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Vol 6 Electrics PDF
Vol 6 Electrics PDF
CHAPTER 1
Basic DC Terminology
CHAPTER 2
Electrical Components
CHAPTER 3
Aircraft Batteries
Electrics VII
Table o/Contents
CHAPTER 4
Magnetism
CHAPTER 5
DC Generator Systems
Vlll Electri cs
Tab/e o/Contents
CHAPTER 6
DC Motors
CHAPTER 7
Inductance and Capacitance
CHAPTER 8
Basic AC Theory
Electrics IX
Table o/Contents
CHAPTER 9
Sing le Phase AC Circuits
CHAPTER 10
Resonant AC Circuits
CHAPTER 11
Transformers
x Electrics
Table o/Contents
CHAPTER 15
Semiconductor Devices
CHAPTER 16
Logic Circuits
CHAPTER 17
Computer Technology
CHAPTER 18
HF and Satellite Airborne Communications
X II Electrics
INTRODUCTION
It is essential to know the basic termin ology applied to electricity and electrical components
before studying further into specific function s and systems. This chapter explains the most
common terminology to provide a basis for further study.
--- - - -"------,
LOAD LOAD
Open circu it
I
n !ill [
LOAD LOAD
I I \" I \"
BATIERY ~ Closed circuit BATIERY
The power source , wh ich can be a battery or a generator, provides the pressure that causes
electrons to fiow in a circuit. When electrons fiow, it is referred to as an electric current. In the
picture above with the switch open , electrical pressure can be measured on the positive side of
the switch but no current fiows because there is not a complete circuit and so the filament will not
illum inate. As the switch is closed, the circu it is completed and current can fiow through the
closed contacts of the switch and through the filament, causing it to illuminate. Notice that current
has to fi ow from the supply, through the load, and back to the supply to form a circuit.
The filament is considered a load as it uses power and creates heat in the process . Notice that it
does not matter whether the switch is between the positive and the load , or between the load and
the negative. Also notice that with the switch closed the voltage can be measu red on the positive
side of the load (indicated in red), but not on the negative side. This is because all the voltage is
dissipated across the load .
Electrics 1- 1
Chapter 1 Basic DC Termino/ogl
Wires made from copper or steel normally provide the path for the current to flow, and in most
cases, the airframe structure is used to complete the circuit back to the supply. A distinction must
be made here between electron flow and conventional current flow. In the earliest days of
electrical experimentation , electricity was considered to share the same properties as fluid in
motion. Fluid flows from high pressure to low, and as voltmeters measure the positive side of the
supply as high , the assumption was made that electricity flows from positive to negative, and
came to be accepted as conventional flow. With further scientific study came the realisation that
electrons, which carry a negative charge, are attracted to the positive end of a supply, and
therefore flow from negative to positive. By this time , however, conventional flow theory had
become the rule , as it is toda y. In all diagrams , unless specified otherwise, conventional flow is
assumed.
CURRENT (I)
Electric current is the flow of electrons in a conductor, but there must be a means to measure this
flow. The Coulomb is a charge of 6.25 x 10 ' • electrons, so it is convenient to use this charge as a
yardstick. Therefore, 1 Coulomb passing a given point in 1 second equals 1 ampere, often
abbreviated to as amp.
Amperes = Coulombs
Seconds
Current in a circuit is measured by connecting an ammeter in line, or in series, with the load , as
shown below.
1-2 Electrics
Basic DC Terminology Chapter 1
1 ~ 10 1 ~ 10
\ .;: '-.\
BATTERY BATTERY
Potential for current flow exists even Potential is forcing current around
though no current is actually flowing the circuit and through the load
Even though a circuit is open, and no current is flowing , a power source still has the potential for
current flow. Therefore, whether a battery is connected in a circuit or not, a potential difference
still exists between its terminals. The same is true within a circuit or between circuits. For
instance, if one part of a circuit is at higher voltage than another part a potential difference exists ,
and current would flow if a connection was made between them. As with EMF , potential
difference is expressed as a voltage.
VOLTAGE (V)
The volt is the basic unit of electrical pressure. In order to understand how to measure one volt, it
is important to know about resistance. Using fluid flow as an analogy, if water flowing in a pipe
meets any resistance, the water flow decreases. Electricity behaves in the same way. Therefore ,
if current flows through an electrical resistance, the flow rate decreases. One volt of electrical
pressure forces 1 ampere through 1 unit of resistance. Voltage is measured using a voltmeter,
which must be connected in parallel with (or across) the load or supply.
Electrics 1-3
Chapter 1 Basic D C Terminology
RESISTANCE (R)
The unit of resistance is the Ohm. One Ohm exists when it restricts the current fiow to 1 amp
when a pressure of 1 volt is applied.
Resistance opposes current fiow and in doing so dissipates the voltage across it, wh ich is why it
is said that voltage is dropped across a load. A low resistance would allow a relatively large
current to pass through it which in turn creates heat, and heat is energy. Energy over time gives
power so it can be said that if heat is being produced then power is being developed . On the
other hand, if the value of resistance is very high then little or no current will fiow.
Metals such as silver and copper have virtually no resistance and are used to conduct electricity.
As they have virtually no resistance they must be in series wi th a resisti ve load and should be
thick enough to withstand the expected current fiow, otherwise heating of the conductor will
occur. Rubber has a very high resistance and is a non-conductor used for insulation between
conductive materials. Cables and wires are comprised of both materials: the metal conductor
permits the fiow of current along a given path , and the insulation covering it stops the voltage
from forcing current out into other paths causing short circuits.
A material that is half way between being a conductor and an insulator is known as a semi-
conductor. On their own , semi-conductors are not particularly useful, but when doped with other
elements and fused together, they form the basis of the electronic age.
>- Specific Resistance (p), the resistance offered by a cube of material at DOC
>- Length (L)
>- Cross Sectional area (A)
_ pxL
R- A
Resistors can have either fixed or variable values. An example of a variable resistor is a rheostat,
which is used to control the intensity of a lighting circuit.
A material's temperature can affect its resistance. The resistance of most materials increases
with increasing temperature , and these materials have a Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC ).
A few materials however, exhibit a decreasing resistance with increasing temperature, and these
have a Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC). In general, most resistive components have a
PTC characteristic, and semi-conductors and insulators have a NTC characteristic. NTC is used
to advantage with semi-conductors called thermistors , which have a greater change in resistance
with temperature than normal resistors, and are used to sense temperature changes , such as in
fuel low-level warning systems.
t-4 Electrics
Basic DC Terminology Chapter J
= 15 + 22 + 31 = 68 Q
If the resistances connect in parallel with each other, the current fiows along two or more paths,
as shown below.
SUPPLY
As the number of resistances in parallel is increased, the total resistance will decrease , which will
draw more current from the supply. The total resistan ce of a parallel network will always be lower
than the smallest resistor in the network. The supply voltage is the same acro ss each resistor in
the network. To calculate total resistance of a parallel network, use the following formula :
_ 1_ = _1_ + _ 1_ + _1_
RT R1 R2 R3
12 '
RT = '6 = 2 ohms
Electrics J -5
Chapter J Basic DC Terminology
In many circuits, a parallel circuit is connected in seri es with one or more resistors.
Rl =9otms
R3=2AoIvns
R2=6otms
SUPPLY
To find the total resistance, first calculate the equivalent resistance in the parallel part of the
circuit, and then add thi s value to the series resistance. In the circuit shown above, the total
resistance is calculated as follows:
RT = R, X R2 + R, + R2.
1-6 Electrics
Basic DC Terminology Chapter I
OHM'S LAW
Ohm's law states that the current flowing in a circuit is directly proportional to the applied voltage,
and inversely proportional to the resistance through which the current flows. Simply stated this
means that as voltage is increased current will increase , and as resistance is increased current
will decrease. Ohm's law may be stated by the following formul ae:
Here, V = IR
LOADS
The term load refers to any electrical component which consumes power. Loads are connected
across the supply voltage, and as more loads are switched on across the supply, the total current
increases. Remember that with resistors in parallel, the total resistance is always less than the
lowest resistor in the network.
KIRCHHOFF'S LAWS
The first law states that the sum of the currents entering a junction must equal the sum of the
currents leaving the junction.
SA
7A
) «E
~~_~) .._20_A
The second law states that in a closed circuit, the sum of the voltage drop always equals the
supply voltage.
Electrics 1-7
Chapler 1 Basic DC Tenninology
r +_
10 Volts
I 10 Volts
L .-J
VOLTAGE RISE = VOLTAGE DROP
In the circuit shown above, a 10-volt battery is connected across a lamp, and as current flows
through the circuit, a voltage drop develops across the lamp. The lamp therefore consumes all
the energy provided by the battery, and the voltage drop across the lam p equals the supply
voltage.
r +
10 Volts ---
~
+-1
5 Volts
L .-J
5 Volts
If two identical lamps are connected in series, each consumes half the power in the circuit and
there is an equal voltage drop across each. The sum of the voltage dropped across each lamp
equals the supply voltage.
P =VI
Using Ohm's law, the above formula is also expressed as:
1-8 Electrics
Basic DC Terminology Chapter I
ELECTRICAL WORK
If a potential difference of IV is applied to the ends of a conductor and one coulomb of electricity
passes along it, one Joule of work has been done. Electrical work done creates heat and can also
result in electromagnetic radiation , as well as motion.
Multiples Sub-multiples
Kilo - 1 x 103 Milli 1 x 10.3
Mega 1 X 106 Micro 1 X 10.6
Giga 1 X 10' Nano 1 X 10.9
Tera 1 X 10 12 Pico 1 X 10-12
BATTERES IN PARAlLEL
~
O-{::~ 311£ TRANSFORMER
FUSE
o----D NEW
A.C. GENERATOR
rv OLD
D.C GENERATOR
CIRcurr BREAKER
RESISTOR DIODE
OLD
VARIABLE RESISTOR
OLD
J
-{===~~ NEW
Electrics 1-9
INTRODUCTION
Electrical circuits form an integral part of an aircraft and must be adequately protected. The fiig ht
crew must also be able to select and operate any electrical system safely.
ELECTRIC SYSTEMS
Current can return to the source by two methods: the single pole system , better known as earth
return, and the dipole system.
Single Pole or Earth Return System is used on aircraft constructed from metal, where the
airframe acts as a return path between the load and the power source.
LOAD
This gives an overall reduction in the amount of wiring required and reduces aircraft weight.
LOAD
In this system, one wire connects the electrical supply to the load , whilst a second wire provides
the return path from the load to the power source. This increases the aircraft's overall mass.
Electrics 2- 1
=
Chapter 2 Electrical Components
Ground (Earth) is simply a zero or reference point within an electrical circuit and is the metal
frame or chassis to which all the various electrical circuits are connected . On an aircraft, the
metal airframe is called ground or earth and is at zero volts.
METAL AIRFRAME
I II~ -12VOLTS
All voltages are measured with respect to the metal structure. In electrics, ground is important
because it allows us to have both negative and positive voltages with respect to the metal
structure. If a 12-volt battery has a PD between its terminals of 12 volts , then it is not referred to
as +12 or -12 volts but simply as 12 volts. The ground reference allows us to express voltages as
positive and negative with respect to ground. Remember, ground is a reference point that is
considered to be zero or neutral. For example , if the positive terminal of a 12 volt battery is
ground, the negative terminal is 12 volts more negative. It follows that the voltage at this terminal
with respect to ground is -12 volts. Conversely, if the negative terminal of the battery is connected
to ground , the other terminal of the battery will be +12 volts.
Short Circuit
If the insulation around a wire breaks down or is damaged , it exposes an area of bare
conductor. If the wire is at a voltage higher than earth, and the damaged area con tacts the
airframe in an earth single pole system or the return line in a dipole system , a path of very low
resistance will exist. In such circumstances , a very high cu rrent flows from the supply through
the short circuit bypassing the load and back to the supply.
I
Earth return circuit Dipole return circuit
It is not always guaranteed that a fuse wi ll rupture, or circuit breaker trip straight away. It may
happen that the short to earth will initially have a value of resistance wh ich causes a higher
than normal current to flow, but just wi thin the rating of the protection device. This could lead
to burned wiring and possible fire.
2-2 Electrics
Electrical Components Chapter 2
Open Circuit
I
Earth return circuit Dipole return circuit
In any situation where a wire becomes disconnected or breaks, an open circuit fault exists. Its
effect is exactly like turning off a switch. Current does not have a complete circuit to flow
around , so the system does not work. As there is no current flow, the circuit protection
devices do not operate. When a positive wire disconnects, an open circuit exists, but if that
wire subsequently touches the airframe, a short circuit occurs from the initial open circuit
fault.
Static interference
During fiight, significant levels of static voltage build up on the airframe. If two adjacent areas
are electrically isolated from each other, the potential difference between the two could build
up to the point that the voltages equalise by discharging across the gap between them,
creating a spark in the process. The spark is heard as interference on the radio eq uipment.
The cure for this is bonding. All parts of the airframe and equipment are kept at the same
electrical potential using metal braided straps. It is important not to confuse the need fo r
bonding with the static discharge wicks found at the extremities of the airframe. These are
fitted to help reduce the build up of static voltage on the airframe by continually discharging it
to atmosphere as far away as possible from sensitive equipment.
Induced interference
All forms of electricity generate magnetic fields. In AC circuits especially, pulsating magnetic
fields are created and this can give rise to voltages being induced into adjacent wires, a
condition known as cross talk. Obviously, if the circuits affected are sensitive signal circuits
such as radio navigation systems, it is important to protect them against such interference.
The most common methods of protection are to use twisted pairs or bundles of wires , and
enclose them in a metal braided sleeve or screen , which is connected to earth at one end .
This accepts the induced voltages and feeds them away to earth.
BUSBARS
Busbars form the distribution points from which various systems derive their power and are
formed from a solid copper bar. On a simple light aircraft DC system , there may be only one DC
busbar, fed from the battery, or the generator if online. On aircraft that are more complex there
are many busbars distributed around the aircraft. Busbars are categorised as either AC or DC .
Within these categories, there is further SUb-division depending on the rel ative importance of the
systems being supplied. For instance, the battery is likely to be the last remaining power source
in an emergency, so there will be a vital or emergency busbar, which is hard-wired to the battery.
This supplies the most vital services in an emergency, such as the fire extinguishers , shut off
valves, etc. Other busbars will be categorised as essential or non-essential. The difference is that
the non-essential services, such as galley ovens , can be switched off as a group by
disconnecting the non-essential busbar when it is required to reduce the overall load on the
generator(s).
Electrics 2-3
-
Chapter 2 Electrical Componel1ls
PROTECTION DEVICES
Aircraft electrical circuits use the following protection devices:
Fuse
This protection device opens or breaks the electrical circuit when excessive current flows. Too
much current may ultimately damage either the circuit itself or the system to which it is
connected. A fuse is designed to form a weak link in an electrical circuit to protect the majority of
the cable between the supply and the load against overheating and burnout. In its simplest form,
it consists of a strip or filament of low melting point metal , which is encased in a glass or ceramic
envelope.
FILAMENT
Fuses are rated in amperes, according to the maximum current they can carry without
overheating and rupturing . They are located as near to the supply (bus bar) as possible , so that if
an excessive current flows due to a short circuit, the fuse can protect all of the cable to the load.
Aircraft are required by law to ca rry spare fuses; minimum stocks of each type being 3 fuses or
10%, whichever is the greater.
If a fu se ruptures in flight:
A ruptured fuse may be replaced only once. If the fuse ruptures a second time , the flight must
continue without the affected system .
Current Limiters
These devices protect high power circuits where transient high-current conditions may exist, such
as certain electric motors that draw a heavy current on initial switch on. They consist of a filament
of tinned copper that has a relatively slow temperature rise, allowing an initial over cu rrent
condition to exist but will rupture if the high current condition persists. The fil ament is contained in
a ceramic housing.
CERAMIC
HOUSING
FILAMENT
2-4 Electrics
Electrical Components Chapter 2
Circuit breaker
This device has the same fu nction as a fuse but can be used to restore a circuit when it is reset.
Like fu ses, circuit breakers are also rated in amperes and are fitted as close to the supply as
possible. A circuit breaker is basically a switch that can be opened (tripped) via a bi-metallic strip,
as shown below. If an overl oad current exists, the bi-metallic strip will heat up and distort, causing
the latch mechanism to release and open the main contaets of the circuit breaker. A push-pull
button pops out, revealing a white band that indicates the circuit breaker has tripped . To reset the
circuit breaker, push in the button. Early circuit breaker designs could be manually held in against
a fa ult condition. Although tempting for the pilot on the last leg home, this practice carried
inherent ri sks of system da mage or fire. Modern designs are known as trip free and cannot be
held in aga inst a fault condition. It is im portant to learn the difference between trip free and non-
trip free.
MAIN CONTACTS
PUSH-PULL
BUTTON " ' "
CONTROL SPRING
VISIBLE
WHITE BAND
\
l'
Electrics 2-5
Chapter 2 Electrical Co111fKNlDU3
If the circuit breaker trips again , switch off the circuit and do not attempt a further reset. In either
case, report the fault on landing.
Unlike fuses, circuit breakers can be reset after tripping , so there is no requirement to carry
spares. The circuit breaker button functions just like a switch ; however, this facility should only be
used by ground crew carrying out maintenance in order to isolate a system from the supply.
SWITCHES
In most electrical systems, switches are the means of control. Selecting a system on may be
made using a simple on/off switch, however some systems or sub-systems should not be
selected on together, in which case more complex switches may ensure that one system is
isolated before another system can be enabled.
A simple switch consists of two contacting surfaces, which can be isolated from each other or
brought together by a moveable-connecting link, called a pole. A switch may have an effect on
more than one circuit and the number of contacts that can be switched by moving the pole is
called the throw. Some examples of these are shown below.
-_._.-P 0--
SINGLE POLE SINGLE THROW SINGLE POLE DOUBLE THROW
---e...,.P
,: 0 - - -
--.-~--
0---
DOUBLE POLE SINGLE THROW DOUBLE POLE DOUBLE THROW
If a switch has only one set of contacts , it is a single pole switch. A switch that operates two or
three sets of contacts in one switching action is a double or triple pole switch . Switches
operating emergency systems or for non-normal operations are often guarded. A guard must be
moved to gain access to operate the switch thereby minimising the risk of inadvertent operation .
2-6 Electrics
Electrical Components Chapter 2
Toggle switches (tumbler switches) are general-purpose switches and are used extensively.
They range from simple on/off selectors to ganged double or triple throw switches often
incorporating a spring-loaded position for intermittent selections, for instance selecting test.
Steel
cover
Plastic
case
Push switches are used for momentary actions when a circuit is to be completed or interrupted
for a finite time. An example of this type of circuit is the start circuit of many turbine aircraft. The
start push is held in electromagnetically when operated and released when the engine has
reached self-sustaining speed. Many push switches incorporate illuminated lens caps to indicate
that the specific circuit has been selected. As with toggle switches, the contacts can be arranged
to make or break when operated.
Switch Housing
Illuminated Lens
Assembly
Translucent
Lamp Contacts Screen
Electrics 2-7
.
Chapter 2 Elearlcol Co ...
Rocker switches are single throw or double throw and may have one or both throws spring
loaded to the centre-off position . The spring return allows one shot operations such as reset
circuits.
Rotary switches are manually operated and are often used as selector switches, such as
selecting a single voltmeter to measure voltage across different busbars or generators.
Micro switches are extensively used throughout aircraft systems in both remote control circuits
and remote position sensing and indication. The switch has a snap action and is operated by a
spring leaf or roller and cam impinging on the switch-actuating plunger. The actual movement of
the spring is very small , typically in the range of a few millimetres.
2-8 Electrics
Electrical Components Chapter 2
Rheostats are used to alter the amount of current in a ci rcuit by varying the total resistance (e.g.
to vary the intensity of panel or flight deck lighting ). They normally also have an OFF position to
completely remove the current.
Time switches are used to perform timing functi ons. They can be operated by a clockwork
mechanism , electric motors or electronically. Obviously, clockwork mechanisms are old
technology and are only found in older generations of aircrafl. Examples of aircraft-specific timed
operations are power switching between heater mats and propeller de-icing, where an electric
motor is often the drive for the timing switch and turbine-engine start systems, where electronic
timing and switching is employed in modern aircraft. The timing cycles of both electric motor-
driven time switches and electronic timers can be varied to suit different operating conditions.
Mercury switches rely on the fluid properties and electrical conductivity of mercury. Contained in
a slightly curved tube of insulating material such as glass or ceramic, mercury can electri cally
connect between two or three electrodes fixed into the container, forming a switch which is
dependent on the tilt of the switch. They are found in instruments such as the Artificial Horizon ,
where gravity is used as the controlling force, and in any other circuit where gravity is a
controlling force.
+
Pressure switches are used in control and protection circuits and indication circuits where
pressure is an important parameter. There are many different types of pressure switches
dependent on their application and on the systems in which they are fitted. For instance, a
pressure switch installed in a hydraulic circuit is subjected to very high pressure , so the switch
itself has to be very robust. They often take the form of solid metal cylinders containing the switch
mechanism . An altogether different pressure switch is employed in cabin pressurisation circuits
where the weight of a solid metal container can be saved by using a much lighter construction.
Thermal switches are sensitive to temperature. Such switches are employed where temperature
must be measured or sensed. Most switches in common use are either electronic or are based
upon the bending properties of a bi-metallic strip which in turn operates a micro switch (see bi-
metallic switches below).
Electrics 2-9
=
Chapter 2 Electrical Componenzs
Proximity switches are similar to micro switches in application . They are either magnetically or
electronically operated when a steel or ferrous metal is brought into close proximity to the sensing
element. Their reliability is greater than micro switches because they contain no moving parts.
