect external aspect detectable by conventional surface investigation techniques), are
considered surface defects. Finally, the geometrical defects refer to the casting shape in terms of
dimensions and tolerances.
The level II is mainly focussed on the metallurgical origin of defects. Defects are grouped into
several classes according to their general metallurgical origin:
- defects related to the presence of gas (gas-related defects);
- defects related to material volume contraction during metal solidification (shrinkage
defects);
- defects related to thermal contraction prevented by previously solidified metal or by the die
(thermal contraction defects);
- defects related to incorrect filling of the die-cavity (filling defects);
- defects related to metal/mould interaction;
- defects related to the presence of unsuitable phases (undesired phases), originated by the
interaction of the metal with external environment during melting, casting, filling or
extraction/ejection from the mould.
As previously observed, the knowledge of metallurgical origin could supply starting points for
corrective actions (including process parameters).
The level III is used to identify the specific types of defects. Usually, the term adopted to describe a
particular type of defect allows a better definition of the metallurgical origin of the defect itself,
which was preliminarily identified in the previous level.
Such approach has been widely described in a report published [E. Gariboldi, F. Bonollo, P.
Parona, Handbook of defects in HPDC, AIM, Milano], and certainly constitutes the basis for the
first relevant StaCast Objective, i.e. the definition of a New Standard on defects classification. The
present classification of defects is of hybrid type and multi-level, as schematically shown in Tables
4, 5 and 6. The proposal refers to metallurgically-based defects of HPDC and permanent mold
casting products. Defects directly related to handling, finishing, machining operations following
ejection from the die are excluded from the classification, even if they could be possible causes for
product rejection. In this way, the range of defect types is not excessively wide.
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1st Level 2nd Level 3rd Level

A1.1 Macro-shrinkage
A1 Shrinkage defects A1.2 Interdendritic shrinkage
A1.3 Layer porosity
A2.1 Air entrapment porosity
A2.2 Hydrogen porosity
A2 Gas-related defects
A A2.3 Vapour entrapment porosity
A2.4 Lubricant entrapment porosity
Internal A3.1 Joint
defects A3 Filling-related defects A3.2 Lamination
A3.3 Cold shot
A4.1 Inclusion
A4 Undesired phases
A4.2 Undesired structure
A5.1 Crack
A5 Thermal contraction defects
A5.2 Hot tear
Table 4. Classification of internal defects.

B1 Shrinkage defects B1.1 Sink
B2 Gas-related defects B2.1 Blister
B3.1 Joint and Vortex
B3 Filling-related defects B3.2 Lamination
B3.3 Cold shot
B B4.1 Surface deposit
B4 Undesired phases
B4.2 Contamination or inclusion
Surface Thermal contraction B5.1 Crack
defects B5
defects B5.2 Hot tear
B6.1 Erosion
B6.2 Soldering
Metal-die interaction
B6 B6.3 Thermal fatigue
defects
B6.4 Ejection mark
B6.5 Corrosion of the die
Table 5. Classification of surface defects.

C C1 Lack of material C1.1 Incomplete casting
C2 Excess of material C2.1 Flash
Geometrical
defects C3 Out of tolerance C3.1 Deformed part
Table 6. Classification of geometrical defects.

