ZEIT5404 2010

Electrical and Mechanical Plant Semester2

Prime Movers for Electricity Generation

Most electricity is generated by rotating electrical machines, with mechanical power input to a
rotating shaft. In such machines, an electromotive force (emf) e – a voltage difference – is induced
in a length l of conductor when it moves through a magnetic field with a flux density of B at a
velocity u according to
e = Blu

these components being mutually perpendicular. For rotating machines, u is generally of the form
rΩ where Ω is angular velocity, or the flux density is varying at an angular velocity, so that we can
write
e = BlrΩ = lrΩB

Machines in which the magnetic field is stationary and the conductors rotate are called generators,
while machines in which the conductors are stationary and the magnetic field rotates are called
alternators. In such machines the magnetic flux density B is given by

B = μH

where H is the magnetic field strength, measured in ampere-turns or some equivalent unit and μ is
the magnetic permeability. The current to produce H is supplied to the machine, and its magnitude
can be controlled, so that B can be varied; to produce large values of B with small H we require a
large value of μ, which means using ferromagnetic materials. If we want to vary B we need to use
“soft” magnetic materials. A dynamo is a machine in which a permanent magnet is used to generate
a magnetic flux of constant density (although it may be rotating), and these are usually limited to
small sizes and undemanding applications..

Current will flow – and electrical power will be produced – only if the ends of the conductor above
are joined via an external circuit, and when such a current does flow there will be an opposing
magneto-motive force (mmf) which changes the apparent output (or terminal) voltage of the
machine. The maximum value of terminal voltage – when the impedance of the external circuit is
infinite – is the open circuit voltage. The power output is the product of the current and the terminal
voltage.

We see from the above equations that, in principle, the power output can be controlled by varying
B, Ω or l. Whether we can vary Ω depends on the characteristics of the electrical system, while
varying B is straightforward. In special cases it may be desirable or necessary to vary l. An
example is where Ω varies because of the characteristics of the prime mover but we want to
maintain the power capacity. If we increase l (by coil switching) we can provide such
compensation.

In creating usable windings for electrical machines we connect conductors which pass in opposite
directions parallel to the axis of rotation simultaneously past N and S magnetic poles; as each such
“turn” rotates to the next opposite polarity pole, the sense of e and hence the direction of i will
reverse, so that intrinsically the conductors in all such machines produce alternating current (AC);
we produce direct current (DC) if required by rectification or commutation.
 Basic systems
1. DC

Usually small systems, with one source machine and an accumulator (battery), such as motor
vehicle electrical systems. The accumulator is sized to provide the starting current and energy, and
sufficient energy to power essential services for a specified time after failure of the source.

The usual control law for source machines is to keep the terminal voltage constant; if a lead-acid
accumulator is used, this is 2.35 – 2.4 volts per cell, 14.1 to 14.4 volts for a nominal 12 volt system.
The electrical devices used in such systems must therefore be designed to operate at voltages
between the accumulator voltage and the charging voltage, 12 to 14.4 volts, for example.

The control of the source machine must cope not only with variations in demand but also, in most
cases, with variations in Ω as the speed of the prime mover is set by other operating conditions
rather than the electrical machine.

DC can be produced by rectification or commutation. Rectification uses diodes to connect all the
coils of the electrical machine to the + and – DC rails. Current motor vehicle practice is to connect
the windings of the alternator into three coils, and then use six diodes to provide the rectified DC
supply. The inevitable ripple is smoothed by the accumulator.

Commutation is used in DC generators, in which the magnetic field is stationary and the conductors
are rotating. The ends of the windings are connected to the bars of the commutator so that only
those windings producing the “correct” sign and magnitude of DC voltage are connected via the
commutator brushes to the terminals. Windings which are not so disposed are left open circuit and
without external connection.
2. AC

AC may be chosen for a number of reasons, the principal ones being the ease of changing the line
voltage in different parts of the system, (high voltages can be used for long-distance transmission,
the current being reduced for given power and the required mass of conductors reduced), and the
advantages of AC motors, particularly induction, over DC. The only substantial drawback is the
unavailability of AC storage devices with performance comparable to DC accumulators.

AC systems can have either a fixed frequency or a “wild” frequency. The latter is feasible only if
all the electrical devices, sources or loads, can be designed for compatible operation.

Common fixed frequencies: 50 or 60 Hz - “mains” supply

400 Hz – aircraft systems

Principal reason for choosing 400Hz is weight reduction

AC can be produced either directly from windings or by use of an inverter from a DC source, or by
rectifier and inverter from an AC source.

Single source AC systems

Multiple source

Control of voltage, frequency, power factor

Synchronous and induction machines

 Power sources for prime movers

Power characteristics

Magnitude

Density

Portability

Variability

Predictability

Suitability for electric power generation

Constant speed operation

Power control

Stability
 Prime movers other than IC engines

Water turbines

Power output varies with head (pressure) and flow rate

RPM varies with √head for best efficiency

Constant head is usually available – converts to constant RPM operation, power being varied by
changing flow rate. Exception is turbines for tidal power, where head may vary by 2:1 during tidal
interval.

Quick-starting

Location critical

Ideal if pre-conditions are met

Windmills

Available power density varies with V3

Constant RPM operation is inefficient – should vary with V to give best blade aerodynamics

Wave motion machines

Power output varies with wave height and velocity (wavelength)

Wave pumps + low-head turbines

Wave duck – change of angle between two floats converted to rotary motion. Rate (convertible to
RPM) depends on wave velocity, which varies with wave height in deep water.

Wave compressors + air turbines can be arranged to give constant air pressure for wide range of
wave heights

Steam engines

These are usually turbines, and the steam may be generated by combustion, nuclear fission reactors,
solar radiation, or natural geothermal production. They produce most of the world's mains
electricity.
 Internal combustion engines
Gas turbines

Large excess of air (over stoichiometric ratio) – ΔT of order of 3000K, and same components are
exposed continuously – requires about 3:1 air ratio to give acceptable turbine inlet temperatures.

Means that compressor power is large compared with output power

This plus compressor characteristics means that part-load efficiency is low

Piston engines

Operate very close to stoichiometric ratio – high combustion temperature is acceptable because
surfaces are also exposed to cooler gases for much of the time

Means that compression power is less than output power

Positive-displacement compressor works efficiently over a large flow range

Substantial changes in operating RPM are also feasible – but this is not usable for mains power
generation.

Diesel (compression-ignition) or hybrid cycle most advantageous for constant RPM but variable
power output operation. Spark ignition engines can have high efficiencies over a small power
range, so that efficient operation of theses as generation prime movers requires making that
possible, as is done in hybrid cars.
 Co-generation
Piston internal combustion engines – approximately 1/3 of heat content of fuel to each of: shaft
output (mechanical power), heat in exhaust, heat in cooling water

Gas turbines – approximately 1/3 to shaft, 2/3 to exhaust gases

Back pressure from heat exchanger is a problem with gas turbines, particularly when the low
pressure turbine is used for the shaft output

For generating plants, co-generation is finding a use for the “waste” heat: can be piped for building
heating – particularly for factory floor heating – and can even be used for agriculture, producing
out-of-season crops.

For winter operation of HVAC, co-generation is replacing a combustion furnace with a much more
expensive IC engine, using 50% more fuel but also generating electricity – the price of which is
critical in the economics of such co-generation