Bi-metallic switches are also thermal switches, but specifically use the principle of a bi-melalJic
strip. Two different metals with different rates of expansion with temperature are fastened
together so that the strip will bend when subjected to varying temperatures. By careful design, the
strip can be made to operate a snap spring to open or close a micro switch at a specific
temperature. They are most often found in cooling circuits for either control or indication.
ELECTRIC GENERATOR
An electrical generator is a mechanical device that changes mechanical energy into electrical
energy by using permanent magnets or electromagnets with rotating conductors. Engine driven
generators produce a voltage that causes current to flow when electrical circuits are switched on.
Depending on design, generators may produce DC or AC.
ALTERNATOR
As with a generator, an alternator produces electricity. Unlike the generator, alternators are DC
machines only. However, the method of producing DC differs from the DC generator as
discussed later.
ELECTRIC MOTOR
These are electro rnechanical devices that convert electrical energy into mechanical energy and
are employed extensively throughout aircraft systems.
2-10 Electrics
INTRODUCTION
All aircraft electrical systems include a battery used to:
~ Supply power to essential services in the event of generator failure
~ Stabilise the power supplies during,switching of transitory loads
~ Supply power for engine starting
Batteries are made up of a number of units called cells. Each cell consists of a series of negative
and positive plates, immersed in a liquid known as electrolyte.
ACELL
All cells and batteries store energy in a chemical form , which can be rele ased as electrical
energy. The following basic types of cells exist:
INDMDUAL CELLS
~ A Primary Cell is not rechargeable and has a limited use in aircraft, where it is
mainly used for emergency lighting.
~ Secondary Cell batteries are rechargeable , and are the type mainly used in aircraft.
They are either of the lead-acid or Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd)/alkaline variety.
Electrics 3-1
Chapter 3 A ircrajt Balleries
SPONG Y
LEAD
DILUTE
LEAD SU LPHURI C
PEROXIDE ACID
LEAD ACID CELL
-
A NUMBER OF CELLS MAKE A BATIERY
CELL
2 .2V 2.2V
The plates are interleaved, and insu lated from each other by plastic separators. An odd number
of negative plates is used with one positioned either side of the positive plates to prevent buckling
by evening out the thermal distribution. The complete structure is supported in an acid-resistant
casing that contains an electrolyte of distilled wa ter and concentrated sulphuric acid to a level just
above the plates. Each cell is 2.2 V full y charged and 1.8 V fu lly discharged. Aircraft batteries of
this type consist of either six cells (12 V) or twelve cells (24 V).
When a battery is connected to an extern al circuit, electrons in each cell are transferred th rough
the electrolyte from the spongy lead to the lead peroxide . The net result of the chemical reaction
is that a voltage is created across the cells of the battery. Consequently, lead sulphate form s on
both plates of each cell. At the same time, the form ulation of water dilutes the electrolyte, which
takes place during the chemical reaction . For practical purposes, each cell is full y discharged
when the specific gravity (SG) or relative density of the electrolyte fa lls from 1.27 SG (fully
charged) to 1.1 SG (fully discharged) , which equates to 2.2 and 1.8 V respectively. An y change
in the temperature of the electrol yte also va rie s its specific gravity, so a correction must be made
if the temperature is non-standard . The specific gravity of the electrolyte also determines its
freezing point, therefore, a discharg ed battery is more prone to freezing .
Batteries constructed from this type of cell must not be left in a discharged condition for extended
period s, since the lead sulphate hardens on the plates and cuts down their active area. This
process is known as sulphation , and can drastically shorten the life expectancy of a battery.
3-2 Electrics
Aircraft Balferies Chapter 3
Lead acid batteries may be recharged by con necting the positive and negative terminals
respectively, to the positive and negative terminals of a DC source of a slightly higher voltage
than the battery. All of the fore-going rea ctions are reversed ; the lead sulphate is removed from
both plates, the positive plate is restored to lead peroxide, the negative plate is restored to
spongy lead, and the electrolyte is restored to its original Specific Gravity (SG ).
CADMIUM
NICKEL OXIDE
DILUTE
POTASSIUM
HYDROXIDE
ALKALINE CELL
n- n+
-I\.
-!+ -1 ~ + -b +
CELL
1.2 v
"'-
CELL
1.2 v , CELL
1.2 v
"
The plates are interleaved and fully immersed in an electrolyte of dilute potassium hydroxide. The
plates and electrolyte are housed in a stainless steel or plastic container. Each cell is 1.2 V (fully
charged) and 1.1 V (fully discharged) . Batteries of this type for use on an ai rcraft consist of
either twenty cells (24 V) or twenty-two cells (26 V).
During discharge, the negative plates turn into cadmium hydroxide, and the positive plates turn
into nickel hydroxide. The electrolyte in an alkaline cell has a specific gravity of 1.26, which
remains constant whether it is in a charged or discharged condition .
Like lead-acid batteries, alkaline batteries are recharged by con necting the positive and negative
terminals respectively to the positive and negative terminal s of a DC source of slightly higher
voltage than the battery. The chemical reaction is reversed, and the plates return to their former
states; the negative plates to cadmium, and the positive plates to nickel oxide .
Electrics 3-3
Chapter 3 Aircraft BanerieJ
BATTERY VENTING
As batteries are charged, their temperature increases and volatile hydrogen gas is given off,
which is safely vented to atmosphere by way of va rious systems. In each case, however, a
certain amount of water is lost by evaporation , and it is, therefore, necessary to top the battery up
to a specific level from time to time with distilled water.
• The Non-Spill Vent is most commonly used on small ai rcraft and allows the
hydrogen gas to escape, whilst retaining the electrolyte.
CROssFLOWVENTING
3-4 Electrics
Aircraft Batteries Chapter 3
ELECTROLYTE SPILLAGE
Any electrolyte spilled from a battery, normally due to heavy landings and severe turbulence,
must be neutralised before it damages the aircraft structure. The neutral ising agents for this
purpose are as follows:-
It is important that once the area is neutralised, copious quantities of fresh water are used to
cleanse the area and prevent corrosion from setting in .
BATTERY CAPACITY
The capacity of a battery is measured in Ampere-Hours (AH) , and is a measure of the total
amount of energy that it con tains. It is based on the maximum rated current in amperes delivered
by a battery for a known period until it has discharged to a permissible min imum vol tage level ,
which va ries according to the size and number of plates in each cell. The fo llowing definitions
apply:
~ Rated Capacity is the manufacturer's stated capacity that is usually stamped on the
side of the battery (e.g. 40 AH). This signifies that the battery is designed to last 10
hours when discharged at a 4-Ampere rate, or 1 hour when discharged at a 40-
Ampere rate.
Batteries used in aircraft are normally removed and their capacity checked at specified intervals
in a specific battery-charging bay, where the followin g process takes place:
~ Discharge the battery at known current level to a minimum permissible voltage level ,
and note the time taken.
~ Multiply the current by the time taken to obtain the Actual Battery Capacity.
Note: For continued use in aircraft, this value must be 80%, or more .
Electrics 3-5
Chapter 3 A ircrafi Balleries
BATTERY CHARGING
The following methods are used to charge the batteries whilst instal led in the aircraft:
» Constant Voltage is used mainly on aircraft fitted with lead-acid batteries . The
battery-charging rate is proportional to the difference between the battery and the
generator voltage, which in aircraft using 24 V batteries is 4 V (i.e. the generator
voltage is normally regulated at 28 V).
» Pulse Charging is used mainly on alkaline batteries . Aircraft using this method are
fitted with a battery charger supplied by Alternating Current (AC). This source is
rectified to provide a constant Direct Current (DC) of approximately 50 amps that
continues flowing until the battery is nearly fully charged. The charger goes into a
pulse DC current mode to keep the battery topped up. A temperature sensor withi n
the battery is normally designed to reduce or even stop the charging if the battery
starts to overheat.
THERMAL RUNAWAY
Batteries are capable of performing to their rated capacity when the temperature conditions and
charging rates are maintained within the values specified by the manufacturer. If these values are
exceeded, Thermal Runaway can occur, which ca uses violent gassing and boiling of the
electrolyte. If this condition continues, the temperature of the battery rises to such a level that it
may melt or even explode and cause damage to the aircraft structure. When a battery exceeds a
certain temperature, its internal resistance reduces, allowing a higher charging current to fl ow and
the battery temperature to rise. This effect is self-perpetuating , and in some aircraft, particularly
those employing alkaline batteries, temperature-sensing devices are located within the batteries
to provide a battery-overheat warning on the flight deck. This indicates that the battery should be
electrically isolated .
3-6 Electrics
Aircraft Batteries Chaprer 3
EMERGENCY USE
In an emergency, the aircraft batteries must be capable of maintaining a supply for a minimum
period of time, according to JAR:
~ Main batteries must last at least 30 minutes after total failure of the electrical
generating system. (Refer JAR 25.1303).
~ Emergency Lighting Batteries must last for at least 10 minutes.
CONNECTION OF BATTERIES
Batteries that are connected together must be of the same type (i.e. acid and alkaline batteries
must never be mixed). Batteries may be connected together as follows:
SERIES CONNECTION
If three identical batteries are connected in series, their voltages are added together, but
their capacity remains the same as that of an individual battery, as shown below.
( 36 VOLTS
12V
40 AlH + 40AIH
+ 40 AIH +
TOTAL VOLTAGE = 36VOLTS TOTAL CAPACITY = 40 AIH
Electrics 3-7
Chapler 3 A ircrafi Balleries
PARALLEL CONNECTION
If identical batteries are connected in parallel , their capaci ties are added together, but the
voltage remains the same as that of an individual battery.
12 VOLTS
12V
40 AlH
12V
40 AlH
12V
40 AlH
SPARE BATTERIES
Spare batteries are sometimes carried for operations away from ground servicing facilities , and
no attempt should be made to change the batteries in fiight.
3-8 Electrics
INTRODUCTION
Any study of electricity cannot be conducted without considering the close relationship between it
and magnetism. When a current flows in a wire, a magnetic field develops around it. If a magnetic
field has movement near a wire, an electric voltage develops in the wire. A magnet has a
magnetic field around it that attracts metal objects toward it and can be visualised by sprinkling
iron filings on a piece of paper over a magnet. This also shows that the invisible lines of magnetic
force flow in circuits or loops, and that they do not cross each other. Magnetic flux is the flow of
magnetism around a circuit.
IRONFIUNGS POLES
The above illustration also shows that magnetism is concentrated at the extremities of a magnet,
called the poles. If it is freely suspended , a magnet always aligns itself in a North-South
orientation.
~RTH POLE
The North-seeking or red pole always points North, and the South-seeking or blue pole always
points South.
The earliest known form of magnetism is Lodestone , which is a natural mineral found in Asia . It
was found that if a piece of this ore was suspended horizontally by a thread , or fl oated on a piece
of wood in water, it would align itself in a North-South direction.
Electrics 4-1
.n
Chapler 4 Magnetism
w
LODESTONE
This chara cteristic led to its use as a compass . Lodestone means lead ing stone.
The north-south al ignment occurs because the Earth itself is a huge magnet with its own
mag netic fi eld . The fie lds interact with each other and the Lodestone aligns itself according to the
fundamental laws of magnetism. Other than the Earth itself, Lodestone is the only natural
magnet. All other magnets are produced artificially. For example, an iron bar becomes
magnetised if it is repeatedly rubbed against a piece of Lodestone, and a magnetic field is
created if an electric current is passed through a coil of wire. Magnets are additionally classified
by their shape and ca n exist as horseshoe, bar or even ring magnets .
MAGNETISM
FUNDAMENTAL LAWS OF MAGNETISM
The fundamental laws of magnetism are as fo llows:
LIKE POLES
REPEL
UNLIKE POLES
ATTRACT
4-2 El ectrics
Magnetism Chaprer4
~ They always form complete loops , where each line of magnetic fiux travels back
through the body of the magnet to form a complete loop.
~ They never cross each other; which is why like poles repel, since lines of magnetic
flux having the same polarity can neither connect nor cross. When one field intrudes
into another, as shown below, the lines repel , and the magnets tend to move apart.
Electrics 4-3
-
Chapfer 4 Magnetism
They tend to form the smallest possible loops, which is why unlike poles attract. Lines of
magnetic ftux having the same polarity link up, as shown below, and the resulting loops attempt to
shorten by pulling the two magnets togelher.
~ They can be distorted by interacting with other ftu x lines, as shown below. This is
because the lines of magnetic ftu x pass through soft iron more readil y than air, and at
the same time, the lines tend to contract to make the smallest possible loops. The
iron bar is attracted toward the magnet, and strengthens its overall magnetic field.
4-4 Electrics
Magnetism Chapter 4
• Soft Iron is a material , which is easily magnetised , but also easily loses it
magnetism when not subjected to a strong magnetising force. This is a
Temporary magnet.
>- Paramagnetic is the property of a material that has an internal field stronger than
that outside and slightly attracts lines of magnetic force when placed in a magnetic
field. However , once the magnetic field is removed , random thermal motion destroys
the magnetism . Typical materials are platinum , manganese , and aluminium.
>- Diamagnetic is the property of a material that has an internal field proportional to ,
but less than that outside and slightly repels lines of magnetic force when placed in a
magnetic field. Typical materials are copper and bismuth .
MAGNETIC FLUX
Magnetic flux can be considered the equivalent of electric current and is the fiow of magnetism. It
moves under the infiuence of Magneto-motive force which ca n be considered the magnetic
equivalent of voltage. The ease with which it fiows through a medium is dependent on the
material 's reluctance , the equivalent of electrical resistan ce. Magnetic fiux is measured in Webers
(Wb).
FLUX DENSITY
Flux density is the number of Webers per square metre (Wb/m2) and is known as the Tesla (13) .
RELUCTANCE
Reluctance is the opposition to magnetic fiux, and is similar to resistance in an electrical circuit. It
is the ratio of the Magneto-Motive Force (MMF) acting on a magnetic circuit to the magnetic fiu x
(<1» produced.
Reluctance -- MMF
rp
PERMEABILITY
Permeability ( ~) is the ease by which a material accepts lines of magnetic fiux and may be
compared to conductance in an electrical circuit, which is the ease with wh ich a material or circui t
allows current to fiow. It is the ratio of B/H, where B is the induced magnetic fiux, and H is the
magnetising force. The table on the next page shows how the permeability of a material
determines its characteristic.
Electrics 4-5
Chapfer4 Magnetism
HYSTERESIS
Any ferrous material becomes magnetised to some degree when subjected to a magnetising
force. In the diagram below, it is possible to see the effect of a mag netisi ng force on a non-
magnetised iron bar.
The H-H axis is the magnetising force and is assumed to be an electromagnet whose magnetic
strength can be increased by increasing the electric current through the coil , and vice-versa. As
the magnetising force increases from 0 to +H , the magnetism induced in the bar increases along
the curved line O-C . Notice at C that although current could be increased further, the curve has
flattened out, indicating that the bar cannot be further magnetised. This is known as saturation .
+8 ~_=".c
REMANENT
FLUX
-H +H
F
-B
If the magnetising force is now reduced to zero , there is a residual magnetism left in the bar at D,
which is known as remnant flux. If it is intended to completely remove the remnant flux , the
magnetising force would have to be applied in the opposite polarity, known as the coercive force.
At E, the magnetism in the bar has been removed , but any further increase in the magnetising
force toward -H will magnetise the bar in the opposite polarity to that originally achieved, and as
before, saturation will eventually be rea ched. It is worth pointing out that the shape of this
hysterisis loop is dependent on the magnetic properties of the bar. Consider a bar which is easy
to magnetise , but loses its magnetism on removal of the magnetising force ; a paramagnet. The
loop would appear thinner as the line O-C would be more upright and D would appear much
lower down on the B-B axis.
The word Hysterisis means to lag , and this is what happens to the flux density as it lags behind
the changing values of the magnetising force .
4-6 Electrics
Magnetism Chapler 4
SATURATION
Saturation plays an important role in ferromagnetic circuits, where the magnitude of magnetism
induced in a piece of iron is proportional to the current creating it. However, if the current is
increased beyond a certain point, no further appreciable increase in magnetism occurs, as the
iron becomes fully saturated . This is a very important property, and is the principle on which a
magnetic amplifier operates.
DIRECTION
OF
CURRENT
Electrics 4-7
Chapfer4 Magnetism
The direction of the field depends on the direction of current fl ow. The Right Hand Grasp Ru le is
used to determine the direction of the field when a conven tional curren t is fl owing .
FINGERS IN DIRECTION
OF LINES OF ___
MAGNETIC FLUX --........
'" LINES OF
MAGNETIC FLUX
DIRECTION OF .",..
CURRENT FLOW RIGHT HAND
The thumb points in the direction of the current flow, whilst the fingers wrapping around point in
the direction of the magnetic field . In explaining some aspects of electromagnetism , it is also
useful to picture current flow looking at the end of a wire, by visualising a feathered arrow. If a
cross sectional view of a wire is shown, a cross would indicate flow into the wire, like looking at
the back of a feath ered arrow. Current flowing out of the wire would be shown as a dot, like
looking at the pointed end of an arrow. This principle is illustrated below.
If two wires are placed side by side, the resulting mag netic fields either attract or repel each other
dependent on the direction of the current fl ow, as shown below.
4-8 Electrics
Magnetism Chapter 4
REPULSION
... +
ATTRACTION
Although a circulating magnetic field around wires has no polarity, where they flow in the same
direction they can be considered to share the same polarity and therefore repel each other.
Where the currents flow in opposite directions they can be considered to have different polarities
and attract each other.
The magnetic field produced in a straight piece of wire is of little practical use; it has direction, but
no North or South Pole. Unless the current is extremely high, the magnetic field has little strength .
The magnetic characteristics are greatly improved by shaping the wire into a loop.
The coil of wire, as shown below, now possesses the following characteri stics:
l' The lines of flux are closer together in the centre of the loop.
l' There is an increased flux in the centre of the loop.
l' North and South Poles are created at the ends of it, and it assumes the same
magnetic characteristics as a permanent magnet where lines of magnetic flux
emerge from the North Pole , and return via the South Pole, as illustrated below.
Electrics 4-9
Chapter 4 Magnetism
THE ELECTROMAGNET
The principle of an electromagnet is tha t passing current through a loop of wire, establishes a
magnetic field. By increasing the number of loops in the wire a coil is formed . The fi ux density
within the core of the coil greatly increases , crea ting a stronger magnetic fi eld.
This is a Solenoid , and the greater the current that fiows through the coil , the greater the fiux
density. The strength of the magnetic field around a coil (electromagnet), therefore, grows with
either an increase in current or an increase in the number of turns. Another method of increasing
the strength of the magnetic fiux around a coil is to insert a bar of ferromagnetic material into it.
This increases permeability within the coi l and allows an increased fiux density. The magnetic
polarity of a solenoid can be established using the right hand grasp rule.
4-10 Electrics
j
Magnetism Chapfer 4
.,..------
/' -
\ /
SOFT= _ _-
IRON _ , , - ........
CORE
(I ))
" -----'-
/'
AN IRON CORE INSIOE A COIL
BECOMES MAGNETISED
//
/ ./.....,.........------
- - - - - - - -=:- -.:-::::--
--
~,..-:--------'
,
) I) \ 1 --
..:::-----
"",-..:: -_ ..... - I 1/
--- - ------
... //
--
- - - - _....
- - ---//
,..,...
........
-- - -- -
If the fingers of the right hand are wrapped around the coil in the direction of current flow, the
thumb will point in the direction of the North Pole.
l Electrics 4- 11
Chapler4 Magnetism
THE RELAY
A relay uses the principle of the electromagnet (solenoid ) to attract together or pull apart electrical
contacts, and is often used for remote or automatic switching. In the following diagram , a low
current through the rela y coil can switch a high current through the contacts with the advantage
that a smaller, more compact switch can be placed in the cockpit. There is a difference between
the voltage at which a relay pulls in (pull in voltage) and the vol tage at wh ich it releases (drop out
voltage). Due to the greater physical distance between the armature and contacts , the voltage to
pull in is greater than that required to release.
I
~r-~ ~~---~~~RE~Y
B
A
R \----+
• SOLEN 10
SUPPLY -
SPRING
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
If relati ve motion exists between a conductor and a magnetic field , an electromotive force (EMF)
is induced in the conductor, whose magnitude is determined by the following facto rs :
~ The strength of the magnetic field
~ The speed of the conductor with respect to the fie ld
~ The angle at which the conductor cuts the field
~ The length of the conductor in the field
These fa ctors are all a natural consequence of Faraday's law, which states that the voltage
(EMF) induced in a conductor is directly proporti onal to the rate at which the conductor cuts the
magnetic lines of fiu x. This principal is the foundation upon which all generators work.
4-12 Electrics
INTRODUCTION
Modern aircraft electrical systems are extremely complex and varied. DC systems have now been
mostly superseded by AC systems in large commercial aircraft; however, many smaller general
aviation aircraft still use DC as their primary electrical system.
GENERATOR SYSTEMS
BASIC GENERATOR THEORY
All generators work on the principle of magnetic induction , however, the output voltage can vary
in both magnitude and form. Where the output is at a constant level, it is called direct current (DC )
and is the subject of this chapter. The output may also be in the form of a constantly varying
voltage through maximum and minimum levels , known as alternating current (AC) which is dealt
with in a later chapter.
t
MOTION
MAGNETIC FJELD
The polarity of the induced vol tage can be found using Fleming's Right-Hand Rule for
generators. Th is involves the thumb and the first two fingers of the right hand placed at 90· to
each other. The thumb points in the direction in which the conductor is moving . The first finger
points in the direction of the magnetic field (N to S). The second finger indicates the polarity of
the induced voltage pointing from positive to negative. The second finger also indicates the
direction in which conventional curren t fiows in the conductor when it is connected into a circuit.