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3. Database on Defetcs
INTERNAL DEFECTS
A Internal defects I
A1 Shrinkage defects II
A1.1 Macro-shrinkage III
Definition
A macro-shrinkage is a relatively large shrinkage cavity, formed
inside an hot spot and due to the volume contraction during
solidification.
Morphology
A macro-shrinkage is characterized by rough and spongy
surfaces for the presence of emerging dendrites as a
consequence of their interrupted growth. A macro-shrinkage can
reach several mm in diameter (> 0.5 mm). It can be detected by
means of radiographic, ultrasonic inspections and
metallographic tests. Fig. 1. Macrograph of a macro-shrinkage
Metallurgical origin [14].
The formation of a macro-shrinkage depends on mould-filling
conditions, alloy physical properties (e.g. solidification range),
geometry of the casting and process parameters. This type of
defect can be found both in HPDC and permanent mold casting References: 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14.
processes.
A1.2 Interdendritic shrinkage III
Definition
An interdendritic porosity consists of several cavities located in
the interdendritic regions, and forms when the liquid afflux in
these regions is inadequate to counterbalance the shrinkage of the
metal during solidification.
Morphology
The interdendritic porosity is characterized by a net of long and
narrow three-dimensional branches. The size of an interdendritic
shrinkage varies between 10-150 µm. This defect can be detected
by means of radiographic, ultrasonic inspections and
metallographic tests.
Metallurgical origin
The formation of the interdendritic porosity is favored by a wide Fig. 2. Metal flow around dendrites [14].
mushy zone, as could be the case of wide solidification range and
low temperature gradients (e.g. in the last solidified regions of a
thick casting). The interdendritic porosity could be a preferred
path for gas, thus be deleterious for pressure tightness. This defect
could also be a preferred path for crack propagation.
This type of defect can be found both in HPDC and permanent
References: 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14,
mold casting processes. 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24,
25, 80.
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A1.3 Layer porosity III
Definition
A layer porosity consists of a set of shrinkage defects
aligned typically along the neutral thermal axis/surface
of the casting in its thin regions (where the component
thickness is far smaller than the two other dimensions
and the thermal gradient is lower than all adjacent
points).
Morphology
A layer porosity is made up of a set of small shrinkage
cavities laying on a surface, typically the neutral
thermal one. The size of a layer porosity varies between Fig. 3. The formation of a layer porosity.
10-100 µm. This defect can be detected by means of
radiographic inspections and metallographic tests.
The layer porosity forms when the solidification fronts
converge towards two surfaces and the last solidifying
liquid metal cannot flow within the dendrites of the
mushy zone. This type of defect can be found both in
References: 3, 4, 13, 15.
HPDC and permanent mold casting processes.
A2 Gas-related defects II
A2.1 Air entrapment porosity III
Definition
The air entrapment porosity consists of small cavities due
to air bubbles trapped inside the liquid metal.
Morphology
Air entrapment porosities appear as spherical or
ellipsoidal cavities characterized by relatively smooth
surfaces on which a thin oxide layer (due to the high-
temperature interaction between air and the liquid metal)
could be found.
The final distribution of cavities within the casting
depends on the path of the metal. The size of an air
entrapment porosity is 10-2000 µm. This defect can be
detected by means of radiographic, ultrasonic inspections
and metallographic tests. Fig. 4. Entrapped air porosity in the casting [75].
Air entrapment porosity is the most frequent defect found
in HPDC products. Air bubbles can form in turbulent
liquid metal vein either when it is in the shot sleeve, in
filling channels or inside die cavity.
