ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS

Generation, Transmission & Distribution: Substations and Transformers

Electricity is a term that covers all the phenomena caused either by static
electric charge or by the movement of charge (current) and the electrical and
magnetic fields associated with that.

Electrical energy is transmitted and distributed via overhead lines and

underground cables operating at different voltage levels. It is necessary to mesh
networks to ensure dependable supply for consumers even if individual
transmission paths fail. This module focuses on: Substations & Transformers;
Generation; Transmission & Sub transmission and Distribution.

Substations and Transformers

Electrical energy is transmitted and distributed via overhead lines, and

underground cables, operating at different voltage levels. It is necessary to
mesh networks to ensure dependable supply for consumers, even if individual
transmission paths fail.

Points in such a network, where two or more lines meet, are called buses.
Present at each of these buses are switching devices,
which isolate affected lines,
and/or equipment, for eliminating faults or
performing maintenance and repairs. The special arrangement
of the facilities necessary for measurements, monitoring,
protection, and ancillary tasks, is known as a switch gear.
If the arrangement includes transformers for changing voltage levels, one
speaks of a substation.

Transformers

A transformer is a device that transforms AC voltage from high to low, that

would be step-down transformer, or from low to high, that will be step-up
transformer.

A transformer is simply made of two sets of wire coils wrapped around a soft iron
core. The coil on the side where the voltage comes in is called the primary coil.
The coil on the side where the voltage goes out is called the secondary coil.
Winding on each coil change the magnetic field within the iron core, which in
turn, changes the voltage. The voltage is changed in proportion to the number
of windings on each coil. If the primary coil has more windings than the
secondary coil, the voltage is decreased. This is referred to as a step-down
transformer. If the secondary coil has more windings than the primary coil, the
voltage is increased. This is referred to as a step-up transformer.

Transformers are very important in power systems

Voltage generated at power plants is an order of six to 20 kilovolts. To deliver

vast amounts of generated power over long distances, it should be stepped up,
and here, step up transformers do their job by converting generated voltage to
high levels such as 115 to 750 kilovolts, or sometimes even more. This is very
economical for several reasons.
 Power Wheel

Let us recall the power wheel presented earlier. Since resistance of a line
connecting generating plants with load centers is constant for a given line, the
higher the voltage across the line, the lower the current through the line.

You remember that I= V/ R, that's the Ohm's law.

At the same time, if current is flowing through the line, it creates power losses
that are dissipated as heat, and you recall that P= I^2*R.

Since power is not free and costs money, the lower the losses, the higher are the
savings. Therefore, it is much more economical to transmit electric power at
large distances, at higher voltages. Also, recall that resistance of a line is directly
proportional to the length of the line. So that, the longer the line, the higher its
resistance.

Substations
As mentioned before, transformers, one or more, and switch gear, comprise a
substation. Substations are used to branch from one or several incoming lines,
into several outgoing lines that have their paths and connect with other
substations at the same or different voltage levels.

This figure illustrates substations at various voltage levels

And branching of power lines.
 Step-down Transformer

In this figure, high voltage transmission line enters a substation on the left. You
can see three long insulators through circuit breakers and switches, which we
will discuss later, connections are made to a step-down power transformer in the
middle. Finally, through another set of switches and circuit breakers, connections
are made to three outgoing transmission lines, at lower voltage level on the right
side of the figure.

Generation

Generating electricity has been the primary function of electric utilities since
their creation.

Electricity can be generated through a wide variety of processes, although far

and away the most common is by the rotation of a generator shaft or router
through opposing magnetic fields.

Shaft rotating induces the flow of electricity in the generator. Power can be
either direct or alternating current, DC or AC. Power is delivered to consumers in
the United States as alternating current.
 shaft rotation literally turns an alternator rather than a generator. A thermal
generator creates electricity by using heat from the burning of fuels, or nuclear
energy to create steam which turns a turbine which rotates the generator shaft
through opposing magnetic fields.