Electrics 5-1
Chapter 5 DC Generator Systems
There is a similar rule for motors known as Fleming's Left-Hand Rule . To remember which hand
to use, memorise the right-hand rule as the gener-righter hand.
A SIMPLE GENERATOR
In its simplest form , a generator consists of a single loop of wire, mounted so that it can be
rotated within a magnetic field. When rotated , a voltage is induced , which can be taken off the
loop by carbon brushes bearing on copper or brass slip rings. The carbon brushes feed the
supply to the output terminals . In the diagram below, a voltmeter measures the voltage at the
output and it can be seen that the voltage is not at a constant level.
ARMATURE
When the armature moves through one revolution at a constant speed, the output voltage rises to
a maximum as it cuts the magnetic fiux at 90° and falls to zero as it moves in the same direction
as the magnetic fiux. There are two maximums and two minimums for one revolution of the loop.
This varying voltage can be plotted as a sine wave, and is called an AC voltage.
The loop is formed on a shaft called the armature which rotates in the centre of the magnetic
field. As the loop rotates, the voltages vary according to the angular rotation of the armature , as
illustrated in the following diagram.
5-2 Electrics
DC Generator Systems Chapter 5
CONVERSION OF AC TO DC
To convert the AC waveform into a DC waveform, the output must be switched so that the carbon
brushes maintain a constant polarity. A device which accomplishes this is called a commutator.
The ends of each loop or series of loops terminate in a copper segment. Each is insulated from
the other and earth. If a single loop is considered, it should be evident tha t as each side of the
loop passes through the minimum voltage angle , the induced voltage in the loop reverses
polarity. At the same time, the segments in contact with the brushes change over, thereby
reversing the polarity of each segment and maintaining a constant polarity at the brushes.
Brush
When the loop is at 90· to the magnetic field, no voltage is induced and no current flows. At this
point, the brushes are in the process of changing segments and in contact with both segments.
This effectively short circuits the loop, ensuring no current flow during the change of segments
and reducing arcing at the brushes
Electrics 5-3
Chapter 5 DC Generator Systems
® @ ®
Current Current
~ ~
Brush
Voltage Degrees of
and Rotation
Lead
Cu rrent
O~ ________ ~ ________ ~ ________ ~ ______ ~
A B C 0 E
The operation of the commutator can be established by referring to the diagram above. At B ,
apply Fleming's right-hand rule to the left half of the loop as it moves up through the field . This
confirms that the current through this part of the loop is from the commutator to the far end . Now,
consider the situation at D where the same part of the loop considered above is now on the right
and going down. Applying Fleming's right-hand rule again shows that the current has reversed
and is now flowing from the far end of the loop toward the commutator. Notice that although the
segment has changed polarity, it has also changed brushes, so the polarity of the brushes has
not changed.
Although an effective DC voltage has been achieved , there are still points of zero voltage shown
at A, C, and E giving ri se to a pulsed DC, shown in the graph above. To produce a smoother and
more constant output voltage, more loops and consequently more segments are added to the
commu tator. In the diagram below, the output from five loops is shown , and the DC voltage is
smoother and more constant.
1
2
'0
>
5-4 Electrics
DC Generator Systems Chapter 5
GROUND -!l~1 1 1
POWER -:::tJ:tt=S=====i~l-1
REVERSE CURRENT
CIRCUIT BREAKER
(ReeB]
OIFFERENTtAL
CUTOUT LINE CONTACTOR
DrFFERENTlAL
COIL
SATT<RY/
SWITCH
1---1
DC GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION
The construction of a typical DC generator is shown in the diagram on the next page and consists
of the following components:
}> The Yoke is a cylinder of cast iron, which supports the pole pieces of the
electromagnetic field .
}> The Armature is driven by the aircraft engine, and holds the wind ings (in which the
output voltage of the machine is induced) and the commutator.
}> The Commutator changes the AC voltage induced in the armature into DC voltage.
}> The Quill Drive is a weak point, which is designed to shear and protect the engine if
the generator seizes.
}> The Suppressor reduces radio interference, which may result from sparking
between the brushes and commutator.
Electrics 5-5
Chapler 5 DC Generator Systems
SUPPRESSOR
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD
TERMINALS
COOLING
FAN
QUILL
DRIVE ARMATURE
BRUSHES COMMUTATOR
YOKE
TYPES OF DC GENERATOR
Three basic types of DC generator exist, with each differing in how the armature and field
windings are electrically connected :
Shunt Wound
In this arrangement, the field windings are connected in parallel with the armature windings, as
shown below.
r----,----O. v.
OUTPUT
L_--L_ _ _O_v.
SYMBOL
L----r-.ARMAnJRE VOLTst---_ __
CHARACTERISTIC
AT CONSTANT SPEED
~.---OUTPUT --+
-Vr. +Ye
LOAD
It is used in all aircraft DC generators, and at a constant speed has a slightly fall ing voltage output
with increasing load.
5-6 Electrics
DC Generator Systems Chapter 5
Series Wound
In this arrangement, the field windings are connected in series with the armature windings, as
shown below.
SYMBOL
r---1D +v.
ARMATURE
OUTPUT
'-----0 -v.
VOLTS
-v. +v.
SERIES GENERATOR CHARACTERISTIC
AT CONSTANT
SPEED
LOAD
This type of generator is not used on aircraft, because at a constant speed it has a rising voltage
output characteristic with increasing load making it difficult to regulate.
Compound Wound
This arrangement of the field windings combines the relative advantages of both the shunt and
series wound generators. They are more expensive to manufacture than shunt wound generators
so their use tends to be restricted to the more expensive end of the commercial aircraft market.
Their precise output characteristics can be matched to the aircraft's specific load versus engine
speed range by altering the ratio of the shunt and series windings.
,--,----10 + v.
OUTPUT
Electrics 5-7
Chapter 5 DC Generator Systems
VOLTAGE REGULATOR
It is essential that the voltage output of a generator be maintained within defined limits for all
conditions of load and engine speed. As load and speed are necessarily variable , the output can
only realistically be controlled by varying the strength of the magnetic field . The voltage regulator
achieves this by varying the current through the field windings. Two methods of regulator control
are briefly described below.
G+
SPRING t OUTPUT
~~~~~~o~~~_~_~___~F_O_R_C_E__~-liiiii
ELECTRO
MAGNETIC
-l
FORCE
, VOLTAGE
-- - - -- --- - --- ----- - REGULATOR
At engine start, the generator needs to build up the voltage rapidly to the regulated val ue,
typically 28V. As the carbon pile is pre-compressed under spring tension, the resistance in series
with the field windings is at a minimum. This allows a high current through the field winding.
Control over the pile compression is achieved by the voltage coil, which is connected across the
output of the generator and attracts an armature, which itself is attached to the spring. An
increased current through the voltage coil attracts the armature and the spring away from the
carbon pile , therefore, increasing its resistance.
With the engine started, the generator voltage builds up until it reaches 28V, at which point the
current through the voltage coil stabilises and holds the compression at the required val ue to
maintain 28V. This equilibrium can be upset by either a change in engine speed or electrical load.
Consider the operation of the regulator at the start of the take-off roll. As the engine speed
increases, the generator speed also increases, and , therefore , voltage rises. As the voltage rises,
Ohms law tells us that there must be an increase in current through the vol tage coil. This
immediately increases the pull on the armature and, therefore, increases the pile resistan ce. Th is
in turn reduces field current and the excitation. Although the voltage would reduce to the
regulated level, system lag will allow a small voltage over-swing.
5-8 Elec[rics
DC Generator Systems Chapter 5
An alternative to varying engine speed is the electrical load. If the pilot turns on a large electrical
load, current demand increases and the voltage tends to fall. The falling voltage reduces the
current through the voltage coil, consequently reducing the attraction on the armature and
increasing the spring compression on the pile. The current through the field windings increases
and restores the generator voltage to 28V.
A typical electronic regulator senses the generator output vol tage using a network of transistors
and diodes. It achieves voltage regulation in the same way as the carbon pile regulator in that it
varies the current in the field windings.
CUT-OUT
The DC generator in an aircraft electrical supply system must be isolated from the battery voltage
whenever its output fails or when the engine shuts down. This is normally achieved by a cutout,
which is fitted between the generator and the busbar. Many different types of cutout exist, of
which the most common is the differential current cut-out, as shown below. The main
components in this device are a series (current) coil (DCO) that is wound physically on top of a
differential (voltage) coil, wh ich in turn controls the generator line contactor (GLC).
The contacts in the cutout are initially closed via the differential coil when the generator output
voltage exceeds battery voltage by approximately 0.5V. This in turn causes the GLC to close and
connects the generator to the busbar through the series coil . The resulting magnetic field
produced by the series coil adds to that already produced by the differential coil and helps to hold
the GLC in its closed position.
To operate at very low voltages, the differential coil necessarily has thousands of turns of fine
wire. However, this means that should the potential difference equalise or reverse across the coil,
self-inductance would delay its operation to isolate the generator. To overcome this delay, if the
battery voltage exceeds generator voltage , a reverse current through the series coil of around 20
to 30 amps instantly de-energises the cutout contactor. When generator voltage increases again
to 0.5V above battery voltage, the cutout energises to re-connect the generator to the busbar.
Electrics 5-9
E
Chapter 5 DC Generator Systems
POWER FAILURE
WARNING LAMP
SERIES
LOADS
REVERSE CURRENT
CIRCUIT BREAKER
(RCCB)
DIFFERENTIAL
CUTOUT CONTACTOR
GENERATOR
SWITCH
DIFFERENTIAL
COIL
BUS BARS
Busbars are current distribution points and are usually standard rectangular sections of high
conductivity copper or aluminium, which are categorised as follows:
~ Vital Busbars are powered directly from the aircraft battery and used for emergency
services such as undercarriage selection, emergency lighting , fire detection, and
extinguishing circuits, etc.
~ Essential Busbars supply equipment essential to ensure the safe fiight of an aircraft.
5-\0 Electrics
DC Generator Systems Chapter 5
GROUND POWER
The battery on a modern aircraft has a limited capacity, and is used only in emergencies and for
engine starting. On the ground , the battery is only able to supply a min imum of services. Another
source of power is necessary during servicing or if power is needed during extended parking. A
typical Ground Power system is shown below.
-.1-,1
GROUND
POWER
1 RELAY
GROUND . . .~____~.
POWER
GEN BATTERY
SWITCH
SWITCH
It is important that the aircraft supplies (battery and generator) be disconnected whilst the ground
supplies are connected to the aircraft. This is achieved by a short auxiliary pin in the ground
power socket, which operates a hold-off relay in the aircraft electrical system. This is necessary
because the ground power unit's (GPU) regulated voltage may not be identical to that of the
aircraft generators. For example , if the ground power is too high , there is a risk of overcharging
the aircraft battery and damaging electrical equipment. On the other hand, if the ground power
voltage output is too low, the first generator to come tDn line would feed into the GPU and cause
instability.
Electrics 5- 11
Chapter 5 DC Generator Systems
~ Overheat
An overheat thermostat is fitted in most aircraft generators, which will cause an
overheat warning light to illuminate on the flight deck if the generators cooling air
exhaust exceeds approximately 160°C. If this occurs , the generator should be
manually switched off.
~ Seizure
If the generator seizes due to a mechanical fault, the aircraft's engine may be
damaged. A Quill Drive is fitted between the engine and the generator, wh ich is
designed to shear if the generator seizes and automatically disconnects the
generator from the engine.
~ Over-Voltage
This condition is usually caused by a malfunction of the voltage regulator and may
cause damage to the loads and battery if allowed to continue . An over-voltage sensor
is fitted in the system, which will trip the generator off the busbar and de-excite its
field. One reset attempt is normally allowed by Recycling the system (i.e. switching
the generator OFF and then ON again).
~ Under-voltage
This is explained in the operation of the series coil in the Differential Cut-out.
5- 12 Electri cs
DC Generator Systems Chapter 5
LOADS
,
\ CLOSE WITH '
~ UNE CONTACTOR .,;
EQUAUSING CIRCtn
~f----- (LOAD SHARING LOOP) - - -* e""
B~TT
OF~ /GEN1
., -GEN2
'GNDPOWER
VOLTMETER SELECTOR
The generators are usually connected in parallel and supply the loads together so that:
~ The generators can share the loads equally to improve their life expectancy.
The main disadvantage of paralleling generators is that additional circuitry is required to ensure
that both machines equally share the loads. Each generator is therefo re fitted with an ammeter so
that the flight crew can regularl y check that the load sharing is correct.
Electrics 5- 13
.
Chapfer 5 DC Generator Systems
l> The generator ammeter reads the current being taken by the battery and loads .
After starting the No.2 engine, the second generator can be brought onto the busbar in the same
way as the No.1 generator.
DC LOAD SHARING
Whenever the generators are operating in parallel , they must share the aircraft electrical load
equally This is achieved by ensuring that their individual output currents are eq ual under all
operating conditions by incorporating an Equalising Circuit (Load Sharing Loop) , as shown
below, where the equalising coils are wound on the same core as the voltage coil in the vol tage
regulator. This circuit monitors the generator outputs and automatically adjusts the voltage
regulators to ensure equal load sharing.
LOADS
5-14 Electri cs
DC Generator Systems Chapter j
The flight crew can also check that any load sharing is equal by referring to the individual
generator ammeters.
Note: The Equalising Circuit only operates when the generators are operating in parallel.
PRIMARY
POWER
SUPPLY
The alternator is the primary electrical source when the engine is running and charges the
battery. The battery provides the secondary power supply, which is used for initial engine start,
and as an emergency power source.
There are many differences between the modern alternator and the DC generator discussed
earlier. Instead of providing a static excitation fie ld within which the armature provides the output,
the low current supply is fed via slip rings and brushes to the rotor. This has the advantage of
taking the high current output from the stator windings, so the losses across the commutator of a
DC generator are replaced by very small losses across the slip rings .
The Alternator is made up of field windings, which are wrapped around a number of pole pieces
on a rotating shaft (rotor), and rotate within fixed output windings (stator). The output is fed
directly to the rectifier diodes and then to the output terminals.
Electrics 5-1 5
Chapter 5 DC Generator Sys tems
VOLTAGE REGULATOR
__________ , ALl
, , SWITCH
RADIO
/
SLIP :
,
ROTOR
(OUTPUT) RECTlRE: i
:
B
U
RI~ l FIELD STATOR i: S
LIGHTS
'\ BATTERY A
MASTER R
BRUS.(:l- ---- --------------~ ____ ___ ~ SWITCH
-=- -= BATTERY
+
Unlike the DC generator, where residual magnetism in the yoke is sufficient to start the generator
without any external supply to the field , the alternator, due to its lighter construction , does not
have any residual magnetism from which it can initially self-excite. Therefore, the alternator first
needs to be separately excited until its output is high enough to be fed back to its own field
windings , at which point it becomes self-exciting.
Once the alternator is self-exciting, the supply to the field windings is taken from the busbar
through the regulator, which controls field current electronically. The field windings are on the
rotor, so it is known as a rotating field machine , and the output voltage is induced into the stator
windings. The stator windings consist of three coils equally spaced around the rotor, so the
voltage produced internally can be considered as three separate AC supplies which must be
converted into DC.
It is the job of the diode pack to do the conversion. A diode is a sem i-conductor device that allows
current to flow through it in one direction only. As the internally generated supply is effectively 3
separate AC supplies, an arrangement of 6 diodes is required to convert the supply to DC . A
diode that only allows unidirectional current ~ow is known as a rectifier. The diode pack is
alternatively known as the rectifier pack.
5- 16 Electrics
DC Generator Systems Chapter 5
The output from the alternator is monitored using one of the following ammeter arrangements:
If the reading drops to zero in flight, it indicates that either the alternator has failed or
that no systems are selected.
ALTERNATOR AMMETER
B
• I U BATTERY
3. 50 1--1 S t-- -;I;!- n-- -...
B
A
R
ALTERNATOR _-..;A,;;,M,;;,MET.;,;E;;,;R_.....
BATTERY
+30
Following an engine start, it is normal for a large charging current to the battery to be
indicated until the battery recovers. If the pointer is left of centre, it shows that the
battery is discharging , which is a good indica tion that the alternator has failed. In this
situation, the loads should be reduced as much as possible to conserve battery life.
Electrics 5- 17
INTRODUCTION
A wide variety of components and systems depend upon mechanical energ y, which is often
supplied by electric motors. The range and scale of electric motors found in aircraft applications is
vast. The table below shows a sample of typical systems that employ electric motors.
Equipment Function
Control valves Hot and cold air mixing for air conditioning and thermal
de-icing
Many of the above systems combine electro-mechanical functions into an integral component.
When a motor is used for only short periods of time, the motor can be reduced in size and power
to save weight. However, this does mean that they are operating at the top end of thei r rated
loads, so a cooling off period is often required before selecting repeated operations. The propeller
feathering pump motor is an example of this.
The construction of a DC motor is virtually the same as that of a DC generator and many
machines may be operated as either, such as a starter-generator. Continuously rated motors may
be fan cooled, ram air cooled or fuel cooled as in the case of fuel booster pumps, which are
immersed in the fuel. On some occasions , an interm ediate gearbox is requi red to match the
output speed of the motor to the application.
MOTORS
THE MOTOR PRINCIPLE
DC motors work in the opposite sense to DC generators. Instead of mechanically rotating the
armature in a magnetic field to produce an electrical output, the arm ature is connected to an
electric supply, creating mechan ical energy from electrical energy.
If a conductor carrying an electric current is placed in a magnetic field , the field around the
conductor interacts with the main magnetic field and causes the conductor to move.
Electrics 6-1
Chapter 6 DC ,\tI%rs
== ~
- - --
- ~-
~a;-ff~ -
-- c:::::)
- - --
-.:-
Although the circulating field around a conductor does not possess a North or a South Pole where
it flows in the same direction as the main field , they share the same polarity and repel each other.
Conversely, if the field flows in opposite directions, they are of opposite polarity and attract. The
direction of the current in the conductor therefore determines the direction in which the conductor
moves.
The direction of this motion can be found using Fleming's Left-Hand Rule . As with the Right-
Hand Rule discussed earlier, the thumb and first two fingers are placed at 90° to each other. The
thumb points in the direction in which the conductor moves. The first finger is field and points in
the direction of magnetic flux, north to south. The second finger is current and points in the
direction in which current does or would flow. Remember again that the Right-Hand Rule is for
generators and can be remembered as the gener-righter hand.
THUMB
(MOTION)
FIRST FINGER
(FIELD)
DC MOTORS
There is little difference between DC generators and motors , since they both consist of the same
essential parts: an armature, field windings, a commutator, and brush gear. The armature and
field windings are usually supplied from a commqn supply.
In its simplest form , a motor consists of a single loop of wire (PQ in the diagram below) which is
arranged so it can rotate between the pole pieces of a permanent magnet.
6-2 Electrics
DC Molors Chapler6
®
P Q
~ ~
The ends of the wire are connected to a DC power supply through the commutator segments and
the brushes . Consider the current flow around the loop from P to Q in the above diagram on the
far lefl. Using Fleming's Left-Hand Rule, see that the loop will rotate anti-clockwise. As the loop
moves to 90' to the main field, the motive force on the loop is lost. However, inertia carries the
loop through this position. As the current through the loop is reversed by the commutator from Q
to P, the rotation of the loop continues anti-clockwise. Just as the generator output improves by
adding loops to the armature, the action and power of a DC motor improve in the same way.
BACK EMF
The movement of the conductor through a magnetic field induces a voltage in it, which opposes
the supply voltage. This can be verified by using both Fleming's Left- and Right-Hand Rules . In
the far left diagram above use the left-hand rule with the thumb pointing down with the first finger
in the direction of field N to S . Note the direction of the se~ond finger (~urrent). Now apply the
right-hand rule and notice that any voltage induced will opposes the current through the loop. This
is back EMF and serves to reduce the armature current. Consider that the back EMF is
proportional to speed and the magnetic field The greater the speed of the motor or the strength of
the field , the greater the back EMF.
(EB a N x <1» , where <1> = field strength and N = armature speed. EB = Back EMF
The back EMF can never exceed the supply voltage . At a steady motor speed and load ,
equilibrium exists between the magnetic field and the current flowing in the armature.
DIRECTION OF ROTATION
A motor will turn in a specific direction dependent on the current flow in the armature relative to
the field windings, which can be ascertained using Fleming's Left-Hand rule . If the direction of
current flow in either component changes independently of the other, the motor rotates in the
opposite direction. It is important to note that changing current flow simultaneously through both
components has no effect on direction of rotation.
Electrics 6-3
Chapler 6 DC MOlors
TYPES OF DC MOTORS
In the same way that DC generators can have the field windings in series with or across the
armature , so can DC motors, which include series, shunt, and compound motors .
Series Motors
With the field windings and armature connected in series, the total current drawn by the motor
flows through both the field windings and the armature. This high current requires that the field
windings be made from a thicker wi re with less turns.
Now consider a series motor starting up with no mechanical load attached . Initially, there is a high
current demand that creates a strong armature current but a relatively weak field due to the small
number of turns in the field winding . Nevertheless, a high torque is produced, because the weak
field means that very little back EMF is produced and, therefore , a strong armature current
compared to the magnetic field.
Remember that at a steady speed , there is a balance between field strength and armature current
and that armature current and field strength redu ce as back EMF increases. Back EMF is
proportional to armature speed As speed builds up, armature current decreases and the field
strength weakens further. From a high torque condition at start up , torque reduces as speed
increases. Although the machine may run fast off load, its torque or power is low, so any increase
in load would rapidly reduce motor speed.