References: 2, 3, 4, 5, 14, 21, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28,
29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 77, 78.
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A2.2 Hydrogen porosity III
Definition
The hydrogen porosity consists of cavities due to the
presence of hydrogen in the melt.
Morphology
Hydrogen porosity consists of approximately spherical
cavities characterized by smooth and no-oxidized surface.
Such cavities have a rather small size (0.05-0.5 mm of
diameter) and are distributed almost homogeneously within
the casting. This defect can be detected by means of
radiographic, ultrasonic inspections and metallographic
tests.
Humidity can cause the presence of monoatomic hydrogen
within the liquid metal at high temperature. Due to the Fig. 5. Micrograph of a hydrogen porosity
abrupt reduction of hydrogen solubility in the solid phase, [18].
the solidifying region rejects hydrogen and this element
concentrates in the liquid near the liquid/solid interface,
where it combines into molecular form. In HPDC castings,
hydrogen porosity is far less frequent than air entrapment
porosity. This type of defect can be frequently found in References: 3, 4, 14, 15, 18, 37, 38, 39, 40,
permanent mold casting process. 41, 42, 76.
A2.3 Vapour entrapment porosity III
Definition
The vapour entrapment porosity consists of cavities caused by
the residual humidity of the die. Humidity becomes vapour
when it comes into contact with the molten metal.
Morphology
The vapour entrapment porosity is generally in the form of
approximately spherical cavities with smooth surfaces. Due to
the generally localized presence of humidity on the die, cavities
are typically concentrated, even if in regions of the casting that
could be far from the area where they originated. The size of a
vapour entrapment porosity is 0.5-3 mm. This defect can be
detected by means of radiographic, ultrasonic inspections and Fig. 6. Schematics of vapour
metallographic tests. entrapment porosity.
The presence of humidity on the die surface could result from
an excess of the water-based lubricant. This type of defect can
be found both in HPDC and permanent mold casting processes.
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A2.4 Lubricant entrapment porosity III
Definition
The lubricant entrapment porosity forms when the gases -
resulting from the decomposition of the lubricant -
remain trapped into liquid metal in form of bubbles.
Morphology
The lubricant entrapment porosity is characterized by
small, approximately spherical cavities with smooth
surfaces. The surface of the cavities appears darker
respect to the surface of gas-related defects due to the
presence of combustion products on it. The size of a
lubricant entrapment porosity varies between 0.5-3 mm.
This defect can be detected by means of radiographic, Fig. 7. Schematics of lubricant entrapment
ultrasonic inspections and metallographic tests. porosity.
The lubricant entrapment porosity is caused by an
excessive quantity of lubricant on the die surface and/or
piston/sleeve coming into contact with molten metal.
This type of defect can be found both in HPDC and
permanent mold casting processes.
A3 Filling-related defects II
A3.1 Joint III
Definition
A joint is a discontinuity of metallurgical type (either
microstructural and/or metallic) rather than of
geometrical-type (such as, for example, a cavity or a
crack).
Morphology
The appearance of this defect depends on the conditions
of the metal flows at the moment of their confluence and
on their location within the die-cavity. This defect can be
detected only by means of metallographic tests.
The joint forms when a relatively cold liquid metal flow -
at least partially solidified and in some cases covered by
an oxide film - meets another warmer metal vein that can Fig. 8. Micrograph of a joint.
flow around it. The joint usually brakes along the
previous interface of flows when relatively low tension
stresses normal to it or shear stresses parallel to it are
applied. This type of defect can be found both in HPDC
and permanent mold casting processes.
References: 2, 4, 14, 24, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33,