The waste heat can be released through a cooling tower or used in co-
generation applications in factories.

Turbine Generator

External energy source or prime mover is required to rotate the generator shaft
and that can come from a wide variety of sources. One of the prime movers is a
turbine generator. In 1831, scientist Michael Faraday, discovered that when a
magnet is moved inside a coil of wire, an electric current flow in the wire.
Electric Generator An electricity generator is a device that converts a form of
energy into electricity. Generators operate because of the relationship between
magnetism and electricity. Generators that convert kinetic or mechanical
energy into electrical energy produced nearly all the electricity that consumers
use.

A common method of producing electricity is from generators with an

electromagnet. Where electromagnet is a magnet produced by electricity not
a traditional magnet.
How Generators work?

The generator has a series of insulated coils of wire that form a stationary
cylinder. The cylinder surrounds the rotary electromagnetic shaft. When the
electromagnetic shaft rotates, it induces a small electric current in each section
of the wire coil. Each section of the wire coil becomes a small separate electric
conductor. The small currents of the individual sections combine to form one
large current. This current is the electricity that moves through power lines from
generators to consumers.

An electric power plant uses a turbine or other similar machine to drive these
types of generators.

Types of Turbines

 steam turbines
 gas combustion turbines
 water turbines
 wind turbines

Steam Turbine
 Gas combustion Turbine

Water Turbine

Wind Turbine

A turbine converts the kinetic energy of a moving fluid, liquid or gas to

mechanical energy. In a turbine generator, a moving fluid pushes a series of
blades, mount it on the shaft which rotates the shaft connected to a generator.
The generator in turn converts the mechanical energy to electrical energy
based on the relationship between magnetism and electricity.
 Turbine

Steam turbines that use biomass, coal, geothermal energy, natural gas, nuclear
energy and solar thermal energy produce about 70 percent of US electricity
generation. These types of power plants are about 35 percent efficient. Which
means that for every 100 units of primary heat energy that goes into a power
plant, only 35 units are converted to usable electrical energy.

Other types of devices that generate or produce electricity include:

 electrochemical batteries,
 fuel cells
 solar photovoltaic cells
 thermoelectric generators.

Most of the electricity in the United States is produced using steam turbines. The
steam turbine converts the kinetic energy of a moving fluid, liquid or gas, to
mechanical energy. Most of US electricity is generated using fossil fuels.

In 2016, natural gas was the largest energy source for the four trillion kilowatt-
hours of electricity generated in the United States. Natural gas was the source of
about 34 percent of US electricity generation in 2016. In addition to burning
natural gas to heat water for steam, it is also burnt to produce hot combustion
gases that pass through a gas turbine spinning the turbine's blade to generate
electricity. Coal was the second largest energy source for US electricity
generation in 2016, about 30 percent. Nearly all coal-fired power plants use
steam turbines.
If you coal-fired power plants convert coal to a gas for use in the gas turbine to
generate electricity. Petroleum can be burned to produce hot combustion
gases to turn a turbine or to make steam that turns a turbine. Residual fuel and
petroleum coke, products from refining crude oil, are the main petroleum fuels
used in steam turbines.

Distillate or diesel is used in diesel engine generators. Petroleum was the source
of less than one percent of US electricity generation in 2016. Nuclear power
provides about one-fifth of US electricity. Nuclear power plants produce
electricity with nuclear efficient to create steam that spins the turbine to
generate electricity. Nuclear power was the source of about 20 percent of US
electricity generation in 2016. Renewable energy sources provide 15 percent of
US electricity.

Hydropower, the source of about seven percent of the total US electricity

generation. About 44 percent of electricity generation from renewable energy
in 2016, is a process in which flowing water spins a turbine connected to a
generator. Most hydropower production is at large facilities built by the federal
government, such as the Grand Cooley Dam, also Lewiston powerplant.

Many of the largest hydroelectric dams are in the western United States, but
many hydropower facilities operate around the country.