Now look at the series motor starting on load. As before, initial current demand will be high, but
now the armature cannot accelerate so quickly. This reduces the back EMF allowing a net
increase in armature current and therefore field strength, giving high torque to drive the load . As
back EMF is proportional to armature speed and inversely proportional to mechanical load, torque
must be inversely proportional to back EMF. These factors together give the typical
characteristics of series motors:
For all of these reasons, a series motor must be started on load . This usually means that the
series motor is permanently connected to the mechanical load , such as actuators connected to
flap drives and undercarriage retraction systems. Starter motors are also series machines. The
start system will always couple the starter motor with the engine on start up and as soon as the
engine starts, the starter motor shuts down and is de-coupled to avoid motor over speed. The
diagram below illustrates the speed-to-Ioad characteristic .
.----0+
SPEED
SUPPLY
LOAD
SYMBOL CHARACTERISTIC
6-4 Electrics
DC Molors Chapter 6
The speed-load characteristic of a seri es wound motor is such that variations in mechanical load
are accompanied by substantial speed vari ations. A light load will cause it to run at a dangerously
high speed, and a high load will cause it to run at low speed.
~ Torque is proportional to fie ld strength and armature current, both of which vary
in direct proportion to speed.
~ If the load is increased on a motor, the speed reducti on redu ces back EMF, and
torque will increase to drive the load harder but at a reduced speed.
In all the above conditions of speed and torque, always remember that at a steady speed and
load , the effect of field and armature current is in balance.
Shunt Motors
In this type of motor, the field windings are con nected in parallel with the armature. The current
flowing in the field windings will be fairly constant as the full supply voltage will always be felt
across it, and independent of armature current.
iSUPPLY SPEED
1 LOAD
SYMBOL CHARACTERISTIC
As the current through the fiel d windings is independent of the armature current, they are not
subject to the high current demand of the armature. This means that the wire can be Ihinner,
allowing more turns , which increases magnetic field for a given electri cal current.
Now consider the shunt motor on start-up off load . As soon as the supply to the motor is switched
on, a strong magnetic field is produced by the fie ld wi ndings, and this immediately ind uces a large
back EMF in the armature, severely limiting armature current. The result of this is to reduce the
available torque on start up. However, as there is no mechanical load attached , the torque
required is a minimum , and a steady state speed is achieved.
Once at a steady state speed, suppose that a mechanical load is attached. The immediate effect
is that the armature slows down and back EMF red uces, thereby increasing armature current.
The increased armature current in the constant mag netic field increases motor torque and gives
the machine a constant speed against load characteri stic, as shown by the graph above.
If a mechanical load is attached before start up, the rapid build up of back EMF in the strong
magnetic field severely limils torqu e and , consequently, the ability of the motor to run up on load .
For this reason, nearly all heavy-duty shunt-wound motors must be run up to speed before the
load is connected. The speed to load diag ram above 1s drawn for the normal conditions with the
motor already running when the load is connected.
Electrics 6-5
Chapter 6 DC l\4%rs
Compound Motors
These motors combine the principal beneficial characteristics of both series and shunt-wound
motors , giving higher starting torque with good steady speed to load characteristics.
i
SUPPLY
SPEED THE CHARACTERISTIC
DEPENDS UPON THE MIX OF
l
SERIES AND SHUNT
WINDINGS
LOAD
For example, a motor may be required to develop the high starting torque of a series-wound
motor but without the tendency to over-speed when removing the load. Another application may
require a motor, which is capable of reducing. its speed with increasing load, whilst still retainin g
the smooth speed control and reliability of a shunt-wound motor when operating off load. These
and other requirements can be met by Compounding, or in other word s, by combining both
series and shunt field windings in the one machine, using one of the following arrangements :
» Normal Compounding
In this arrangement, a motor is biased toward the shunt-wound type , where the shunt
winding produces approximately 60 to 70 per cent of the total flu x, whilst the series
winding produces the remainder. This retains the desired characteristi cs of both
series and shunt-wound motors.
» Stabilised Shunt
In this arrangement, the motor is also biased toward the shunt-wound type , and only
has a relatively minor series winding. The purpose of this winding is to overcome the
tendency of a shunt motor to become unstable when running at or near its maximu m
operating speed, when subjected to an increased load .
» Shunt Limited
In this arrangement, the motor is biased toward the series-wound motor and only has
a minor shunt field winding incorporated in the field system. The purpose of this
winding is to limit the maximum speed when running under off load conditions whilst
leaving the torque and general speed characteristics unaltered. Shunt lim iting is
applied only to the larger type of compound motors (e.g. engine starter motors).
Since there is equilibrium of armature current and field strength at a steady speed , altering either
of these increases or decreases motor speed until achieving equilibrium once again. Two
methods of control are armature control and field control.
6-6 Electrics
DC Motors Chapter 6
Armature Control
Current through the armature can be directly controlled by con necting a variable resistor in series
with it.
Supply M
Assume the motor in the diagram above is rotating at a steady state. By decreasing the
resistance of the vari able resistor, the armature current increases. The higher cu rrent increases
torque until equilibrium is established again but at a higher speed.
If the vari able resistan ce is increased , the armature current decreases. The decreased armature
current red uces torque and the motor slows down until equ ilibrium is established again but at a
slower speed.
This form of speed control is rarely used, as the high armature current requires a larger vari able
resistor to handle it.
Field Control
The preferred method of speed control is .to control the field strength , which req uires a smaller
variable resistor due to the smaller field cu rrent.
Variable Resistor
Supply M
If the resistance is redu ced, the current through the field windings would increase and the
strength of the magnetic fie ld would also increase. Variable resistance would not directly affect
the current through the arm ature. However, as the magnetic field strength has increased , so
would the back EMF. The current in the armature would reduce and motor speed would also
redu ce.
Electrics 6-7
Chapter 6 DC Motors
By increasing the resistance in series wi th the field winding , the field strength would reduce and ,
consequently, back EMF in the armature would also reduce. The increase in armature current
causes the speed to increase.
There is an apparent contradiction in the field control system as an increase in field strength
decreases motor speed. It may help to compare the magnetic field to a viscous fluid: The thicker
it gets, the harder it is for the armature to turn. The thinner it gets, the easier it is for the armature
to turn.
ACTUATORS
These are high-speed reversible series-wound motors whose output is norm ally converted into a
driving torque via a step-down gearbox. Motor actuators are self-contained units, which combine
electrical and mechanical devices capable of exerting reversible linear thrust over a short
distance or alternatively a reversible low-speed turning effort. The following types of actuators
exist:
Rotary Actuators have a rota ry movemen t and are mainly used to rotate valves in air
conditioning and fuel systems.
SPUNED
DRIVE
Linear Actuators are driven directly from a reduction gearbox via a lead screw that extends or
retracts a ram or plunger when rotated .
ELECTRO-MAGNETIC RAM
BRAKE
This type of actuator is capable of working against heavy loads and is used to operate trailing
edge flaps , trim tabs , and to move variable incidence tailplanes.
6-8 Electrics
DC MOlors Chapler 6
Both linear and rotary type actuators are equipped with limit switches to stop their respe ctive
motors when the operating ram or output shaft has rea ched its limit of travel. The swi tches are of
the micro-switch type and are usually operated by a cam driven by a shaft from the actuator
gearbox. In some cases , limit-switch contacts are also utilised to complete circu its to indicator
lights or magnetic indicators.
For example, consider the operation of an air conditioning duct valve, as shown in the following
diagram. If the switch is placed in the Open position , current flows in the Open field winding , and
then through the armature winding . The two fi elds wil l interact, and the armature will rota te , which
will cause the cams to rotate at the same time. These cams determine the position of two limit
switches , which control the current through the field windings and the position of magnetic
indicators or lights that show the position of the valve.
28V d.c.
cam~, Close
Winding
Close ~ I
Magnetic
Off 'I Indicators
or Lights
Open ../'"
cam~
I
c
\0---4 1
'
Limit Switch
"6 " "Open "
As soon as the motor starts to rotate, Limit Switch A breaks the circuit to the SHUT indicator and
causes the light to go out. When the valve is in its fully open position , the limit switches are
arranged so that Limit Switch A completes the circuit to the CLOSE fie ld winding , whilst Limit
Swi tch B breaks the circuit to the OPEN field winding and operates the OPEN indicator. If the
switch is then placed in the CLOSE position , current flows through the CLOS E field winding and
then through the armature This causes the motor to rotate in the opposite direction to close the
valve . The two field windings are independent of each other.
The change of direction occurs because the polarity of the field windings is reversed , but the
direction of the current through the armature remains, the same. The resultant interaction of the
fields causes the armature to run in the reverse direction. When the valve is fu lly closed , the
position of the limit switches reverses , thus completing the circuit to the open field winding and
operating the CLOSED indicator.
Electrics 6-9
Chapter 6 DC Motors
ELECTROMAGNETIC BRAKES
Most actuators are fitted with electromagnetic brakes that are designed to prevent over-travel
when the motor is switched off, such as when a heavy load is being driven . The design of the
brake system varies with the type and size of the actuator, but in all cases, the brakes are spring-
loaded to the ON condition whenever the motor is de-energised , thus preventing the actuator
from over-running. This means that to motor the actuator, the brakes must be energised OFF to
run. The operation of the electromagnetic brake is shown in the following diagram.
EXTEND
FIELD
Notice that as soon as current flows in the armature, it must also flow in the electromagnetic
brake solenoid, consequently releasing the brake.
CLUTCHES
Friction clutches are also incorporated in the transmission systems to protect against the effects
of mechanical over-loading. They are usually of the single-plate or multi-plate type depending on
the size of the actuator.
INSTRUMENT MOTORS
Not many instruments utilise DC motors, but of those that do , gyroscopic instruments are the
most common. One case in particular is important as a specifically DC instrument and that is the
artificial horizon. Consider that even with all the technology incorporated into the latest EFIS-
equipped aircraft, there is still a need to ca rry a back-up DC attitude indicator or artificial horizon
in case of a complete AC electrical failure.
Of necessity, the motors found in instruments are specialised and tailored to the instrument in
which they are fitted . To save weight and space, they are small and , whenever possible , form part
of the instrument itself.
To illustrate this point, consider the artificial horizon . This instrument relies on a gyroscope that
must be rotated at high rpm for its operation. A gyroscope is a spinning mass. It gains the
property of rigidity as it rotates, much like a bicycle wheel gains rigidity when roll ing , stopping
the bike from falling over. To increase rigidity, the mass of the wheel is concentrated as far from
the centre of rotation as possible. A typical artificial horizon DC motor has the commutator and
armature fixed at the centre of the gyroscope. The yoke itself forms the rotating mass of the gyro
and rotates about the armature, fulfilling the requirem ents of gyroscopic principles .
6-10 Electrics
DC Molors Chapler 6
,I
Jovvvv\Al
~~-
---
GENERATORD
SWITCH 0
I
ENGINE
-=?" START
SWITCH
STARTER BUSBAR
It is a compound wound machine, which is coupled to the engine by way of a drive shaft and gear
train.
~ Initially, the battery master switch energises both relays connected to it. This places
the batteries in parallel and supplies 24 V to both busbars
~ When the starter switch is pushed, the start relay energises , connecting the starter
busbar to the starter motor. The supply is at 24 V at first to reduce the initial starting
current and torque, extending the life of the starter motor.
Electrics 6- 11
J.
Chapter 6 DC Motors
ESSENTIAL BUSBAR
-.
BATTERY
SWITCH
GENERATORD
SWITCH D
1-
ENGINE
START
SWITCH
STARTER BUSBAR
~ When the engine reaches 10% rpm , a speed sensor energises the parallel ing rela y
(Al. This reconnects the batteries in series, supplying 48 V to the motor and
dramaticall y increasing torque and acceleration. In the partial diagram below, trace
the lines between the two batteri es to see that they are now in parallel.
UAAAA.I
BATTERY
= J!oI~I.,
_
A
~
....c---
·
SWITCH
~~ 1...-...,
6- 12 Electrics
DC MOlors Chapler6
~ At 60% engine rpm and with the engine self sustaining , the starter and paralleling
relay are de-energised, wh ich removes the power from the starter motor and
reconnects the batteries in parallel. If the engine start push was electromechanically
held in for the start cycle, it would now be released , and the starter engaged light, if
fitted, would extingu ish.
~ When the engine has accelerated to idle speed , the generator control switch is
operated. If DC generator output if within lim its, the control and protection unit (CPU )
is connected to the busbar.
Notice that when the start relay has de-energised, the supply from the arm ature is removed in
preparation for the generator output from the armature to be connected by the CPU to the
essential busbar.
LIGHTS RADIO
l II~.
-.UAM.A./ = ~-}j
BATfERY
SWITCH
GENE~
SWITCH .
. ~
~~;~E Q--cooo)
SWITCHU "'l-1~
STARTER BUSBAR
Electrics 6-1 3
Chap/er6 DC M Olors
INVERTERS
An aircraft may have a DC electrical system or what is called a frequency wild system, which is
fully described later. In either case, there may be a requirement for an AC supply of a specific
voltage and frequency. Such supplies are derived from machines called inverters, two types of
which are described below.
A.C.
0UTl'\1T
D.C.
N'I1T
SLIP
RJoIGS
The motor drives the AC generator at a constant speed to give a constant frequency output. This
is achieved by adjusting the field excitation of the DC motor. The output voltage of the AC
generator is maintained by similarly adjusting its field excitation . This type of inverter has a DC
input of 28 volts and produces a 3-Phase AC output of 115 V at 400 Hz. There are large electro-
mechanical losses in most rotary inverters and they are typicall y only 50% efficient. For instance ,
a DC input power of 100 W will output just 50 VA at the AC generator. Notice that power is
defined differently in DC and AC systems and will be discussed later.
Static Inverters differ from the rotary type in that they use solid-state transistorised ci rcuitry and
have no moving parts. They are more robust, more reliable and require less servicing . Static
inverters cannot match the power output of rotary inverters although most have an improved
efficiency of approximately 70%.
6- 14 Electrics
DC MOlors Chapter 6
~MAIN EMERGENCY
INVERTER
.------~~~f,.~~
,----" NO.2 EMERGENCY
INVERTER
CONTROL
MAIN BUSBAR
NO.2GEN BUS
LC~-~
This system consists of three inverters that supply normal constant frequ ency AC power. The
No.1 and No. 2 inverters are the same type . The No. 3 inverter is an emergency back up to
supply the essential busbar only. It can be a smaller lighter type to save weigh t. Inverters cannot
be operated in parallel. To even out the running time between No. 1 and No. 2 inverters , many
operators require alternate selection of the inverters for each flight.
More advanced systems may monitor the inverter output and provide automatic switching
between inverters if a failure occurs and provide appropriate indications in the cockpit.
Electrics 6-1 5
INTRODUCTION
Inductors and capacitors are components often found in electronic circuits. They rea ct differentl y
to voltage and frequency and are used in detection and control equipment. A coil has inductance
and a capacitor has capacitance. However, inductance and capacitance are not restricted to
small electronic components. As previously discussed , windings in a motor create a back EMF,
which is a direct result of self-inductance.
INDUCTANCE
Inductance is the property of a coil that opposes a change in current fl ow by generati ng an
internal voltage in opposition to the supply voltage. The voltage generated within the coil is due to
self-inductance and is at a maximum when the current from the supply is changing rapidly. For
this reason, if a constant DC voltage is applied to a coil , there is no variation in supply voltage
and, therefore, no varying current to induce an internal voltage in the coil. In other words, no
inductance wil l exist with a DC supply.
The vari ation in voltage when an AC or un-stabilised DC supply are input to a coil will create
inductance. Other factors which influence the amount of inductance in a coil are the number of
turns in it, and the cross-sectional area of the wire used, both of which are fi xed values
dependant on circuit or component requirements.
The unit of inductance is the Henry (H) and exists when a rate of change in current of 1 amp per
second induces 1 volt in the coil. This usually results in a very small figure, so most often the
value is expressed in mH (mill i-Henrys) or j.lH (micro-Henrys). The symbol for inducta nce in
formulae is L. For instance, a value of 15 mill i-Henrys can be written as:
L = 15 mH
;.. When current flows through a conductor, a magnetic field builds up around it.
Electrics 7-1
Chapler 7 inductance and Capacitance
SELF INDUCTION
Imagine a situation where an AC current is flowing in a 'live' wire and next to this is another wire
that has no current flow in it, which can be considered as the 'dormant' wire . The magnetic field
will build around the live wire to a maximum in one direction before collapsing as the current falls
to zero. It then builds to a maximum in the other direction as current flow reverses and flows in
the opposite direction. The dormant wire is lying in the influence of the magnetic field produced by
the live wire and a voltage is therefore induced in it of an opposite polarity to that in the live wire.
Picture a situation where two loops are side by side in a coil. Although they are both part of the
same length of wire, the interaction between them is just like the live wire/dormant wire situation
described above. Each loop of wire in the coil will be inducing voltage in the adjacent loop which
acts to oppose the voltage at the supply.
Now take the above process one step further. It has been established that the induced voltage
opposes the supply voltage, but such opposition is not always against a rising supply voltage .
Opposition can also exist against a falling voltage. A voltage induced in an adjacent loop opposes
a rising voltage as the magnetic field strength is increasing . However, when the supply voltage
reduces to zero the magnetic field collapses, and this induces a vol tage in the adjacent loop of an
opposite polarity. This has the effect of maintaining the coil voltage when the supply voltage is
reducing.
It is easiest to consider the supply voltage and coil voltage as opposite forces , but that the coil
voltage is always less than the supply. The interaction between the supply voltage and coil
voltage means that current flow does not vary in direct proportion with the supply. The opposition
of the coil to rising voltage delays the equivalent rise in current flow . As the supply voltage falls,
the current flow is maintained by the collapsing magnetic field about the coil. The net effect of
these opposing voltages is that current flow will lag behind the supply voltage. A side effect of the
coil field collapsing is that as a switch in the coil circuit opens, a spark occurs at the switch
contacts.
INDUCTORS
Where using inductors in a circuit, they are chosen with a specific value of inductance. The
inductance of a coil can be increased by either raising the number of turns on the coil , and/or by
inserting a piece of permeable material , such as soft iron, into the coil.
7-2 Electrics
Inductance and Capacitance Chapter i
INDUCTOR
SUPPLY
Switch Closed
~ ,..
I ~\ !/....\\
111'\ \\\
I" 11\
I II "I
Battery
Steady
I"\\' A
/I'
II I
Steady Flux
Through Coil
As the voltage induced in an inductor opposes the supply voltage , if a DC supply is supplied to
the coil, it takes a finite time for the current to reach a steady value. The time taken is the time
constant and can be changed by either altering the value of inductance of the coil or by altering
the resistance in series. Bear in mind that once the full supply voltage is reached , it remains
steady. No further voltage is induced until the next change in voltage , which occurs when the
circuit is switched off.
The time constant is not linear because the induced voltage is dependent on a rate of change ,
which itself is not at a constant rate. As a supply to an inductor is initially switched on , the supply
voltage rises rapidly from zero to full voltage in a sine wave curve. The initial rapid ri se in supply
voltage immediately induces a high voltage in the inductor in opposition, but as the sine curve of
the supply voltage flattens , the opposition reduces . The reverse occurs when switching off the
supply
The time constant is not measured from zero voltage to full voltage but to 63.2% on voltage rise
and 36.8% on voltage fall. The time constant can be found by dividing the inductance (H) by the
resistance ('0). The time for full current and voltage to be developed across the inductor is 5 times
the time constant:
5 X LlR
Electrics 7-3
Chapter 7 Inductance and Capacilallce
S3.2"J. OF MAX
VALUE
36.8% OF MAX
VALUE
r I
SWiI<h lL 4L SL Swi;:n l 2L
On R lL 4L ~
if If Off R R R R R
~=~
Time (Sec31- LT;me-1 T;me (Seesl -
l"'Con$tanil
These graphs show that the resistive voltage (VR) increases and decreases in line with the
current (I), where as the voltage drop across the inductor (Vc) falls as the current rises, and vice
versa.
SUPPLY
When connected in series, the values of inductance for each inductor are added :
When connected in parallel the reciprocals of the individual values of inductance are added
together, and the reciprocal of the total gives the total inductance:
,
_ 1_ = _1_ + _ 1_ + _1_
LT LI L2 L3
7-4 Electrics
Inductance and Capacitance Chapter 7
CAPACITANCE
If two opposing surfaces that contain charges of opposite polarity are close to, but insulated from
each other, an electrostatic field would exist between them , mainta ining the charges on each
surface due to the attraction between the opposite pola rities . Remember that opposites attract.
The electrostatic field developed maintains the charges on each surface, and the greater the
charge maintained , the greater the capacitance .
A static charge of 6.28 X 10 18 electrons is one Coulomb, and when one coulomb of charge
develops between two surfaces with 1 volt applied, 1 unit of capacitance exists, called the Farad .
In practice, one unit of Farad is an extremely large value and, therefore , practical val ues of
capacitance are typically very small.
The component specifically designed to have a capacitance value is called a capacitor. Because
practical values of capacitance are very small , they are rated in terms of microFarads (J.lF),
nanoFarads (n F), and picoFarads (pF). A capacitor comprises two plates of a conductive material
separated by an insulator, called a dielectric. The dielectric has a direct influence on the
capacitance, because the better the insulator, the greater the charge that can be held on the
plates without the voltage causing the charge on the plates to flash over. Because a charge is
maintained on the plates by the electrostatic field , the charge remains on the plates even if the
component is removed from a circuit. A capacitor is often considered an energy storage device . It
will take a fi nite amount of time for a supply to fully charge a capacitor and, as with the inductor, is
known as the time constant.
The total number of electrons held on a plate creates an electri cal pressu re. The charge held by a
capacitor is measured in volts. A Capacitor will be charg ed to a specific voltage level , up to the
maximum voltage, which will equal the supply voltage. To help appreciate the difference between
the voltage on a capacitor and its capacitance it is useful to consider the formula for capacitance:
Capacitance (C) = ~
Where V =voltage across plates and Q =charge in Coulombs
It can be inferred from this formula that the largest charge that can be maintained on a capacitor
by the smallest possible applied voltage will give the greatest capacitance.