34, 35, 37, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49.
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A3.2 Lamination III
Definition
A lamination is a typical surface defect (see B3.2), but
in some cases can be also considered as internal defect.
The lamination is a sort of thin metallic layer (skin)
with different microstructure in comparison to the
material laying around and partly separated by a thin
oxide film.
Morphology
This defect consists of a thin metallic layer having a
separation surface from the bulk metal almost parallel
to the component surface, with imperfect adhesion to
the inner metal and with finer microstructure. This
defect presents variable size and can be detected by
means of ultrasonic inspections and metallographic
Fig. 9. Schematics of a lamination.
tests.
The lamination forms when the metal foil comes into
contact with the die surface and cools down with a
higher rate than the surrounding regions. This type of
defect can be found both in HPDC and permanent mold
casting processes. References: 2, 4, 14, 24, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34,
35, 37, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 49.
A3.3 Cold shot III
Definition
Even if a cold shot always originates at the surface of the die,
it can be found as internal defect when it is trailed by a liquid
metal flow. The cold shot is a small amount of metal
characterised by microstructural features much finer than the
surrounding regions and separated by a thin oxide layer.
Morphology
The cold shot seems as a small amount of metal with a
spherical or ellipsoidal shape. The size of a cold shot varies
between 0.01-0.2 mm. This defect can be detected only by
means of metallographic tests.
The cold shot forms when the alloy flows turbulently with a
front characterized by a considerable presence of drops (spray
effect) and comes into contact with the surface of the die. In Fig. 10. Micrograph of a cold shot [75].
such conditions, the molten metal can approach the solidus
temperature and rapidly solidifies. This type of defect is
typical of HPDC process, because in this case the spray effect
is more frequent.
References: 2, 4, 14, 24, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33,