DIELECTRIC
Metal foil is often used fo r the plates, whilst the dielectric may be paper, glass, mica , or another
good insulator. A capacitor has a specific amount of capacitance, so if the applied voltage is
increased , the charge will similarl y increase, so that the ratio of the charge to the voltage rem ains
the same.
Electrics 7-5
Chapter 7 Inductance and Capacitance
The actual amount of capacitance is dependent on the physical shape and size of the capacitor
and varies according to the following formula :
C= kA
d
The capacitance of a capacitor is directly proportional to the dielectric constant or the area of the
plates and inversely proportional to the distance between the plates.
TYPES OF CAPACITOR
Capacitors can be either fixed or vari able. The most common types include:
}> Paper Capacitors are constructed of alternate layers of metal foil separated with
similar strips of waxed paper, which act as the dielectric.
}> Electrolytic Capacitors have a large capacitance for a small physical size. Since
electrolytic capaci tors are manufactured using an electro-chemical process, they are
sensitive to polarity .. This limits their use to DC circuits only. Be careful when
connecting them into a circuit, since connecting incorrectly will damage the capacitor.
}> Variable Capacitors consist of multiple plates, which are moved via a rotating shaft.
,-=""ROTATING
PLATES
_-_FIXED
1..-~~ PLATES
Note: Capacitors are rated by voltage as well as by their capacitance value. A voltage rating must
not be exceeded, or the dielectric may break down and arcing may occur. To withstand higher
voltages, the insulating properties of the dielectric must be increased or its thickness increased,
both of which will reduce capacitance . To maintain capacitance , the overlapping area of the
plates must be increased .
7-6 Electrics
Inductance and Capacitance Chap!er 7
+
8V~
- CAPACITOR
If a DC voltage is subsequently applied to the plates of the capacitor, it charges up until the
potential across the plates is equal and opposite of the supply voltage.
8V -=-
When the switch is closed, the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the upper plate of
the capacitor, and the battery attracts the free electrons from the upper plate. This leaves the
upper positive plate with a deficiency of electrons and the negative lower plate wi th an excess of
electrons. The positive plate attracts the electrons on the negative plate, but due to the insulator
(dielectric) between the plates , no electrons flow between them. The attraction of the positive
charge on the upper plate instead tends to pull electrons from the negative terminal of the battery
to the lower negative plate. The difference in potential between the plates causes an electric fie ld
to build up across the dielectric between them. The capacitor continues to charge until the
potential difference between the plates equals the supply voltage.
ELECTRIC
FIELD
R1
When this occurs, no further current flows. Current only flows in the circuit wh ilst the capacitor is
charging, and does not pass through the capacitor in a DC ci rcuit.
Electrics 7-7
Chapter 7 inductance and Capacitance
A capacitor retains a charge for a long period of time, and can be charged in either polarity simply
by reversing the supply (unless the capacitor is electrolytic). If the supply is removed from the
capacitor, the electrical charge on the plates remain s for a long time. This can pose a hazard to
the unsuspecting , especially with regard to High Energy Ig nition Units (HEIU ) used for eng ine
starting, where the high capacity can lead to severe injury. With these devices , a safety re sistor of
high resistance is connected from the capacitor output to earth allowing the capacitor to
discharge after approximately 1 minute. Do not touch the HEIU within this time .
DISCHARGING OF A CAPACITOR
Theoretically, all of the energy stored in a capacitor can be recovered. A perfect capacitor would
use no power, but store it to be released later. This could be used for timing or signalling
purposes.
CAPACITOR FULLY CHARGED CAPACITOR DISCHARGING
Q
BV-=- C1
r:~
BV - - C1
L -_ _ _--l_ _ __
SYMBOL FOR"A
--' CAPACITOR w
Removing it from the supply and connecting it across a resistor can discharge a capacitor. This
causes the current to flow until the capacitor is fully discharged, and its charge has been reduced
to zero.
T=RxC
CHARGE DISCHARGE
VOLTS
7 63 2
. %
TIME CONSTANT~
,
TIME
I
In practice, the time taken for the capacitor to become fully charged or discharged is equal to
5CR.
7-8 Electrics
Inductance and Capacitance Chapter 7
SERIES PARALLEL
Cl C2 C3
HH Cl
C2
0
SUPPLY C3
SUPPLY
~ Capacitors in Parallel increase the effective area of the plates, and thus increase
the overall total capacitance. The formula for calculating the total value of capacitors
connected in parallel is:
~ Capacitors in Series increase the overall thickness of the dielectric, decreasing the
total capacitance. The formula for calculating the total va lue of capacitors connected
in series is:
Notably, if two capacitors of different values are connected in series in a circuit, the smaller
capacitor will have a higher value across it rather than the larger one . To understand why this
occurs, consider capacitance in terms of voltage:
Voltage is inversel y proportional to the capacitance, so the smaller the capacitor, the higher its
voltage.
Electrics 7-9
INTRODUCTION
Alternating Current (AC) continually changes its polarity and can vary in both magnitude and how
often it changes direction. This differs from Direct Current (DC), which is usually of a constant
value flowing in one direction only. The voltage and current in an AC circuit increase from zero to
maximum and back to zero again in one direction before reversing and reaching a maximum in
the other direction. The effect of an AC supply on resistors, inductors, and capacitors also diffe rs
from that of a DC supply.
ALTERNATING CURRENT
ADVANTAGES OF AC OVER DC
AC is extremely versatile and has the following advantages over DC:
~ AC can be simply and efficiently changed from one voltage to another using a
transformer.
~ AC generators are simpler and lighter in construction than DC generators for the
equivalent power output.
~ The frequency at which electro-magnetic radio waves can be made to propagate outwa rd
from a suitable aerial begins at 3000 Hz or 3 kHz, known as a radio frequency (RF). It is
relatively easy to increase an AC supply frequency to the RF level.
GENERATING AC
An AC generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. by using the electromagnetic
induction properties of a coil rotating in a magnetic field.
Electrics 8-1
Chapter 8 Basic AC Theol)'
As with a DC generator, the polarity of the induced voltage can be found using Fleming's Right-
Hand Rule (see page 5-1 ).
i
MOTION
MAGNETIC FTELO
SIMPLE AC GENERATOR
In its simplest form , an AC generator consists of a single loop of wire or armature , which is
mounted on a shaft, such that it can be rotated within a magnetic field . When it is rotated , an AC
voltage is induced in it, which can be easily transferred to an external circuit by means of carbon
brushes that bear on sli p rings connected to the loop.
When the armature moves through 360', or through one revolution , at a constant speed the
output voltage and current rise to a maximum value in one direction and back to zero , before
reversing in polarity. The voltage and current rise to a maximum value in the opposite direction
before again returning to zero. The paths plotted by the voltage and current are in the shape of a
sine wave whose magnitude and polarity are determined by the actual position of the armature as
shown in the following diagram.
8-2 Electri cs
Basic AC TheOlY Chapter 8
AC TERMINOLOGY
The diagram below shows how the voltage output varies when the armature is rotated th rough
360' .
INSTANTANEOUS
90 _ ~~~TAGE -------- --- ---f ---- ------
: PEAK
•
I VOLTAGE PEAK TO PEAK
VOLTAGE
1 CYCLE - ____
•
Cycle
This is a complete variation of voltage from zero through a maxi mum value in each
direction and returning to zero. It occurs when the armature of a basic AC generator
rotates through one complete revolution (360' ).
Instantaneous Value
This is the value at a specific instant in time.
Peak Value
The voltage curve rises to a maximum value in one half cycle , and the level at which this
occurs is the peak voltage.
Electrics 8-3
Chapter S Basic A C TheOl)·
Peak-to-Peak Value
This is the total voltage variati on between the peak positive voltage and the pea k
negative voltage.
Average Value
The average value of voltage or current can be calculated by taking a large number of
instantaneous values, either positive or negative , and dividing by the number of values
taken. Using advanced calculus, it can be shown that the average over a sine curve is
0.637 of the maximum peak value.
As the AC current only reaches 1A when it reaches the peak voltage , the overal l heating
effect is redu ced compared to the constant 1A current fiow in the DC supply. To define
the equivalent power of an AC supply when compared to a DC supply, the term Root
Mean Squared (RMS) is applied to an AC supply when the above comparison is taken
into consideration. For instance, the standard domestic electricity supply is 230 V, and
would give an equivalent heating effect as DC at 230 V and is , therefore, the RMS value.
The peak voltage value of the domestic supply is approximately 325 V.
Unless specifically stated, all values of AC vol tage and current are given as RMS values.
In fact, AC voltmeters and ammeters indicate RMS values .
Frequency
The number of complete cycles in one second is called the frequency of the supply and is
measured in hertz. The frequency of an AC waveform is directly related to the speed at
which the generator is driven. The standard AC electrical supply in modern aircraft is 200
volts 400 Hz. '
8-4 Electrics
Basic AC TheOlY Chapter 8
Periodic Time
This is the time taken to complete one complete cycle and is the reciprocal of frequency:
Periodic Time = F 1
requency
v,
o f----+--~,.--+---r- wI
(rad)
Both waveforms cross the zero axis at the same time and are in phase with each other. They
also reach their maximum and minimum peak values at the same time. If the waveforms are
displaced from each other and cross the zero axis at different points , they are out of phase, as
shown below.
v,
wI
o f--+-~r--"""--t-- (rad)
The maximum and minimum peak values also occur at different phase angles. By convention, the
angular difference between the two waveforms where they cross the horizontal axis and go
positive is the phase displacement or phase angle. In the above example, V, leads V2 by 90°
or, alternatively, V2 lags V, by 90'. If the frequency of V, and V2 is identical , the phase shift
remains constant.
Electrics 8-5
Chapter 8 Basic AC TheOlY
If the wavefor[Tls are 180' out of phase, they are said to be in anti-phase.
v,
wt
o ft---+--Jf---+---t-- Iradl
PHASOR REPRESENTATION
Any AC quantity that produces a sine wave output can be represented as a phasor, which is
simply a vector representation that rotates at a constant velocity.
~ _ _ _ v,
I
,/ WI"d~S
I ,
'
I ~ \
I /' , \
,I v2 \ WT
, I I I 0 v-"71~+--......-+-+--4r~;-+--+-+----<"""-r::- l r.dl
I ' I r 2
\ -r./6 I "
\ \ , I
, ' ... _ . - / I
,, /
/
,.
The length of each phasor represents the amplitude of the waveform and its angle wi th respect to
a given reference axis. In this exa mple , the phasors V, and V, are both rotating at the same rate ,
and V, is leading V, by 3~ '.
This can be more simply represented by using a phasor diagram , where V, is taken as the
reference phasor.
w Iradisl
By convention, the reference phasor is placed in the 3 o'clock position and all phasors rotate in
an anti-clockwise direction. In this case, V, is taken as the reference vector, since it has a phase
angle of zero. V, is 3~' behind it and, therefore, lags V,. An·y number of voltages andlor cu rrents
can be drawn on the same phasor diagram provided that they are all at the same frequency.
8-6 Electrics
INTRODUCTION
As voltage is a pressure that forces current to flow in a circuit, then in any circu it, there will be a
relationship between voltage and current that depends on whether the total load is capacitive ,
inductive, or resistive.
~ _ _ _--.J_ _ _ _ _----,_ wI
o (rad)
R
The current varies in both amplitude ·and direction in sympathy with the AC voltage. Where the
load is purely resistive in nature , both reach their maximum and minimum values at the same
time. When this condition exists, the two sine waves are in phase and are represented by the
phasor diagram as below:
As the voltage and current are in phase in a purely resistive circuit, power can be calculated in
exactly the same way as it is for a DC circuit, I x V, and is measured in watts. Al l the power used
in a resistive component is dissipated in the form of heat.
Electrics 9-1
Chapter 9 Single Phase A C Circuits
wt
o f"-----"'~---~- (rad)
Notice in the power curve above that all the power consumed is positive, even though for the
second half of the cycle voltage and current are negative. It is a mathematical fact that the
product of two negative values results in a positive value. Therefore all the power in a purely AC
resistive circuit does useful work and is called true or real power.
~-I--~--1~~r-- wt
L (rad)
In theory, if the total load is purely inductive, the phase shift is 90· . V leads I when the circuit is
inductive L, or VIL.
9-2 Electrics
Single Phase AC Circuits Chapter 9
O~--~---i~--~---r---rot
(rad)
In the first quarter cycle, the values of voltage and current are both positive quantities producing
positive power. In the second quarter cycle, the value of the current is still positive , but the value
of voltage is now negative, thus producing negati ve power. This pattern continues and repeats
every half cycle of the waveform. The averag e power is zero, and a perfect inductor dissipates
zero real or effe ctive power. The power produced is alternatively known as Reactive Power, and
is measured in volts amperes reactive (VAR).
In an AC circuit, an inductor has the same effect on current flow as a resistor. In a purely
inductive circuit, the current in the circuit is directly proportional to the applied voltage and
inversely proportional to the inductive reactance.
IL= l = __V_
XL 2nfL
If the supply frequency is increased, the inductive current decreases and vice versa. An inductive
component may thus be damaged if the frequency is reduced.
Electrics 9-3
Chapter 9 Single Phase A C Circllits
f---\----\---f~~r_-- wt
q c (rad)
If the voltage and current are monitored , the current does not rise in phase with the applied
voltage as it does in a resistive circuit. In a purely capacitive circuit, the current reaches its
maximum value nl2 radians (90' ) before the voltage across the capacitor reaches its maximum
value. The voltage and current are out of phase, and the voltage lags the current by nl2 radians
(90' ), or the current leads the voltage by the same angle.
,,/2
v
POWER IN AN AC CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT
The instantaneous power is given by multiplying the instantaneous values of voltage and cu rrent
together.
O~~\---~---*----y--- ~
(rad)
In the first quarter cycle, the ,values of voltage and current are both positive quantities, produci ng
positive power. In the second quarter cycle, the value of the voltage is still positive, but the value
of current is now negative , producing negative power. This pattern continues and repeats every
half cycle of the waveform. Althoug h capaci ti ve components do not dissipate any real power, they
do develop a voltage that opposes the supply. This opposition has a similar effect as the voltage
that drops across a power-consuming device. This effect is called reacti ve, or wat!less power and
is measured in volt amp reactive (VAR).
9-4 Electrics
Single Phase AC Circuits Chapter 9
In an AC circuit, a capacitor has the same effect on current fiow as a resistor. In a purely
capacitive circuit, the current in the circuit is directly proportional to the applied voltage and the
capacitive reactance.
IC= l = V x 2nfC
Xc
If the supply frequency is increased , the capacitive current will increase and vice vers a. A
capacitive component may thus be damaged if the frequency is increased.
CIVIL
In a Capacitive (C) Circuit, I before V (I leads V). In an Inductive (L) Circuit V before I (V
leads I).
This is particularly useful when dealing with series or parallel AC circuits. In series AC circuits,
current is used as the referen ce phasor, and in parallel AC circuits, voltage is used.
VOLTAGE VECTORS
,
The voltage drop across the resistor (V R) is in phase with the current, and the voltage drop across
the inductor (Vel leads the current by nl2 radians (90°). The supply voltage (Vs) can then be
calculated using the vector sum of these voltages.
Electrics 9-5
Chapter 9 Single Phase A C Circuits
IS
VC=IXc - - - - -- - - - - 'v
VOLTAGE VECTORS s
The voltage drop across the resistor (VR) is in phase with the current, and the voltage drop across
the capacitor (Ve) lags the current by rrl2 radians (90°). The supply voltage (Vs) can then be
calculated using the vector sum of these voltages, as in the case of the RL series circuit.
PHASE SHIFT
The phase shift of a circuit is the angle between the voltage and current vectors. It is a function of
the reactive and resistive components. In the case of a seri es RC circuit, it can be expressed
mathematically as tan <I> = XRC and for a series RL circuit as tan <I> = XRL .
[
=l-VL
R
I-'-(ro:) '--i I
L C I VL-Vc -- --- ----
IS
0 VR
AC SUPPLY
Vc
The voltage drop across the resistor (V R ) is in phase with the cu rrent. The voltage drop across the
capacitor (Vc) lags the cu rrent by nl2 ra dians (90°) and the voltage drop across the inductor (Vc)
leads the current by nl2 ra dians (90°). The vertical components, VL and Vc , are in direct
opposition to each other, so the resulting vertical component is (VL - Vc). The supply voltage (Vs)
is found using Pythagora s, as follows.
9-6 Electri cs
Single Phase AC Circuits Chapter 9
r. R
R xt.-Xc
XL
Z
e L
R Is
Xc
Ae SUPPLY
The current through the resistor (IR) is in phase with the Voltage. The current through the
capacitor (Ie) leads the voltage by rr/2 radians (90°), and the current through the inductor (1c)lags
the voltage by rr/2 radians (90°). The vertical components, IL and Ie, are in direct opposition to
each other, so the resulting vertical component is thus (IL - Ie) . The supply cu rrent (Is) is found
using Pythagoras, as follows.
Electrics 9-7
Chapter 9 Single Phase AC Circliits
e
Ie
Ie
's
o
VA =V r==::::::WATIS=V s x 'R
., SX's
V.A.R.=V s X('c'e)
True or Effective Power (watts) is the amount of power being consumed by the
resistive component in an AC circuil. The unit of true power is the watt.
Reactive Power (VAR) (wattless power) is the power consumed by the reactive
components. The unit of reactive power is volts-amperes reactive (VAR)
Apparent Power (VA) is found by measuring the voltage and current being applied to a
circuit and multiplying them together. The unit of apparent power is volt-amperes (VA),
and most AC equipment is rated in VA. Apparent power (VA) consists of the vector sum
of true power (watts) and reactive power (VAR).
Real or True
Power
(Watts)
9-8 Electri cs
Single Phase AC Circuits Chapter 9
POWER FACTOR
This is a means of indicating the amount of true power consumed in an AC circuit when the
apparent power (VA) is given. The formula is:
For example, if the apparent power of a circuit is 1000 vol t-amperes and the generator has a
power factor of 0.6, the true power is 600 watts (i.e. the generator is only 60% effective). If the
power factor is alternatively 1.0 or unity, the true power would be 1000 watts. It is therefore
important that the power factor is as close to unity as possible , although this is normally a fixed
quantity and cannot be altered.
100V AC-
Calculate the:
Electrics 9-9
Chapter 9 Single Phase AC Circllits
Solution:
XL = 1000
R=300
b) Is = Vs = 100 =2 amps
Z 50
c) VR =I x R =2 x 30 =60 volts
vc =I x Xc =2 x 60 =120 volts
V L =I X XL =2 x 100 =200 volts
This is because the supply voltage is ahead of the su pply current in the phasor diagram.
9-1 0 Electrics
Single Phase AC CirclIits Chapter 9
r----z----r----aIR
IL Ie
100V
-AC
-
33.30
xt.-
18.70 Xc-
100
Calculate the:
Electrics 9- 11
Chapter 9 Single Phase A C Circllits
Solution:
Ie • lOA
'R·3A
I==:::!!.=-:"':'~ 1OOV ~=~::'R~·::.:3A;. l00V
...
a) IR = Vs = 100 =3 amps
R 33.3
IL = ~ = 100 = 6 amps
XL 16.7
Reactive Power = Vs x (Ie -Ie) = 100 x 4 = 400 volt-amperes rea ctive (VAR)
9-12 El eetri es
INTRODUCTION
When a DC voltage is applied to a parallel circuit containing both inductance and capacitance , the
capacitor acts like an open circuit and the inductor like a short circuit. This means that Xc is
infinite while XL is zero. If a very low frequen cy AC is applied instead of DC and the frequen cy
gradually increased , XL increases and Xc decreases. A point is eventually reached where the
value of XL is the same as Xc. It follows that for any combination of L and C, there is a frequency
at which XL equals Xc. This is true whether the two components are connected in series or
parallel. The condition where XL equals Xc is kn own as resonance , and the frequency at which
this occurs is known as the resonant frequency (fo) .
XL.Xc
2TTfL = _ 1_
2IIfC
fo = 1
2nv'LC
Where: f =frequency in hertz, L =inductance in Hen rys
and C = capacitance in Farads
RESONANT CIRCUIT
SERIES RESONANT CIRCUIT
When current fiows in a series circuit containing a resistor, a capacitor, and an inductor, a voltage
develops across each component.
V
L
VR VL Vc
;L:row~ 11
f
R ys
0 ':=:J
AC SUPPLY
Vc
VR Is
Vs = ~VR2 + (Vc , - V L ) 2
Electrics 10 - I
Chapter 10 Resonant AC Circuits
At resonance, the voltage drop across the capacitor is equal and opposite of the voltage drop
across the inductor, and they cancel each other out.
Supply
At resonance, the voltage across the resistance (V R ) equals the supply voltage (Vs). The
capacitor and inductor therefore do not affect the supply, since they provide no opposition to
current flow at resonance. The voltage across the individual reactive components can also be
many times higher than the supply voltage. Similarly in terms of impedance (Z):
Both the capacitive and inductive reactances are dependent on the frequen cy and both alter with
changes in frequency, as shown below.
ohms
o I(Hz)
With increasing frequency, Xc reduces whilst XL increases and vice versa . The value of Z
similarly alters, and at resonance, Xc = XL, thus Z = R. Minimum impedance thus allows
maximum current to flow in the circuit when the resonant frequency is achieved.
A series resonant circuit is also known as an acceptor circuit, and is particularly useful in
communication equipment, because it increases the sensitivity of the receiver (Rx). This is done
by enabling signals of a given frequency to be magnified and separated from other signals. The
range of frequencies over which it is selective is called the bandwidth of the resonant circuit, as
shown in the following diagram.
10-2 Electrics
Resonant AC Circuits Chapter 10
HA)
Ban dwidth
v
o f (H z)
By convention , the bandwidth of a series circuit is the separation between two frequencies either
side of the resonant frequency, at which the output power falls to half its maximum value.
This is the reason the voltage across the reactive components can be very much larger than the
supply voltage , because it magnifies the voltage by the factor of Q.
01 c
'l~ l ~
SUPPLY ::r= l ~ I L=
~
o[ ~
~
r
Under these conditions, an equal amount of energy would first be stored in the capacitor in an
electrostatic fie ld and then passed to the inductor to be stored as an electro-magnetic field . This
is known as the flywheel effect , and because there is no resistance in the circuit, the oscillation
of energy between the capacitor and inductor would continue indefinitely. It follows that since no
energy needs to be replaced in the circuit, none is drawn from the AC supply other than the initial
amount of energy required to start the oscillation . The circuit appears to the supply to be an open
circuit. Practical parallel inductive-capacitive circuits, however, have resistance. Unlike the
hypothetical circuit shown, which only stores energy, resistance dissipates it in the form of heat.
In a practical tank circuit, the oscillation quickly dies away unless the lost energy is replaced by
the supply. If the resistance in the circuit is high , the oscillations quickly damp out, because the
energy is rapidly dissipated.
Electrics 10-3
Chapter 10 Resonant A C Circuits
In a normal parallel RLC circuit, the supply current (Is) can be established using a phasor diagram
and Pythagoras's Theorem , as shown below.
Ie
Ae SUPPLY
IL-Ie - ------ --
At resonance, the current through the capacitor is equal and opposite to the current through the
inductor, thus they cancel each other out.
Ie
SUPPLY
At resonance, the current through the resistance (lR) equals the supply current (Is). The capacitor
and inductor affect the supply, since they provide maximum opposition to current fiow at
resonan ce. The circulating current in the inductor and capacitor can also be many times greater
than the supply current at resonance. The impedance (Z) is maximum and the resultant current a
minimum at resonance .
Bandwidth
HIGH
C
U
R
R
E
N
T
LOW
fo
,
FREQUENCY
10-4 Electrics
Resonant AC Circuits Chapter 10
A parallel resonant circuit is also known as a rejector circuit and is particularly usefu l in
communication equipment, because it increases the selectivity of the receiver (Rx). This is done
by enabling signals of a given frequency to be easily separated from other signals, by magnifying
the supply current. The range of frequencies over which it is selective is cal led the bandwidth of
the resonant circuit, as shown in the previous diagram.
Often a parallel resonant circuit is too selective and responds to only a very narrow band of
frequencies. In these cases, con necting a relatively small value resistor across the tank circuit
can increase the ba ndwidth.
Q = ITan k
ISo urce
This is the reason why the current circulating around the reactive components can be very much
larger than the supply current.
Low-Pass Filter
In this circuit, an inductance coil is placed in series, and a capacitor is placed in pa rallel with the
su pply.
-----.--~~~--------
INPUT I OUTPUT
T
Low frequen cies pass easily through the inductance coil but are blocked by the capacitor,
where as the reverse occurs at higher freq uencies. This is because the reactance of the
components vari es with freq uency and thus determines which component passes current more
readily. At low frequencies, the inductive reactance (XL =
2I1fL) is low, whereas at higher
frequencies the capaci tive reactance (Xc = _1_ ) is low. A low-pass filter thus passes
2nfC
frequencies in the lower ranges, but attenuates or reduces the current at frequencies in the higher
ranges.
Electrics 10-5
Chapter 10 Resonant AC CirclIits
High-Pass Filter
In this circuit, a capacitor is placed in series, and an inductance coil is placed in parallel with the
supply.
INPUT OUTPUT
Low frequencies will pass easily through the inductance coil, but will be blocked by the capacitor,
whereas at higher frequencies , the reverse occurs. A high-pass filter passes frequencies in the
higher ranges, but attenuates or reduces the curren t at frequencies in the lower ranges.
Band-Pass Filter
This filter consists of a series LC and a parallel LC circuit, arranged as shown below.
,. -if--
I
INPUT ~. == OUTPUT
~
I
In this arrangement, the impedance of the series LC circuit remain s high , except at or near the
resonant frequency, whereas the impedance of the parallel LC circuit remains low until this
frequency band is reached . The number of circuit components and their resistance also
determines the bandwidth of this filter (i.e. the greater the resistance , the greater the bandwidth).
Band-Reject Filter
This filter consists of a series LC and a parallel LC circuit, arranged as shown below.
I
INPUT
J OUTPUT
In this arrangement, the impedance of the parallel LC circuit remains low, except at or near the
resonant frequency, whereas the impedance of the series LC circuit remains high until this
frequency band is reached. The resonant frequencies are thus bypassed and blocked from
reaching the output. The number of circuit components and their resistance also determines the
bandwidth of this filter (i.e. the greater the resistance, the greater the bandwidth).
10-6 Electrics
Resonant AC Circu its Chapter 10
TUNING CIRCUITS
A filter may be used as a tuning circuit if either a variable capacitor or inductor is used. A typical
circuit is shown below.
p
c
In this circuit, a variable capacitor is used with a fi xed resistor. In other circuits, a fixed capacitor
is used with a variable inductor, which is altered using a moveable core. Tuning circuits usually
have a high selectivity and only allow a narrow band of frequencies to pass, whilst rejecting all
others.
During its operation , radio signals cut across the antenna and induce signals (currents) of various
frequencies to pass through the primary (P) winding of the antenna coil to earth . The resulting
electromagnetic waves induce an EMF in the secondary (S) winding of the antenna coil and the
variable capacitor (e). When the resonant frequency of the coil is rea ched , a maximum voltage is
developed across the capacitor, and a maximum voltage is applied to the emitter-base of the
transistor. This voltage is the input signal to the transistor, which in turn amplifies the relati vely
weak signal being passed to the tuner.
In other cases, a series-resonant circuit is used in the primary circuit, which only allows maximum
current to fiow in this section at the resonant frequency. This prevents unwanted frequen cies from
being induced in the secondary winding and increases the system's selectivity.
Electri cs 10-7
INTRODUCTION
Transformers are extremely versatile devices that can be used to either step up and step down
AC voltages or to step up and step down AC current. They can also allow AC to pass and block
DC.
TRANSFORMERS
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION
The most common type of transformer is the voltage transformer, wh ich consists of two windings,
the primary winding and the secondary winding. The windings are not electrically connected
together, which is a safety feature in AC electrical circuits , but are wound on the same laminated
soft iron core.
WINDING WINDING
If an AC voltage is applied to the primary winding , the resultant changing flu x links with the
secondary winding. The changing flux is concentrated by the iron core and causes an EMF to be
induced in the secondary winding. The magnitude of the EMF is proportional to the ratio of the
number of turns between the primary and secondary windings.
Turns Ratio = Np = Vp
Ns Vs
Electrics I I-I
Chapter II Transformers
Voltage transformers are categorised depending on the ratio of the turns and are represented by
the following symbols .
;. fir
IRON CORE
:ill =a ~~.-
STEP UP STEP DOWN
If there are more turns on the secondary than the primary, it is a step-up transformer. If there are
more turns on the prima ry than the secondary, it is a step-down transformer.
Transformers are also extremely efficient (i.e. the amount of power in is approximately equal to
the amount of power out), and they are rated in volt-amperes (VA). The following relationship
exists between the turns ratio, voltage , and current.
If the voltage is stepped up , the current is stepped down. For example, if a transformer has a
turns ratio of 1:2, and inputs of 240 V and 5 amps, the outputs will be , respectively:
!.§. = Np
Ip NS
18 = ~x 5 = 2.5 amps
Transformers also consist of inductive components, so it is important that they are operated at
their correct frequency and voltage. Any under-frequency condition results in the primary current
increasing and the transformer overheating.
11-2 Electrics
Transformers Chap!er JJ
TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS
In addition to voltage transformers , the following types of transformers also exist:
Three-phase transformers (isolation transformers) .are widely used on aircraft and consist of
three individual isolation transformers, where the primary windings are connected toge ther across
a three-phase AC supply, as shown below.
PRIMARY SECONDARY
OUTPUT
STAR DELTA
The secondary windings are also connected together. They produce a three-phase output vol tage
of a value dependent on the supply and the turn 's ratio between the three corre sponding winding
pairs, which are normally the same. The primary and secondary windings can be alternatively
connected in a delta-star configuration , as shown in the following diagram , or connected in star-
star or delta-delta. This is dependent on the transformer's particular application .
Auto transformers. are a special type, since they have no electrical isolation between the
primary and secondary windings. A single continuous winding is wound on a lam inated iron core,
where part of the winding is used as the primary, whilst the other part is used as the secondary,
as shown below.
b
~
;:
INPUT OUTPUT
~
OUTPUT INPUT §:§
STEP DOWN STEP UP
These transformers can be used to either step-up or step-down the applied voltage, depending
on the winding configuration. In a step-down device, the whole of the winding serves as the
primary winding , whilst the lower half of the winding serves as the secondary winding . In this
case, there are fewer turns in the secondary than in the primary; so the voltage is stepped-down,
but the current is stepped-Up. This configuration is typically used to power aircraft instruments
where the voltage is stepped-down from 115 V 400 Hz to 26 VAC. The disadvantage of this
format is that the full voltage is placed across the load-if the coil goes open circuit, since there is
no voltage isolation between the two windings.
Electrics 11-3
Chapter]] Transfomlers
Conversely, in a step-up auto transformer, the lower half of the coil is used as the primary, and
the entire coil is used as the secondary. In this case, the secondary has more turns than the
primary, so the transformer steps-up the voltage and steps-down the current. On aircraft, this
arrangement is typically used in windshield anti-icing systems.
If the output from the auto transformer can be varied via a moveable tapping , as shown below, it
is also known as a variac and is typically used on the fiight deck to control the intensity of ultra-
violet lighting.
INPUT
OUTPUT
Current transformers differ from the voltage transformer, because the primary circuit consists of
a supply feeder cable rather than a winding connected across a supply, as shown below.
CURRENT
;<i= TRANSFORMER
(SECONDARY)
B
r-------------~~.------~U
CURRENT
TRANSFORMER
~~
~
!
R
In thi s arrangement, the altern ating mag netic fi eld associated with the load current is linked to the
current transformer secondary winding via a laminated soft iron core, through wh ich the feeder
(prim ary) passes. The secondary current is used to feed a meter and typically registers the
current fi owing from an AC generator to the busbar or load. The secondary current can
additional ly be used to supply power meters and to monitor the load-Sharing in an electrical
circuit. In AC power generation systems, this type of transformer ca n also be used as a sensor in
a differential protection circuit, as shown on the next page.
11 -4 Electrics
Transfor/ners Chapter J J
·1 r Tr
I
I II
+=-~
,---=-7 \
--.;;-
{GEN \
I
I
1
I
II
ill I
1111
1111
1
I
I II
I L,.~
L -=--.J
CuRRENT
TRANS
,/
I I CURRENT
TRANS
VOLT
REG
This system protects against line-to-line and line-to-earth short circuits on the feeder lines
between the generator and the generator circuit breaker (GCB). Doughnut current transform ers
are placed around the feeder lines and secondary windings of each pair in series opposition to
ensure that the full output from the generator passes to the load. Under no fault conditions, the
currents at each end of the feeder lines are equal, so the induced EMF is in balance and no
current flows to the differential protection relay. If a difference in current of 30-40 amps exists ,
a signal flows to the protection relay, which instantaneously trips the generator control relay
(GCR) and the GCB , thus automatically disconnecting the generator from the system.
240 VOLTS AC
SUPPLY
This device takes the mains 240 VAC and converts 11 to approximately 14 VDC to charge the
battery. This is achieved by a transformer, which first steps down the AC voltage to a reasonable
level and then converts it via a bridge rectifier assembly into DC.
Electrics 11-5
--------
Chapler JJ Transformers
Most large aircraft AC generator systems have dedica ted TRUs, which operate on the same
principle, although they are slightly more sophisticated. A typical un it is illustrated below.
TRU OVERHEAT
RI i-----il,
THERMOSTAT
THREE
PHASE
200 VOLTS
A +-~-4----------1---------I
COOLING
B ~---+----------~-------4
FAN
ct---~------------------~ __/
The TRU that is fitted to an aircraft is typicall y supplied with 200 V 400 Hz three-phase AC , which
is stepped-down through a three-phase star-star wou nd transformer and changed to 28 VDC by a
six-rectifier bridge assembly. The output from the TRU is then fed to the aircraft's DC busbars .
~ Overheat
When operating, most TRUs are cooled by air from a thermostatically controlled
cooling fan. If the TRU overheats (150°-200°) due to fa n or other failure , a wa rning
light illuminates on the flight deck. The TRU should then be switched off, either
manually or automatically.
~ Reverse Current.
When the TRUs are operating in parallel with some other power source, the failure of
a rectifier in a TRU can cause a reverse current to fiow into it and may even cause a
fire. Reverse current protection in the failed TRU is designed to sense the fault
current when it reaches approximately 1 amp, and disconnect the TRU automatically
from the DC bus bars.
I
11 -6 Electrics
'jEJplEif 12
,. ~ !ila !JJEifJafEJ 110fJ
INTRODUCTION
The majority of large modern aircraft now employ three-phase AC generators, because they are
more efficient than their DC equivalents. The most powerful of these are called three-phase
machines. The following explanation of three-phase circuits is based on a simple three-phase
generator.
POWER GENERATION
SIMPLE THREE PHASE GENERATOR
A three-phase generator consists of two main parts , as shown below:
(YELLOW)
(BLUEI
The rotor carries the electromagnetic field that is driven by the aircraft engine , whilst the stator
carries three sets (pai rs) of coils (phase windings) . These windings are fixed to one another at
angles of 120", and the phases are AAlo BB" and CC, or coloured Red (RR,), Yellow (YY,) , and
Blue (BB,) respectively, where the A or Red phase is classified as the reference phase. As the
rotor rotates, it induces an EMF in each set of windings in turn and produces a sine wave output
from each , as shown in the diag ram on the next page.
Electrics 12- 1
Chapter 12 A C PO\\'er Generation
At any instant, the sum of the EMFs or the currents in a balanced system will add up to zero.
These windings supply the output of the generator and are connected in either a Star or Delta
configuration, as shown below.
STAR
OUTPUT
Most aircraft similarly use three-phase AC motors with delta or star-wound stators.
STAR CONNECTION
In the star configuration , one end of each phase winding is connected to a common point called
the Neutral (N) or Star Point, whilst the other end of each phase winding is con nected to output
terminals distributing AC power of different phases.
~
= 115V i LINE VOLTAGE (VL) =200V
B 1
LINE CURRENT (IL)
12-2 Electrics
AC Power Generation Chapter /2
In this config uration , the output voltages and currents are respectively:
~ Phase Voltage = 11 5 V
~ Line Voltage = 200 V
The vast majority of ai rcraft AC generators are connected in the star configuration with the neutral
point (N) connected directly to earth , which allows:
When a three-phase star-con nected generator is feeding a balanced load (ABC phases feeding
the same current), the net current of all three phases is zero. In this case, no current fiows in the
neutral line . When unbalanced currents feed the load, the resultant of these currents will fiow in
the neutral line. If the currents being used are always balanced, there is no need for a neutral
point to be fitted. On aircraft, although desirable, it is not practical for the generator to feed
bala nced loads all of the time, so it is necessary on most generators to connect the neutral point
to earth .
DELTA CONNECTION
In the delta configuration, the phases are connected in a tri angular (delta) format with no common
or neutral point.
i
PHASE
i
LINE
VL=VP
VOLTAGE (VP) VOLTAGE (VL)
yocooxxm)-E-i~-'---i~~"---L-IN...lE~c-U-(RRENT (IL)
1
PHASE CURRENTS liP)
Unlike the star connection, the phase and line voltages in the delta connection are the same:
Electrics 12-3
Chapter 12 AC Power Generation
» They can produce a rotating magnetic field , which can be used to operate efficient
three-phase AC motors .
The output frequency of an AC generator is alternatively dependent on the rotational speed of the
rotor and the number of magnetic field poles, as shown in the following formula .
PHASE ROTATION
Three-phase power supplies in an aircraft power system must have a positive phase sequence
(i.e. A.B.C, B.C.A, or CAB). If any of the phases are crossed over (i.e. A.C.B, C.B.A, or BAC), a
negative phase sequence would exist and result in the three-phase motor running in the wrong
direction.
---""0
' " OPEN CIRCUIT CAUSES LOSS
OF THE RELEVANT PHASE
('B' PHASE)
12-4 Electrics
A C Power Generation Chapter 12
The diagram below shows how these faults would affect a delta-con nected generator.
AC BUSBAR
Electrics 12-5
Chapter 12 A C Power Generation
TYPES OF AC GENERATOR
The basic types of aircraft AC generators are:
DC EXCITATION
ROTOR
The outer shell of the machine holds the stator that consists of three fixed star-connected
windings , and the generator is cooled by ram air.
SAUENT POLE
ROTOR
___ BRUSHGEAR
STATOR
12-6 Electrics
A C Po-wer Genera(;oJ1 Chapter 12
A typical three-phase brushed AC generator, as shown above , would be rated at 22 KVA with an
output of 208 V and would supply a full load at this voltage through a frequency range of
280 - 400 Hz. The generator frequency and output voltage vary with rotational speed , so this type
cannot be used to operate circuits containing inductive and capacitive components.
This type of generator can thus only be used to operate purely resistive circuits, such as the
propeller de-icing system on turbo propeller aircraft (e.g. the F27).
During its operation, some of the AC output is fed back to the vol tage regulator via a three-phase
full rectifier pack, which provides a medium to low DC voltage and self excitation of the generator,
as shown in the following diagram, although the majority is passed directly to the main AC
busbars.
,
Stalor
Output To Bus Bar.
,fVV' Field .1 B
c
Slip Rings And B, ushes = IA . 1A
= I ''''
I, ......
'.......
IA
..::: ;;:
,.......
""
aatlerv
'--
Volt
Reg
ConlrOI Sw
Yf---11--<
The voltage regulator senses the output from the generator and automatically adjusts the
excitation field for varying engine speed and load conditions. The battery is thus no longer
required and is manually disconnected from the circuit via the control switch .
A temperature sensor and a quill drive protect this type of machine. If the generator overheats, it
should be off-loaded, or even switched off and allowed to cool. The quill drive connects the
generator to the engine and is designed to shear if the generator seizes, protecting the engine. It
is also designed to absorb any mechanical vibrations and produce a smoother output.
Electrics 12-7
Chap'e,. 12 AC Pmver Generation
This type of generator comprises three individual parts as shown in the following diagram . A
permanent magnet generator (PMG) initially induces a single-phase AC voltage into the pilot
exciter when the rotor is driven via the CSDU . The AC voltage is then full-wave rectified and fed
to the main exciter by way of the voltage regulator. As the three-phase windings, which are
mounted on a common drive shaft, are rotated within the field , a three-phase AC voltage is
induced in the windings. The output is then rectified via a three-phase bridge rectifier circuit,
which consists of six diodes that are mounted inside the drive shaft and produces the main DC
field. The temperature of the diodes is carefully controlled by ram air-cooling, wh ich is directed
down the centre of the shaft. The field coil is also fixed to the common drive shaft .As it rotates, it
induces a voltage in the AC output windings. Some of the output is fed back to the voltage
regulator and increases the output from the pilot exciter, which in turn increases the output from
the main exciter. This sequence of events continues until the generator reaches its regulated AC
output line voltage of 200 V and phase voltage of 115 V at 400 Hz.
THREE PHASE 200 VOLT
400 Hz OUTPU
VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
AC DC
-----r- ----------------r---- ------ ~
, ,
,
: PERMANENT
: ~:~~;':TOR ,
~ ~~~O!_~~~~~~~ __ ____ ____ ____ ____ ______ __________ _
MAIN EXCITER
12-8 Electrics
A C Power Generation Chapter 12
OIL LEVEL
SIGHT GLASS
The CSDU is designed to keep the generator running at a constant speed, which is usually 8000
rpm for varying engine speeds, and gives a constant output frequen cy of 400 Hz. One particular
type of device is mechanically/hydraulically driven and consists of a self-contained oil system, as
shown in the following diagram. A pump assembly provides high-pressure oil, which controls the
pumping action of a pump/motor assembly via a centrifugal governor.
Electrics 12-9
Chapler 12 A C Power Generation
The governor is a mechanical device and is not sensitive enough to give the fine speed trimming
required to control the frequency wi thin close limits, 395 - 425 Hz. To achieve the required trim ,
an electromagnetic coil receives signals from the electrical system load con troller and modifies
the position of the flyweights in the governor.
DISCONNECT
CSDU DISCONNECT
PUSH
SERVO PISTON
o 0
OIL PRESS
o
SWITCH o o
I PUMP
The CSD U cylinder block is mechanically linked to the engine drive and as it rotates, the end of
the pump pistons stroke against a stationary incli ned pump wobbler (swash) plate , as shown
below, thus producing a pumping action.
PUMP
CYLIND ER
'BLOCK
/.
/ /
GOVERNOR
o VERD/{t VE UNDERDRIVE
12-10 Electrics
A C Power Generation Chapter 12
The angle or inclination of this plate is controlled by a mechanical govern or, which varies the
hydraulic pressure to the two sides of a piston inside a control cylinder (servo mechanism). As the
block rotates, the end of the motor pistons also stroke against an inclined fi xed angle motor
wobbler (swash) plate assembly, where an eccentric centre plate is sandwiched between two
stationary plates. The centre plate is coupled to an output shaft, wh ich drives the generator, and
is free to rotate against ball bearings. The pressure exerted on the motor pistons by the pump
determines the rotational speed of the centre plate. The higher the pressure, the faster it rotates.