34, 35, 37, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 49, 75.
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A4 Undesired phases II
A4.1 Inclusion III
Definition
Inclusions are typically non-metallic phases and include
oxides and dross.
Morphology
The inclusion can be in the form of a particle or of a thin film.
The size of an inclusion is major than 0.1 mm. This defect can
be detected by means of radiographic, ultrasonic inspections
and metallographic tests.
In Al-alloys the most frequent type of inclusion is the
aluminium oxide, i.e. alumina (Al2O3). It easily forms when
the liquid metal comes into contact with air.
Inclusions can also be other non-metallic phases, such as Fig. 11. Image of aluminium oxide [75].
small portions of refractories (often silicon carbide) or dross.
Because of their high hardness, inclusions can cause
machining problems. This type of defect can be found both in
HPDC and permanent mold casting processes.
References: 2, 4, 14, 24, 28, 34, 35, 37,
42,43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 50, 51, 52, 52, 76.
A4 Undesired phases II
A4.2 Undesired structure III
Definition
These are areas of different microstructure which are
undesired mainly for their high hardness, stiffness,
brittleness and because they create microstructural
discontinuities.
Morphology
The morphology of undesired structures cannot be
uniquely described and their size depends on the cell
size. For example, the SDAS could be outside the
acceptable limit for a specific region of the casting. This
defect can be detected by means of metallographic tests.
Undesired structures can include portions of previously
produced castings (for example flash), accidentally left Fig. 12. Micrograph of a region with large
within the die-cavity and then embedded in the dendrites [53].
successive casting.
Undesired structures represent microstructural
discontinuities and could act as crack nucleation and
propagation sites during cooling, finishing operations or
in-service behaviour. This type of defect can be found
both in HPDC and permanent mold casting processes.
References: 2, 4, 52, 53, 54.
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A5 Thermal contraction defects II
A5.1 Crack III
Definition
A crack is a geometrical discontinuity characterized by
one dimension far smaller than the two others.
Morphology
A crack is a geometrical discontinuity characterized by
one dimension far smaller than the two others. A narrow
void volume lays within the two faced fracture surfaces
which define crack. The length of a crack varies between
10 µm to several mm. This defect can be detected by Fig. 13. Schematics of a crack formation.
means of ultrasonic inspections and metallographic tests.
In HPDC products, such defect forms at relatively low
temperature (far from the solidification range) when the
greater thermal contraction of the casting with respect to
the die is prevented by the die itself. Cracks can often
occur in regions of stress localization, either due to
macroscopic geometrical reasons or to the presence of
microstructural defects. This type of defect can be found
References: 2, 4.
A5 Thermal contraction defects II
A5.2 Hot tear III
Definition
A hot tear is a brittle crack formed in liquid portions of
the mushy zone in the final stages of solidification.
Morphology
The surface of a hot tear typically displays a dendritic
morphology and can be heavily oxidized since formed at
high temperature. The length of an hot tear varies between
10 µm to several mm. This defect can be detected by
means of metallographic tests.
The hot tear usually forms in such alloys characterized by
a wide solidification temperature range and in hot spot
areas at stresses far below the tensile stress at the
Fig. 14. Micrograph of a hot crack [4].
temperature. The hot tear can also be due of stress
concentration for geometrical or microstructural reasons.
References: 2, 3, 4, 14, 55, 56, 57.
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SURFACE DEFECTS
B Surface defects I
B1 Shrinkage defects II
B1.1 Sink III
Definition
A sink is a surface depression related to the presence of a
sub-surface shrinkage porosity.
Morphology
A sink looks like a surface depression toward the interior of
the casting. It extends for several mm. This defect can be
detected by means of visual, liquid penetrant inspections
A sink occurs when, during the casting solidification, a hot
spot localizes close to the metal/die interface. The skin
layer - formed as a consequence of the contact with the die
- is not able to sustain stresses arising from the contraction
of the sub-surface solidifying region and plastically Fig. 15. External surface of a sink [14].
deforms.
The sink is typically found in components with relatively
wide plane surfaces or with sharp cross section changes.
References: 2, 14.
B Surface defects I
B2 Gas-related defects II
B2.1 Blister III
Definition
The blister is a porosity defect due to gases entrapment, with the
only difference, in comparison with internal defect, that gases are
entrapped within a sub-surface region.
Morphology
A blister is a small amount of material that blown up (with
respect to the surrounding surface) in correspondence of a sub-
surface gas porosity. A blister extends from 100 µm to several
mm. This defect can be detected by means of visual inspections
A blister consists of small surface area that blown up when the
internal pressure of sub-surface gas-related porosity is high Fig. 16. Example of blisters [74].
enough to plastically deform the thin metallic layer that covers it.
The metal deformation occurs easily at relatively high
temperatures, when castings are ejected from the die or during
following heat treatments. This type of defect can be found more
frequently in HPDC process, because of turbulent die-filling and
consequent air entrapment.
References: 2, 14, 58.
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B Surface defects I
B3 Filling-related defects II
B3.1 Joint and vortex III
Definition
The joints are surface wrinkles, slight depressions or simply
alterations of castings visual features along the line corresponding to
the interface between converging flows. A particular joint defect is
the vortex, which forms on the surface when only one flow rolls itself
up and generates a particular spiral distribution of oxide films and
microstructures.
Morphology
A joint presents wrinkled surfaces or linear depressions due to the
deformation of the cooler and more viscous flow. The surface of the
casting can also be unaltered, but the presence of different
microstructures of different flows is visible. The vortex has a
characteristic spiral-shaped appearance on the surface of the casting.
The joint and the vortex can be detected by means of visual Fig. 17. Macrograph showing a
inspections and metallographic tests. vortex [74].
A joint forms when a relatively cold metal flow - at least partially
solidified and in some cases covered by an oxide film - meets another
warmer metal vein that can flow around it. As explained in the case
of the corresponding internal defect (see A3.1), the metallic
discontinuity can cause material detachment along it when even
relatively low stress arises. This type of defect can be found both in
HPDC and permanent mold casting processes. References: 2, 3, 4, 14.
B Surface defects I
B3.2 Lamination III
Definition
A lamination is a thin surface metallic layer having a separation surface
from the bulk metal almost parallel to the component surface and with
imperfect adhesion to the inner metal.
Morphology
The lamination seems as a skin with different microstructure and partly
separated from the bulk material by an oxide film. This defect can be
detected by means of visual inspections and metallographic tests.
A lamination forms when a relatively warm vein at low viscosity flows
between the steel-die and another cooler and partially solidified flow.
Laminations could also form as a result of deformations of the die
related to sudden pressure changes. The resulting metallic discontinuity
can cause the partial or complete skin detachment along the interface, Fig. 18. Surface lamination.
when even relatively low stresses arise or are externally applied.
This type of defect can be found both in HPDC and permanent mold
casting processes.
References: 2, 4, 14, 24, 28, 29,