A typical analogy of this is a piece of soap on the side of the bath, where the harder it is
squeezed, the faster it tends to move away.
Conversely, if the throttle setting is increased the engine speed similarly increases, thus rotating
the casing of the CSDU faster and increasing the pumping action of the hydraulic pump. The
engine output is now faster than the required generator speed, and an under-drive condition
exists. The governor senses this , and the angle of the swash plate is decreased. Oil is directed to
the right-hand side of the piston via the under-drive inlet port, thus decreasing the stroke of the
pistons. This decreases the output pressure from the pump and forces the motor pistons to exert
less force on the downhill side of the motor wobbler assembly. This causes the cen tre plate to
rotate slower than the cylinder block, thus maintaining a constant generator speed.
When the engine output speed equals the required generator speed , the oil pressure and oil fl ow
within the hydraulic system are such that the motor is hydraulically locked (i.e. the cylinder block
is locked to the motor and both rotate together as a fixed coupling).
Electrics 12- 11
Chapter 12 AC POlver Generation
~------------------ - ---------,
I I
I I
I r
I
I
I
(SO
ENGINE 2
Conversely, if there is an indication of imminent failure , the CSDU disconnect switch can be
manually selected by the flight crew. This operates a solenoid switch , as shown below, and
allows the threaded pawl to engage with the coarse thread on the input shaft, separating the dog
tooth clutch mechanism .
THREADED PAWL
SHOWN DISCONNECTED
PAWL SPRING
HANDLE
SPRING J
TRANSMISSION CASE
RESET HANDLE
12-12 Electrics
.
AC Power Generation Chapter 12
This separates the drive between the engine and CSDU and allows the generator to run down.
Once the CSDU has been disconnected , it cannot be reset until the aircraft is on the ground wi th
its engine shut down, although the disconnect mechanism can be activated at any time. In ord er
to prevent inadvertent CSDU disconnect, the switches are normally guarded and locked with thin
copper wire.
Hydraulic
Log Speed
Adjusl--,
VARIABLE VOLTAGE
FREQUENCY FILTEREO SENSING
34> AC DC
SRUSHLESS
AC GENERATOR
FULL-WAVE
CRYSTAL-DIODE
RECTIFIER
CONVERSION
CIRCUITRY
A}
B
~
34> AC
400 Hz
WITH FILTER
I I VO LTAGE
REGULATOR
I
I
I
VSCF systems are more reliabl e and offer greater flexibility than a typical CSDU and generator
configuration. The generator is still driven directly from the aircraft engine, but the control units of
the VSCF system can be mounted virtually anywhere in the aircraft, thus allowing for a more
compact engine nacelle.
Electrics 12-1 3
Chapter 12 AC Power Generation
ECU
FREE TURBINE
SPEED SENSOR (2)
IGV ACTUATOR
FREE TURBINE
SPEED CONTROLLER -"'~_ LOAD COMPRESSOR
CONTROLLER
Ng SPEED -~::::)=91
SENSOR
~::::::::::,.INLET GUIDE
" VANES
FUEL CONTROL
ENGINE
ACCESORY
SECTION
~~i
~~-~=--+---I"----~
COMBUSTION
COOLING FAN
SECTION
The APU can also be used to supply compressed air on the ground for engine starting and
electrical power in flight during an emergency.
Most APUs have their own dedicated 24-volt battery for starting or can alternatively be started
from ground power. The main aircraft battery switch must be on to operate the APU control
circuits. The APU can drive one or two generators , depending on the type of aircraft, and these
are the same type as those fitted to the main engines. The APU does not require a CSDU to
maintain a constant frequency output, since the drive from the APU runs at a constant speed via
a governor, and can be used up to 25 000 ft.
12-14 Electrics
AC Power Generation Chapter 12
BLADE
\~{..-4r----+-LOCK CABLE
HYDRAULIC
PUMP
A variable pitch propeller drives a hyd raulic pump, which in turn drives an AC generator at a
constant speed and supplies 200 V, 3 Phase , 400 Hz for emergency loads. During the approach
to landing , the RAT may become inefficient, so the aircraft batteries take over and supply the
necessary loads during the fina l approach.
The RAT can additionally only be restored on the ground and is also inhibited from deployment
on the ground .
Electrics 12-1 5
••
'3!J!Jf)
INTRODUCTION
AC supply systems vary in comple xity depending on aircraft type and electrical requirements.
There are two categories of AC systems commonly used dependent on whether the output
frequency of the generator is controlled or not. They are known as frequency wild and constant
frequency systems and are fully described below.
TRANSFORMER
RECTIFIER
DC OUTPUT CAN BE
PARALLELED
The output from each generator is normally 200 V three-phase and varies in freq uency between
280 and 540 Hz, which corresponds respectively to low and high engine rpm . The generators in
this system should not be run in parallel under any circumstance, so their AC output is normally
used to feed heating elements only. This is because the elements are purely resistive and are
unaffected by changes in frequency. In some systems , part of the frequency-wild output is
rectified in a transformer rectifier unit (TRU) and provides an alternative DC supply. The DC
supplies may also be paralleled provided that the voltages are matched .
Electrics 13-1
.
Chapterl 3 AC POH'er Generation Systems
LINE
CONTACTOR
f-.....H - t - - TRANSFORMER B REDUNDANCY
RECTIFIER i---tu DC SUPPLY
S
UNIT B
A
FIELD R
GENERATOR
VOLTAGE WARNING
REGULATOR CONTROL ESSENTIAL BUSBAR
AND
PROTECTIO
UNIT
OFF
ON
Ii
~a-=
INITIAL EXCITATION
JINVERTER J
RELAY
AC
...
Switching the generator control switch to RESET and thus closing the field relay achieves this.
When the generator is producing an output, part of it is fed back through the voltage regulator and
Bridge Rectifier Pack to provide the generator field, providing self-excitation. Once the
generator is operating at its regulated output voltage of 200 V, the line-contactor closes, and the
generator warning light goes out. Moving the control switch to the ON position subsequently de·
excites the fie ld relay and removes the source of the initial excitation current. The generator will
now be fully self-excited , and the voltage regulator will continue to adjust the field excitation for
varying speed load conditions.
~ Overheat
If the generator overheats due to inadequate cooling or overload , a warn ing light
illuminates on the flight deck, and the generator should be manually switched off.
~ Earth-Leakage
If there is low insulation in the alternator system or loads, a warning light illuminates.
If this occurs , switch off the generator.
13-2 Electrics
AC Power Generation Systems Chapter 13
~ Under-Voltage
This fault normally uses the same warning light as that used to indicate an earth
leakage fault. The system voltmeter is used to discriminate between an earth leakage
fault and an under-voltage fault.
~ Over-Voltage
If an over voltage occurs, a sensing circuit automatically de-excites the generator and
removes it from the busbar. One attem pt is usually allowed to reset the system by
cycling the control switch between RESET and RUN.
~ Differential Protection.
This system is used to:
DIFFERENTIAL FAULT B
U
S
B
A
DIFFERENTIAL R
PROTECTION
L
0
A
D
DE-EXCITES FIELD
AND REMOVES GENERATOR
FROM BUS BAR -
If one of the above faults exists, the generator is automatically de-excited and is removed from
the busbar. One reset may be attempted, but even if the system resets satisfactoril y for the rest of
the flight, the fault must still be reported on land ing.
Electrics 13-3
-
Chapler 13 AC Power Generation Systems
GROUND
POWER
-r.-{
~~~~~~~~~~~
BUS-TIE BREAKER
NON· ESSENTIAL
AC CONSUMERS
ESSENTI AL BUSBAR
C:JB~ATnI!ER~YQBmU~SB~A~R::~~~::JN~O~.'~D~C]B~US~B~AER:J----~: __----~:ENot.I2~DC~B~U~S~BA~RCJ
BATIERY ISOLATION
RELAY RELAY NON·ESSENTIAL
DC CONSUMERS
The power supply can be derived from fou r sou rces: two engine-driven integrated drive
generators (lOGs), an Auxiliary Power Unit (APU ), and an external power receptacle. These
sources should never be paralleled at any time. Under norm al operation, the generators
independently feed the left and right section loads of the electrical system. The loads fed by these
generators are norm ally indicated on ammeters fitted to each generator output. The APU is used
to drive a third generator, which can supply the electrical power necessary for ground operations
or act as a substitute for a failed engine-<lriven generator. External power can also be used
instead of APU power on the ground. but not simultaneously.
If the No.1 engine is initially started and run up, its dedicated lOG produces the correct output
(200 V 400 Hz three-phase) and feeds the No.1 main AC busbar. However, before it can supply
this busbar, the APU power must be removed from the No. 1 main AC busbar by opening the
appropri ate GCB , followed by the closing of the No.1 lOG GCB. The No.1 lOG now feeds the
No. 1 main AC busbar and the APU generator continues to feed the No.2 main AC busbar. When
the No.2 engine is up and running , its lOG alternatively feeds the No.2 main AC busbar. The
APU generator supply must, however, fi rst be removed from the No.2 busbar before the lOG is
allowed to feed it. At this point. the APU is no longer needed to feed the electrical system and is
shut down. Both engine-driven lOG AC supplies now operate independently of each other and
are kept separated by the Bus-Tie Breaker (BTB).
13-4 Electrics
AC Pmver Generation Systems Chapter 13
If one lOG fails. the BTB between the two systems automatically closes and the serviceable
generator feeds both of the main AC busbars. If the APU is started again. it substitu tes for the
failed generator and the BTB opens . The main aircraft DC supply is maintained by two TRUs (one
for each lOG ). as follows.
The TRUs are kept independent from each other by an isolation relay. If either TR U fa ils. the
isolation relay between the two sides automatically closes. and the servicea ble TRU feeds both
busbars.
~ A speed regulator. which senses the output speed or frequency of the lOG and
adjusts the lOG to give a frequency output of between 380 and 420 Hz
A dedicated protection unit houses the circuitry. which detects any faults occurring up to. and
including the busbars. Faults within this zone usually have time delays so that any faults
occurrin g after the busbars have time to trip the circuit breakers or blow the fuses .
~ Over-Voltage
If this type of fault is allowed to persist. it could cause serious damage to cable insulation
and components.
~ Differential Protection
This type of protection monitors the following faults:
• A line-to-l ine or line-to-earth fault. which normally occurs inside the lOG
• If the current flowing to the busbar is different from the current flowing from the
lOG
Electrics 13-5
Chapter 13 AC Power Generation Systems
B
U
~~~~--~~--+r~S
B
DIFFERENTIAL
L
PROTECTION
o
A
D
DE-EXCITES FIELD
AND REMOVES GENERATOR
FROM BUSBAR
Differential faults are detected by current transformers, which sense an imbalance in current
between the generator and the busbar. If one of the above faults exists , the generator field is
automatically de-excited and the generator removed from the busbar
>- Over-Frequency
If this fault is allowed to continue, it may damage any capacitive circuits due to high
currents.
l>- Under-Frequency
This fault causes high currents and the overheating of any inductive circuits.
>- Resetting
Many of the faults mentioned have a fa cility by which the system can be reset. One
reset only is usually allowed (i.e. the system is cycled).
13-6 Electrics
AC Power Generation Systems Chapter 13
EMERGENCY SUPPLIES
In the unlikely event that both IDGs and the APU generator fail , AC can still be obtained from:
~ The aircraft battery, which automatically feeds the AC essential busba r via a static
inverter
~ A Ram Air Turbine (RAT) can be automatically or manually dropped into the
airstream to drive an AC generator, wh ich produces a constant frequency output for
the AC essential busbar.
If the emergency power supplies are selected, it is normal to shed any non-essential loads (e.g.
galleys) in order to prevent overloading the remaining generators, which is known as Load
Shedding.
BATTERY CHARGER
Modern aircraft are fitted with battery chargers that are supplied from AC power supplies. These
provide a DC supply to charge a battery in the shortest possible time, within certain voltage
constraints, and without causing excessive gassing.
The charger provides a DC current of 45-50 Amps until the charg e reaches completion. It then
reverts to the pulse mode to prevent the battery voltage from becoming excessive.
Comprehensive protection circuitry is provided in the battery charger to give protection against:
~ Over voltage
~ Overheating
~ Battery disconnection
If the battery over-volts, the battery charger is automatically switched off and can only be reset by
a push-switch situated on the front of the battery charger. If the charger overheats, it is
automatically shut down but resets itself when cooled. If the battery is disconnected, the charger
cannot be switched on.
BATTERY POWER
The batteries supply secondary DC power. On most aircraft, they also feed essential DC and ,
through a static inverter, essential AC for a period of 30 minutes or more. Some batteries are
additionally fitted in non-pressurised areas in the fuselage and are provided with electrically
heated blankets to prevent freezing.
Electrics 13-7
-
Chapter 13 A C Power Generation Systems
~ Advantages
When operating in parallel this system :
~ Prolongs the generator life expectancy, since each generator is normally run
on part load
~ Disadvantages
The disadvantages of the system are:
~ Parallel operation does not meet the requirements for totally independent
supplies.
On most aircraft, only the engine-driven generators can normally be paralleled. The APU or the
ground power unit cannot be paralleled with the engine-driven generators or each other. Circuit
interlocks prevent this from occurring in the case of incorrect system management.
With the No.1 engine running, its generator is excited when the generator control relay (GCR) is
closed , which enables the generator to give an output (200 V three-phase 400 Hz). On closing
the generator switch, the external services breaker (ESB) opens , removing ground power. The
No. 1 generator circuit breaker closes. This allows the No.1 generator to supply the necessary
aircraft power.
13-8 EleClrics
AC Po wer Generation Systems Chapter / 3
With the No. 2 engine running and its generator producing the necessary output, it can be
paralleled with the No.1 generator via the synchronising busbars by closing the No.2 generator's
GCB. The following conditions, however, must exist before paralleling can take place between
two generators:
Once all of the above conditions have been satisfied, selecting the No.2 generator switch to ON
causes the GCB to close and the No.1 and No.2 generators to run in parallel. Both generators
must share the real (watts) and reactive (VAR) loads equally. These are monitored on individual
generator WattsN AR meters on the flight deck.
Electrics 13-9
•
~
~
u
·c
U
"
.;;. .!!
UJ
.§
~
~
~
~ cSD~IiIf--------,
u
'"
VOLT
REG REG REG REG
GCB~:-«ID
BUS BAR BUSBAR BUS BAR
ESSENTIAL
BUSBAR
"4~==::;i==-::1
,
GPB
1 -@) GCr-G
~
GROUND ESB . 1 APU
POWER
j @
-
,..,
~
f} o
,
"'"
u '"
AC Power Generation Systems Chapter 13
The NO.3 and NO.4 generators are paralleled using the same method as the No. 1 and NO.2.
generators. When all of the generators are running , the No. 1 and No. 3 generators are kept
separate from the No.2 and No.4 generators by a spl it system breaker (SS8). If any engine-
driven generator fails, the SSB automatically closes.
BTB
Electrics 13-11
-
Chapter 13 AC Power Generation Systems
PARALLELING
The following methods are used to parallel AC generators:
Automatic Paralleling
When using the automatic paralleling method , the generator switch is selected to on at
any time, and once the auto-paralleling circuits sense that both generators are read y for
paralleling , the GCB automatically closes.
Over-Voltage protection devices operate whenever the system voltage exceeds 225 V.
They protect the components in the system from damage due to excessive voltages. This
protection device operates on an inverse time function , which means that the magnitude
of voltage determines the time in which the offending generator is de-energised by
tripping the GCR and GCB . The GCR de-energises the field , and the GCB trips the
generator off the busbar.
Differential Protection devices operate in the same way as stated in the split-busbar
generator system . They operate if any of the following faults exist:
13-12 Electrics
AC Power Generation Systems Chapter 13
Instability Protection (Parallel Fault) devices are incorporated in the system to guard
against oscillating outputs from the generators, which may cause sensitive equipment to
malfunction or tri p off. This especially appl ies to autopilot and radio installations. If the
system is operating in parallel , and the No.1 generator becomes unstable, the instability
protection circuits in all generators sense this and trip all of the BTBs. This isolates the
unstable generator from the other generators, and the instability protection device
continues to operate, tripping its GCR and GCB. The generator, voltage regulator, or
CSDU may cause instability.
Overheat warning lights illuminate if a temperature sensor fitted in the generator senses
an overheat condition. This fault may be caused by overloading the generator on the
ground (no ram air-cooling) or by a blockage in the ram air-cooling duct in flight. If this
warning occurs, the pilot should operate the GCR switch, wh ich will cause the GCR and
GCB to trip.
Over-speed (Over Frequency) devices operate if a fault occurs in the CSDU , which may
cause the generator to exceed its specified frequency limits. If left unchecked , this fault
damages the aircraft capacitive loads. In older systems , a pressure switch in the CSD U
detects this type of fault, but in modern systems frequency sensiti ve circuits detect it. If
an over-speed condition occurs, it causes the GCB to trip and puts the CSDU into under-
drive.
Time delays are fitted in the generator protection system to give the norma l circuit protection
devices (i.e. circuit breakers and fuses) time to operate, rather than rem oving a generator from
the system.
Electrics 13- 13
Chapter /3 A C POHle I' Generation Systems
DC POWER SUPPLIES
Primary aircraft DC power supplies are derived from transformer rectifier units , which are supplied
from the 200 V AC busbars. The TRUs are normally run in parallel, although some systems have
isolation rel ays installed, which are designed to separate the DC busbars during fault conditions.
~
~ 8TB
~
~ 8TB Ji~ BTB
~
~ Bm
13-1 4 EleClrics
INTRODUCTION
Since AC motors rely on a constant frequency supply, they are mainly used on larger aircraft.
Motors are generally classified as follows:
Large motors have an output of 3 KW or more and are normally three-phase machines.
Medium to small motors range from 3 KW down to 50 W and are mostly single-phase
machines. Motors rated at less than 750 Ware referred to as fractional horsepower
(FHP) machines.
Miniature motors are rated at less than 50 Wand are used in instruments and
servomechanisms.
Resultant Al A A, A ~ A ~
--- I1 I I I
Field I
I I : I
I I I
I I I
I I
I
I I I
I
I I I
I
I A, I AJ I ~J I
I I I I I
I I I I
I
I I I I I I
,,
Position 1 '2 3 4 5 6 7
I Pnase A 1 : ~~~~ ~ j...Phase C .;
+ ". /4"'- I...... ' ,-···· 1 I
"" I / I " .
I I .< I 1
1 1'/ " I I
Three-Phose """".,1 : 1.../ " ,1 I Time
Input O~----~6~~~,----~fS~--~1~O~'~~~,2~4~if'---~3~~-·-----37.GO?·--~
Currents I ". / I '" .,/ I I " / I
I '" / I 'x" I ' I V I
""T.... : ,,' ,'_. '-....... ! : /' " ~
_ B
I
__ ~/ •••.. +... ... _~_.._....( ~ I
-- \ i i i I I
Electrics 14-1
=
Chapter 14 AC Motors
If the stator windings are symmetrically arranged, as shown on the previous page, the magnetic
field produced is of constant strength and rotates at a uniform speed , which is dependent on the
supply frequency. The magnetic field rotates through one complete revolution during each
complete cycle of the AC supply.
For example, if the supply has a frequ ency of 50 Hz, it produces a rotating field of 50 revolutions
per second or 3000 (50 x 60) rpm . Every 60° one set of poles is inactive, and does not generate a
magnetic field due to the distribution of the input currents, as shown above. However, the other
two do produce magnetic fie lds of equal strength , and the resultant field acts in the direction of
the arrow.
If a rotor is then placed in the centre of the rotating magnetic field , a magnetic field is induced in
it, which locks onto the rotating outer field and turns with it.
PHASE F---:'-\-+--:'f--:'--\---
B
PHASE
C
,,
PHASE f..-'P'--:'f--+--T-t--,-
,,
-- - -- -- --'-
,
,,
,
,
,,, ,
,,, ,,
,
,
,
,,
14-2 Electrics
AC Motors Chapter 14
The rotating outer magnetic field cuts the stationary rotor and induces an EMF or voltage
proportional to the rate of change of flux in the squirrel cage. The shorted bars offer little
resistance and a large current flows in the bars, as shown below. The passage of current through
the bars results in the production of a magnetic fie ld, wh ich in turn interacts with the outer rotating
magnetic field .
Rotation of
-flux
Copper or
A torque now exists between the rotor and the stator magnetic fields. This causes the rotor to turn
and accelerate in the direction of the stator field , as shown below.
Rotation of flux
.-
t t
'L IN\ ~
~
iX" !--1 Stator
/1,' Rotor
Force on I (
Rotor
When the applied torque equals the load torq ue, the motor runs at a speed sl ightly less than the
stator field. The induction motor is an asynchronous machine and possesses similar
characteristics to that of a DC shunt-wound motor, as listed below :
~ Slip speed is the difference between the rotor speed and the synchronous (stator)
speed .
~ Reversal of rotation occurs if any two of the motor phases are crossed over.
Electrics 14-3
Chapter 14 AC M%rs
~ Running
The motor continues to run at a reduced torque.
~ Not running
The machine does not start, and fuses or ci rcuit breakers blow in the
other two phases, causing possible damage to the motor.
REFERENCE
WINDING
No-------------,---~AA~~~\J
CAGE ROTOR
60------l
CONTROL
WINDING
CONTROL
SIGNAL
One phase is the reference phase , and the other is the control phase . By varyi ng the phasing and
the amplitude of the control phase currents, the direction and speed of rotation can be controlled.
This type of motor is , however, not as smooth nor as powerful as a three-phase machine and is
used mainly for autopilot servomotors or fuel trim motors.
}--------------r--~c
A PHASE
NEUTRAL
14-4 Electrics
AC Motors Chapter 14
The current in the capacitive winding leads the current in the resisti ve wind ing by approximately
0
90 and is known as phase splitting. This type of motor operates like a two-phase AC motor and
is used to drive actuators.