30, 31, 33, 34, 35, 37, 43, 44, 45,
46, 47, 49.
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B Surface defects I
B3.3 Cold shot III
Definition
A cold shot is a small amount of metal characterised by
microstructural features much finer than the surrounding regions
and separated by a thin oxide layer.
Morphology
The cold shot looks like a small amount of metal and presents a
spherical or ellipsoidal shape. The size of a cold shot varies
between 0.01-0.2 mm. This defect can be detected by means of
visual inspections and metallographic tests.
A cold shot forms when a small portion of liquid metal comes into
contact with the surface of the die and rapidly solidifies (see A3.3).
This condition occurs when the alloy flows turbulently and with a
front characterized by a considerable presence of drops (spray
effect). This type of defect can be found frequently in HPDC Fig. 19. Macrograph of a surface
process, because in this case the spray effect is more frequent. cold shot [14].
References: 2, 4, 14, 24, 28, 29, 30, 31,
33, 34, 35, 37, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 49.
B Surface defects I
B4 Undesired phases II
B4.1 Surface deposit III
Definition
A surface deposit can be a layer of various chemical
composition, thickness, distribution and adhesion, which,
for various reasons, deposited on the surface of the
casting (without chemical interaction) during the process.
Morphology
A deposit appears as a surface region covered by particles
of different chemical composition respect to the casting.
A surface deposit usually extends for several mm. This
defect can be detected by means of visual inspections and
A lubricant excess, which can be transferred from the die
to the casting, can cause a surface deposit formation. This
type of defect can be found both in HPDC and permanent
mold casting processes. Fig. 20. Macrograph of a deposit.
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B Surface defects I
B4 Undesired phases II
B4.2 Contaminant or inclusion III
Definition
A contaminant can be a layer of various chemical composition,
thickness, distribution and adhesion, which, for various reasons,
deposited on the surface of the casting during the HPDC process
or later, but in some way related to the process. For inclusion
definition refer to the corresponding internal defect (A4.1).
Morphology
When a contaminant defect occurs, the surface of the casting
appears locally coloured differently from the other portions (or
from the usual color related to the presence of a thin oxide layer).
The size of a contaminant or an inclusion is major than 0.1 mm.
These defects can be detected by means of visual inspections and
Contaminants are the result of interaction between metal and
substances locally came into contact with it. Even corrosion of the Fig. 21. Macrograph of a contaminant.
casting can be included into this type of defect. This defect can be
found both in HPDC and permanent mold casting processes.
B Surface defects I
B5 Thermal contraction defects II
B5.1 Crack III
Definition
A crack is a defect that can widely extend within the
casting, from surface to surface. For this reason, cracks have
been included both within internal and surface defects.
Refer to the corresponding internal defect (A5.1) for defect
definition, causes and morphological features.
Morphology
A crack is a geometrical discontinuity characterized by one
dimension far smaller than the two others. A narrow void
volume lays within the two faced fracture surfaces which
define crack. The length of a crack extends from 10 µm to
several mm. This defect can be detected by means of visual,
liquid penetrant, magnetic particle inspections and
A crack generally originates on a surface or in a sub-surface Fig. 22. Image of a crack.
position, but it can propagate into internal regions of the
casting until reaching the other surface/s. This type of defect
can be found both in HPDC and permanent mold casting
processes.
References: 2, 4.
16
B Surface defects I
B5 Thermal contraction defects II
B5.2 Hot tear III
Definition
A hot tear is a defect that can widely extend within the casting,
from surface to surface. For this reason, hot tears have been
included both within internal and surface defects. Refer to the
corresponding internal defect (A5.2) for defect definition,
causes and morphological features.
Morphology
The surface of a hot tear typically displays a dendritic
morphology and can be heavily oxidized since formed at high
temperature. The length of a hot tear extends from 10 µm to
several mm. This defect can be detected by means of visual,
liquid penetrant, magnetic particle inspections and
metallographic tests. Fig. 23. Macrograph of a hot crack [57].
The hot tear usually forms in such alloys characterized by a
wide solidification temperature range and in hot spot areas at
stresses far below the tensile stress at the temperature. The hot
tear can also be due of stress concentration for geometrical or
microstructural reasons. This type of defect can be found both
in HPDC and permanent mold casting processes.
References: 2, 3, 4, 14, 55, 56, 57.
B Surface defects I
B6 Metal/die interaction defects II
B6.1 Erosion III
Definition
Erosion is a defect that reproduces, in negative, a defect of
the die caused by erosive phenomena.
Morphology
Erosion consists of a material excess on the casting caused
by the steel removal from the die by erosive wear. The
thickness of the erosion defect is 1-200 µm. This defect can
be detected by means of visual inspections and
The impact of the turbulent flow at high speed and high
temperature on the die-cavity can lead to the progressive
wear erosion. In addition to the above mentioned factors,
Fig. 24. Image of a casting defect caused by
erosion is related to the inclination angle of the metal flow
die-erosion [75].
with respect to the die surface and to the presence of
particles or bubbles inside the liquid metal (cavitation).
This type of defect can be found more frequently in HPDC
process, due to high pressure and speed of the metal during
the die-cavity filling.
References: 2, 14, 55, 59, 60, 61, 75.
17
B Surface defects I
B6.2 Soldering III
Definition
As for other metal/die interaction defects, the metallurgical
origin of the die damage (soldering) reflects in the name of
the casting defect.
Morphology
Soldering causes surface roughness or localized lack of
material on the casting. The thickness of the soldering
defect is 1-200 µm. This defect can be detected by means of
The common metallurgical origin of soldering is the Fig. 25. Example of soldering effects on the
formation of intermetallic phases on the die surface and die [14].
following adhesion of the aluminium alloy on them.
Soldering often promptly occurs in regions of the die
exposed to liquid metal at relatively high temperature and
flow rates. Soldering can also easily take place in the zones
of the die where thermal fatigue or erosion phenomena
previously occurred. This type of defect can be found more
frequently in HPDC process, due to high pressure and speed
References: 2, 14, 55, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62,
of the metal during the die-cavity filling. 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71.
B Surface defects I
B6.3 Thermal fatigue III
Definition
Thermal fatigue is the name commonly given to narrow relieves
related to corresponding damage of the die.
Morphology
The defect consists of a set of narrow relieves on the surface of
the casting, sometimes referred also as crocodile skin. The
thickness of the thermal fatigue defect is 1-200 µm. This defect
can be detected by means of visual, liquid penetrant, magnetic
particle inspections and metallographic tests.
As the time of service of the die increases, small cracks can form
on its edges or surface, due to the repetition of stress-strain cycles
(induced by the rapid heating and cooling stages). The liquid
Fig. 26. A casting defect caused by the
metal filters into cracks and gives rise to the relieves on the presence of cracks on the die [74].
surface of the casting. This kind of defect appears on the casting
independently from the specific process or relative parameters.
This type of defect can be found more frequently in HPDC
process, because of the high production rate and consequent
severe damage of the die.
References: 2, 14, 55, 59, 60, 61, 62,

66, 67, 72, 74, 79.
18
B Surface defects I
B6.4 Ejection mark III
Definition
The ejection mark is a defect related to the presence of an
undercut in the die, that could be a result of modifications
of the die-geometry (for example due to one of the
previously described erosion/soldering phenomena).
Morphology
The ejection mark appears as a plastic deformation of the
casting, that extends along the direction of the ejection
from the die. This defect can be detected by means of
When the ejection occurs at relatively high temperature,
the presence of even a small undercut on the die causes Fig. 27. Image of an ejection mark.
the deformation of the casting around the undercut in the
ejection direction. This type of defect can be found more
frequently in HPDC process, because of the high
production rate and consequent severe damage of the die.
B Surface defects I
B6.5 Corrosion of the die III
Definition
This defect consists of surface roughness of the casting due
to damage of the die surface, attacked by the environment
(corrosion).
Morphology
The surface of the product is characterized by high
roughness, more evident in correspondence of the severely
corroded areas of the die cavity. The thickness of the
defect caused by the corrosion of the die is 1-200 µm. This
defect can be detected by means of visual inspections and
The corrosion of the die is caused by the interaction with
the environment and can be homogeneous or localized. An Fig. 28. Image of a casting obtained with a
extremely severe corrosion of the die, either homogeneous corroded die.
or localized, can thus lead the casting to be out of tolerance
or to have localized excess of material. This type of defect
can be found both in HPDC and permanent mold casting
processes.
19
GEOMETRY DEFECTS
C Geometry defects I
C1 Lack of material II
C1.1 Incomplete casting III
Definition
An incomplete casting presents a local lack of
material with respect to the geometry of the die
cavity.
Morphology
The lack of material can be in order of several mm or
cm. This defect can be detected by means of visual
inspections.
Due to an excessively high viscosity, a front portion
of the metal flow can stop before the die cavity has
been completely filled. This type of defect can be
found both in HPDC and permanent mold casting
Fig. 29. Example of incomplete casting [31].
processes.
C2 Excess of material II
C2.1 Flash III
Definition
A flash is an excess of material due to metal infiltration inside a
thin gap between the die parts.
Morphology
The flash is a thin layer of material in excess, whose geometry
roughly reproduces that of the die separation surface. The excess
of material can be in order of several mm or cm. This defect can
be detected by means of visual inspections.
The flash is due to an insufficient clamping force of the machine,
which cannot counterbalance the alloy pressure. Flashes are
originated also by a different die thermal expansion. This type of
defect can be found more frequently in HPDC process, because
of the high pressure of the metal.
Fig. 30. Example of flash [74].
20
C3 Out of tolerance II
C3.1 Deformed part III
Definition
A deformed part presents a geometrical non-conformity to its design
geometry, even in absence of local excess or lack of material.
Morphology
The deformation of the casting is major than the established
tolerances. This defect can be detected by means of visual inspections.
The formation of the defect is related to the thermal contraction during
cooling, that causes local stress inside the casting. The defect is more
pronounced in castings ejected by the die at high temperature and
presenting drastic thickness changes. This type of defect can be found
Fig. 31. Schematics of out of

tolerances castings.
21
4. Dictionary of defects
of HPDC and permanent mold casting processes
DEFECT
ITALIAN ENGLISH FRANCAIS DEUTSCH ESPAÑOL
CODE
A1.1 Macro-porosità Macro-shrinkage Souffloures Makroporosität Macroporosidad
Porosità Interdendritic Porosidad
A1.2 Microretassures Interdendritische Porosität
interdendritica shrinkage interdendritica
Microretassures
A1.3 Porosità planare Layer porosity Mittellinienporosität Porosidad planearea
centralés des pieces
Porosità da aria Air entrapment Porositè d’air Porosidad de aire
A2.1 Luftporosität
intrappolata porosity enprisoné atrapado
Porositè de gaz
Porosità da Porosidad de
A2.2 Hydrogen porosity Dissous dans le Hydrogenporosität
idrogeno hidrógeno
metal
Vapour Dampfporosität/
Porosità da umidità Porosidad de
A2.3 entrapment Porositè /Dampf Feuchtigkeits-
residua humedad restante
porosity einschluss
Lubricant Porosität durch
Porosità da Porositè de gaz de Porosidad de
A2.4 entrapment Verbrennungs-
lubrificante poteyage lubricante
porosity produkteinschluss
Verbindung/
A3.1 Giunzione Joint Reprise Unión
kaltflieβstelle
A3.2 Sfogliatura Lamination Friass Schülpe Foliación
A3.3 Goccia fredda Cold shot Goutte froide kalter Tropfen Gota fría
A4.1 Inclusione Inclusion Inclusion Einschluβ Inclusión
Struttura non Undesired Structure ne pas Estructura no
A4.2 Nicht gewunschte Struktur
desiderata structure demandée deseada
A5.1 Cricca Crack Fissure Riβ Grieta
A5.2 Cricca a caldo Hot tear Fissure à chaud Warmriβ Grieta en caliente
B1.1 Ricalo Sink Retassure Schwindung Hundimiento
B2.1 Blister Blister Cloque Blase Burbuja
B3.1 Giunzione e vortice Joint and vortex Reprise Kaltstell und Wirbel Unión y remolino
B3.2 Sfogliatura Lamination Eclatement Abblätterung/Schülpe Foliación
B3.3 Goccia fredda Cold shot Goutte froide kalter Tropfen Gota fría
B4.1 Depositi Surface deposits Dépot Schlackenhalde Depósitos
Trace de lubrifiant, Verunreinigung/
Contaminazione o Contaminant Contaminación o
B4.2 trace de poteyage ou Beschmutzung oder
inclusione or inclusion inclusión
inclusion Einschluss
B5.1 Cricca Crack Fissure Riβ Grieta
B5.2 Cricca a caldo Hot tear Fissure à chaud Warmriβ Grieta en caliente
B6.1 Erosione Erosion Erosion Erosion Erosión
B6.2 Metallizzazione Soldering Etamage Metallisierung Metalización
Crettature da fatica Grieta por fatiga
B6.3 Thermal fatigue Craquelure Durch thermische Ermüdung
termica térmica
B6.4 Segno di espulsione Ejection mark Arrachement Auswerfermarke Marca de expulsión
Druckgussform
Corrosione dello Corrosion of the korrosion/ Corrosión
B6.5 Corrosion de moule
stampo die Korrosion der del molde
Druckgussform
Uncomplete
C1.1 Getto incompleto Malvenue Unvollstandiges Gussteil Pieza incompleta
casting
C2.1 Bava Flash Bavure Guβgrat Rebaba
C3.1 Getto deformato Deformed part Deformation Deformiertes Guβteil Pieza deformada
22
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23
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25

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StaCast - New Quality and Design Standards for Aluminium Alloys Cast Products

FP7-NMP-2012-CSA-6 - PROJECT N. 319188

COORDINATION AND SUPPORT ACTION

New Quality and Design Standards

Co-ordinator name Franco BONOLLO

Date: March 29th, 2013

2. The path towards a new Standard on Defect Classification

direct application in foundries with respect to geometry/position-based approaches, where specific

Category Class Type

Gas in solution (hydrogen)

Gas porosity Gas entrapment during filling (air)

Binder breakdown (core gases)

2.2. Proposal of new classification of defects

The level I is based on morphology/location of defects, with reference to the investigation

1st Level 2nd Level 3rd Level

1st Level 2nd Level 3rd Level

1st Level 2nd Level 3rd Level

Table 6. Classification of geometrical defects.

References: 2, 4, 14, 24, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33,

References: 2, 4, 14, 24, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33,

References: 2, 4, 52, 53, 54.

References: 2, 3, 4, 14, 55, 56, 57.

References: 2, 14, 58.

References: 2, 4, 14, 24, 28, 29,

References: 2, 14, 55, 59, 60, 61, 75.

References: 2, 14, 55, 59, 60, 61, 62,

Fig. 31. Schematics of out of

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