Synchronous motors are used in situations where a constant speed is essential (e.g.
gyroscopes ).
Electrics 14-5
INTRODUCTION
Semiconductors are used extensively in most aircraft electronic equipment. The three most
common devices are diodes , transistors, and integrated circuits.
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
The advantages and disadvantages of semiconductor devices are:
Advantages
Components made from semiconductor materials are often referred to as solid-state
components, because they are made from solid materials . Semiconductors have largel y
replaced vacuum tubes, which were made of glass and therefore very fragile , and which
consumed large amounts of power, since they required heaters to operate them.
Semiconductors are additionally much smaller, lighter, and are much cheaper than
vacuum tubes.
Disadvantages
Semiconductors are highly susceptible to temperature changes , and are easily damaged
by excessive heat. For optimal operation they require highly sophisticated temperature
control. Solid-state devices are also damaged if supply voltage polarity is not correct.
CONSTRUCTION OF A SEMICONDUCTOR
• Electrons
• Neutrons
o 0
Simplified view
A semiconductor is a material that, under certain conditions , can act as either a conductor or an
insulator. Silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge) are both semiconductive elements, of which silicon is
the most popular. Each atom of silicon has four electrons in the outer (valence) shell , as shown in
the diagram. Semiconductors are electronically stable, however, doping create s a surplus or
deficit of electrons which gives the specific characteristics of semiconductor devices.
Electrics 15- 1
Chapler 15 Semiconductor Devices
Single atoms of silicon are of little use, so they are grown into large crystals , which are then cut
into wafers for the manufacture of electronic components. The silicon atoms link up with
neighbouring atoms to share electrons. A cluster of silicon atoms sharing outer electrons forms a
matrix called a Crystal , as shown below.
COVALENT
BONDS
The four electrons in the outer shell of each atom are shared with the electrons from the adjoining
atoms via Covalent Bonding , and result in the valence shell of each atom in the crystal
effectively holding eight electrons. These bonds are so strong that at absolute zero
temperature (-273°C), there are no free electrons, and the silicon crystal assumes the properties
of an electrical insulator. If the crystal of silicon is subsequently heated or a voltage applied
across it, the covalent bonds break down and its characteristics change. The electrons break
away from the atom and leave behind a hole in the atom's outer shell . The free electrons then
travel through the silicon as negative electrical charges . As the electrons move from one atom to
another, the holes appear as if they are moving from one atom to another in the opposite
direction. The movement of holes and electrons forms the basis of a semiconductor.
DOPING
Silicon in its pure state is not particularly useful in electronics, so doping is carried out, where the
silicon atoms are contaminated with other materials such as phosphorous (P) or boron (B), to
give them useful electronic properties. This contamination leaves the silicon atoms with
incomplete outer valence shells and a hole is formed in the shell. The holes , which replace the
missing electrons, act as positive charges and attract any free electrons within the crystal.
P-TYPE MATERIAL
If silicon is doped with indium , it produces a P-type material. Indium atoms only have 3 electrons
in their outer shells (trivalent) and are acceptor atoms. This results in vacant electron openings
or holes, wh ich are positively charged , being left in the silicon crystal , as shown below.
If a voltage is applied across P-type material, as shown below, the electrons wi thin the crystal
tend to move toward the positive terminal of the tiattery and jump into the available holes of the
indium atom near the terminal.
15-2 Electrics
Semiconductor Devices Chapter 15
~holeflow_
8...
\+0
.thole ,G4),
_/\, .",
e
"'~' / /~I e)i;+3
+3· '- * '/ ". +
.... t\..... " ...
/',." ','\,,',1 t '-.:, \
.,..
Q-.... indium
~ atom ~
* indium'~
atom ~
'- electron flow ~ \11-I"·Cac::,:ce=::.:to::,rL-___---'
An electron from an adjacent silicon atom then falls into the hole , and the hole appears to move
to another location. The electrons move through the material from left to right, whilst the holes
move in the opposite direction.
N-TYPE MATERIAL
If silicon is doped with phosphorous, it produces an N-type material. Phosphorous atoms have 5
electrons in their outer shell (pentavalent) and are known as donor atoms. Extra electrons, which
are negatively charged, are left floating around in the crystal , as shown below.
An N-type semiconductor contains many donor atoms that contribute free electrons, and these
are free to drift through the material. The loss of an electron leaves the donor atoms with an
overall positive charge and forms positive ions. Electrical current flows in the normal manner due
to the movement of the free electrons. Like P-type silicon , it can also flow due to the migration of
holes.
Electrics 15-3
Chapter 15 Semiconductor Devices
p-type n-type
/ /
I I
G GIG G I G G
0 I 0 I
Hole 0
• I• •
G G:G G I G G
0 0 0 I
• I
• •
When the two materials are placed together, some of the free electrons in the N-type material
cross the junction and fill the holes in the P-type material close to the junction. As the free
electrons cross the junction, the N-type material becomes depleted of electrons near the junction
and the holes in the P-type material become filled , depleting the holes near the junction. The
region where the holes and electrons become depleted is known as the depletion layer.
Depletion Layer
..-'-.
ptype
0 --- -I-
-I-
-1-.
n type
•
Free -
0
+ Free
o holes: ::: electrons
0
0
--- + •
+
+
••
This leaves the N-type material with an excess of positive ions and the P-type material with an
excess of negative ions near the junction. The material close to the junction is in a charged state.
The N-side is positively charged and the P-side negatively charged , wh ich is known as a diode.
This is an electronic one-way valve and is represented by the symbol shown below.
The anode is the negative side of the diode , wh iah is associated with the P-type material. The
cathode is the positive side , which is associated with the N-type material. If voltages , kn own as
bias voltages , are applied across a diode, it behaves differently depending on the polarity of the
power source. When the positive terminal is connected to the N-type material , the diode is
reverse biased and no curren t flows (i.e. it is in a non-conducting state), as shown in the
following diagram.
15-4 Electri cs
- -----------
t
Conventional current flow +-
+ Cathode
Electron flow
If the negative terminal is connected to the N-type material , the diode is forward biased and
current flows (i.e. it is in a conducting state), as shown above. If the diode is reverse biased, the
positive terminal attracts electrons in the N-type material away from the junction. The negative
terminal similarly attracts the holes in the P-type material , increasing the thickness of the
depletion layer, as shown below.
p - n
-
- T
L-______~ ~------~
If the diode is forward biased, electrons are attracted from the N-type material across the
depletion layer to the positive terminal and the holes are attracted to the negative terminal, as
shown below.
- -
A forward biased diode acts as a closed switch and a reverse biased diode as an open switch .
Electrics 15-5
Chapter 15 Semiconductor Devices
USE OF DIODES
Diodes in their basic forms are used for rectification (or conversion) of AC into DC, for example, in
a battery charger circuit, as shown below.
240 VOLTS AC
SUPPLY
The diodes offer an easy path for currents to flow in one direction and offer a high resistance path
in the opposite direction. During the positive cycle (1), current flows through diodes 1 and 3,
whilst diodes 2 and 4 are switched off. The reverse occurs during the negative cycle , producing a
DC output. The following special types of diode exist:
ZENER DIODE
This is a special type of diode, which consists of a reverse-biased silicon P-N junction and is
represented by the following symbol.
Anode C>11I1040
This type of diode is designed to operate normally when it is forward-biased, but unlike a
conventional diode, it will also operate when high reverse currents are applied . When the reverse-
bias voltage reaches a set value, the Zener diode will break down , and thermal avalanche
occurs. When this happens , one electron gains sufficient energy to knock others out of the
valence band , causing a rapid increase in current flow through the diode, as shown in the
following diagram. This typically occurs from 4 to 75 V, depending on the design.
-0
~
~
~
0
Q)
~
~
u. <> "
Breakdown
voltage
Reverse VI
Forward
bias volts
bias volts:
I
III ~
~
Q)
~
~
~
a: "
u
15-6 Electri cs
Semiconductor Devices Chapter 15
Zener diodes are used to provide a fixed reference voltage over a range of input voltages and to
precisely regulate or stabilise the output from a power supply, as shown below.
+o---------------~
R
Variable
voltage
+
Zener
diode t constant
voltaga
BI-POLAR TRANSISTORS
Transistors are made up of a sandwich of P and N-type materials. They can be used as relays,
switches, or va riable resistors. The two configurations of bi-polar transistors are PN P and NPN,
as shown below.
pfl
le =lb+lc
COLLECTOR COLLECTOR
BASE BASE
EMIITER EMmER
Electrics 15-7
Chapter 15 Semiconductor Devices
The three layers of a bi-polar transistor are the emitter, base, and collector, where the arrowhead
depicts the flow of conventional current. The base is extremely thin and has fewer doping atoms
than the emitter and collector. A very small vol tage or current applied to the material in the centre
of the sandwich (base) can control a much larger current flowing through the complete device ,
allowing a transistor to act as an amplifier.
P
(-0+
4--0"-
t-o~
..
N
-
-~ +0--+
-+
I>
+o-t
i-M
+
~
4-h +. .j.
e h-+ --
-
+
This increases the thickness of the depletion layer between the different layers and the transistor
does not conduct. For the transistor to operate, the emitter-base junction has to be forward
biased, wh ilst the collector-base is reverse biased , as shown in the fo llowing diagram.
rnA
Vc~
rnA
-
The positive junction of the emitter battery (Ve) repels the holes in the P-type emitter toward the
P-N or emitter-base junction and crosses through into the lightly doped N-type base. The majority
of the holes (approximately 95%) do not combine with electrons in this region and pass directly to
the P-type collector. The holes are then rapidly neutralised with electrons from the negative
terminal of the collector battery and are swept away from the collector. For each hole, which is
neutral ised by an electron, a covalent bond near the emitter electrode breaks down, and an
electron is released to the positive terminal of the emitter battery. This in turn produces a hole ,
which quickly moves through the materi al from left to right. A small number of holes
(approximately 5%) also combine with electrons in the N-type base material and are lost. The
major charge carriers in a PNP bi-polar transi stor are the holes. A very small emitter-base
current (Ib) causes a large em itter (Ie) to collector (Ie)
, current to flow, but in all cases of operation:
15-8 Electrics
Semiconductor Devices Chapter jj
emitter junction
-- --- ,--
\. collector junction
...---rl--
n ""
- ....-
P '" n
--1----.
1'& e~ltt~ ~seO+ colle-tor' e-..
Electrons are repelled from the negative terminal of the emitter battery (Ve) and fiow toward the
positive terminal of the collector battery (Ve). The electrons are forced into the emitter junction.
Since the P-region base is only lightly doped , the majority of the electrons (approximately 95%)
diffuse through the base and reach the collector junction. A small amount of the electrons
(approximately 5%) combine with the holes in the P layer and are lost as charge carriers. For
every electron that leaves the collector, one electron enters the emitter junction, maintaining a
continuous fiow of electrons from left to right through the transistor. The major charge carriers in
an NPN junction transistor are, therefore, the electrons.
Electrics 15-9
Chapler 15 Sem iconductor Devices
TRANSISTOR APPLICATIONS
If the base of an NPN transistor is earthed (0 V), no current fiows from the emitter to the collector,
and the transistor is switched off. The transistor operates as an open switch , as shown below.
LI-----'
TRANSISTOR USED AS A SWITCH
... LARGE
t
SIGNAL OUT
1
SMALL
SIGNAL IN
•
COMMON EMmER AMPLIFIER
If the base emitter's forward bias voltage is gradually increased , the emitter collector current,
which is much higher, follows the same variation as the smaller base cu rrent, and the transistor
acts as an amplifie r. Th is explanation applies to a transistor in wh ich the emitter is the common
connection for both input and output, which is known as a common emitter. Transistors can also
be used in either the common base mode or the common collector mode.
15- 10 Electrics
Semiconductor Devices Chapter 15
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
Integrated Circuits (ICs) are manufactured by combining transistors, diodes , and resistors on a
small piece of silicon. The complete device is kn own as a chip and can contain a few or many
thousands of transistors.
The advantages, however, outweigh the disadvantages and IC chips are extensively used in the
aviation industry.
Analogue (or Linear) ICs are typically used in the manufacture of amplifiers, timers ,
oscillators, and voltage regulators. They amplify or respond to va ria ble voltages and
produce outputs.
Digital (or Logic) ICs are typically used in the manufacture of microprocessors and
computer memories. They normally respond to two discrete voltage levels (or gates )
representing ones or zeros , and act as electronic switches to produce outputs.
Electrics 15-11
INTRODUCTION
Logic gates are represented diagrammatically and their logic inputs are shown on a truth table .
Logic gates may also have more than two inputs , which increases the decision making capability
of a gate and also increases the number of ways of connecting one to another to form advanced
digital logic circuits.
lOGIC CIRCUITS
NUMBER SYSTEMS
The decimal number system requires ten different numbers (0-9) and ten discrete voltage
levels. It then repeats itself by going into 10s, 100s, and 1000s, etc. This system can be typically
used to represent the position or groundspeed of an aircraft.
The binary number system uses numbers that are to the base of two , as shown below .
26 25 24 23 22 21 2° Binary
Number
64 32 16 8 4 2 1 Decimal
Equivalent
In digital electronic applications, binary numbers are used as codes to represent decimal
numbers, letters of the alphabet, voltages , and many other forms of information. For example, a
simple switch can be assigned a binary val ue 0 to the OFF position and a binary 1 to the ON
position. Alternatively, the polarity of a DC switching circuit can be altered so that a (+) indicates a
binary 1 and a (-) indicates a binary O. An alternative method is to vary the mean voltage in a
circuit, causing it to increase by a pre-set increment for a binary 1 and to decrease by a similar
increment to achieve a binary O. The latter method is the most common. The voltages used for
this purpose vary between manufacturers but are normally in the range from +5 V to +12 V. They
are also designed to use either positive or negative logic. Positive logic is where a Logic 1
voltage is more positive than a Logic 0 voltage, and negative logic is where a Logic 1 is more
negative than Logic O.
Electrics 16- 1
Chapler 16 Logic Circuits
BINARY REPRESENTATION
Digital computers are electronic units, and in electronics it is a relatively easy procedure to
operate circuits in such way as to encode them in a binary format.
AND Gate
This type of gate is represented by two switches connected in series and requires two Logic 1s
(A & 8) to produce an output (0), as shown below.
Switch Equivalent logicGate~
+5v
----~. : ~'----~~~'----- Output IQ)
A
B ) Q
A B Q
0 0 0
0 Truth Table
1 0
Logic 1=+5Volts 1 0 0
Logic 0= ovons 1 1 1
OR Gate
This type of gate is represented by two switches connected in parallel and requires only one
Logic 1 (A or 8) to produce an output (Q), as shown below.
Switch Equivalent
,.----"
~
, --..., Logic Symbol.
+5V
----I
All 1---
OutputlQ)
A B Q
o 0 0
o 1 1 Truth Table.
1 0 1
NOT Gate
A single switch represents thi s type of gate where the input Signal (A) is inverted to provide an
output (0), as shown in the following diagram .
\ 6-2 Electri cs
-
Logic Circuits Chapter 16
v-
Switch Equivalent Logic Symbol
Output/Q) f!, Q
I: I: I ,..""~
1 ~
+;, Output(Q)
-----i \---
A B Q
0 0 1
0 1 1 Truth Tab)e
1 0 1
1 1 0
+5V _ _ _ Output/Q)
-~ "--r-"
f!,1l "':'"
~~
-=-
f!, ~ Q
~ !! 1
~ 1 ~ Truth Table
1 ~ ~
1 -1 ->, ~
Electrics 16-3
Chapter 16 Logic Circuits
EXCLUSIVE OR Gate
This type of gate is a combination of NOT and NAND gates and requires only one Logic 1
(A or 8) to produce an output (Q), as shown below.
A B iQ
:~) ))---Q 0
0-
0 0
,
1
1 0 1
EQUIVALENT USING SIMPLE GATES
1 1 0
A A
B
OP
AB
A half adder circu it is capable of adding two digits but is unable to carry a digit to the next order.
It is necessary to join two half adder circuits together to form a full adder circuit in ord er to satisfy
this requirement. A half adder electronic circuit consists of a combination of AND , OR , and
EXCLUSIVE OR gates , as shown below.
) - - -.. CO
A _--1---':~\,--.....
B- -----'--I L-"
Cl .....-------.L...--/,
~-------4. S
OUTPUTS
INPUTS
i 6-4 Eiectrics
Logic Circuits Chapter 16
Add AB
+CD
S 1 so
Example
The foll owing table can be established using the above circuit by inputting a series of Os and 1s.
A
(i)
B
(2°)
+ C
(2')
D
(2°)
= C1
(2')
S1
(2')
SO
(2°)
a 1 a a a a 1
a 1 a 1 a 1 a
1 a a 1 a 1 1
1 a 1 a 1 a a
1 1 1 a 1 a 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 a
Electrics 16-5
.
Chapter 16 Logic Circuits
S _---'.
A Logic 0
B logic 1
R __~'--/
OUTPUTS
INPUTS
On initial power up with a positive supply at 'S' (Set), output 'A' would be at logic 0 and output '8 '
would be at logic 1. If the positive input is switched from 'S' to 'R' (Reset), the logic states at 'A'
and '8 ' would reverse.
A flip-flop circuit is similar to a Latch circuit, although the output is changed if a trigger pulse is
applied to the circuit, as shown below.
s
A
Clock Pulse CP
R OUTPUTS
INPUTS
This circuit has three inputs and two outputs , with the Sand R inputs identical to the Latch Circu it.
The circuit switch time is controlled by inputting a Clock Pulse (CP) , which simultaneously
changes over the output signals, 'A' and '8' at a specified time interval. This arrangement is
particularly useful in computers when several memory circuits are being used simultaneously ,
since if the outputs are changed out of sequence, the entire memory may become invalid.
16-6 Electrics
INTRODUCTION
The modern aircraft is highly dependent on the digital computer, which governs almost every
facet of its operation.
COMPUTERS
ANALOGUE COMPUTERS
Analogue computers are non-prog rammable and deal wi th infinite continuous values rather than
discrete ones. They use digits from 0 to 9 and operate as a mechanical computer using a rotating
gear or wheel to represent different values (e.g. if the wheel is between O' and 10', it represents
o or between 11 ' and 20', it represents 1). The analogue computer suffers from friction between
the moving parts and mechanical wear. The speedometer in a car is an everyday example of an
analogue computer. It is attached to a sensor that counts the revolutions of the road wheels and ,
using an assumed wheel rad ius, calculates the distance covered since the last reset. It adds this
to the distance at the start of the run and indicates the total distance the car has covered since
the beginn ing. It also uses the distance per unit time to provide an indication of speed . The
speedometer is a calculating machine, which uses a data input, and by carrying out a calculation
it converts the input into another fo rm of inform ation; speed via a moving needle and distance as
a digital read out.
Analogue computers are still widely and effectively used, although they suffer from the following
limitations and shortcomings:
~ They are specific to a particular role and a separate computer is required for different
applications.
~ They use moving parts .
~ They tend to be bulky and heavy.
DIGITAL COMPUTERS
A Digital compu ter is also a ca lculating machine, but instead of using synchro and gears , different
voltages are used to represent the digits from 0 to 9. For example, 0 - 0.9 V would represent the
digit 0 and a vol tage from 1.0 - 1.9 V would represent the digit 1, etc. This machine uses actual
high-speed arithmetic to do the necessary calculations typically using a decimal number system.
It is also possible to convert decimal values into digital values or to convert analogue val ues into
binary code. Every1h ing that a digital computer does is based on one operation , which is
represented by the ability to determine if a switch or gate is open or closed. That is, the
computer can recognise only two states in any of its microscopic circu its (i.e. an on/off, high
voltage or low voltage , or in the case of numbers, 0 or,1). It is equally va lid to reverse the process
and produce an analogue value from a digital process using binary arithmetic.
Electrics 17-1
Chapter 17 Comp uter Technology
The speed at which the computer performs this simple act, however, is what makes it such an
essential element of the modem technology aircraft. Computer speeds are measured in
megahertz or millions of cycles per second. A computer with a clock speed of 133 MHz is
capable of executing 133 million discrete operations every second.
Digital computers are also normally integrated with other systems on an aircraft, via signal-
interfacing devices such as analogue-to-digital (AID) converters and digital-to-analogue (D/A)
converters. The input interface converts analogue data into a digital format and the output
interface converts the digital data into an analogue format.
The processing speed of a digital computer and its calculating power are further enhanced by the
amount of data that is handled during each cycle. If a computer checks only one switch at a time,
that switch only represents two commands or numbers. For example , ON would symbolise one
operation and OFF would symbolise another. By checking groups of switches linked within a
single unit simultaneously, the computer is able to increase the number of operations it can
recognise during each cycle. For example, a computer that checks two switches at one time can
represent four numbers (0 to 3) or can execute one of four instructions at each cycle, one for
each of the following switch patterns: OFF-OFF (0), OFF-ON (1), ON-OFF (2), or ON-ON (3).
When digital computers were first introduced , they were capable of checking eight switches
(binary digits) or bits of data during every cycle, or a byte , which contains 256 possible patterns
of ONs and OFFs (or 1s and Os). A computer uses a standard information format that consists of
a group of bits, or a word , wh ich equates to:
~ An instruction
~ Part of an instruction
~ A particular type of datum (e.g. a number, a character, or a graphics symbol)
The pattern 11010010, for example , might be binary data (in this case, the decimal number 210)
or it might tell the computer to compare data stored in its switches to data stored in a certain
memory chip location.
The total list of recognisable operations or patterns, which a computer is capable of, is called its
instruction set.
17-2 Electrics
Comp uter Technology Chapter 17
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
The physical components of a computer are known as hardware. A digital computer is not a
single component machine but is made up of the five distinct elements , as shown in the following
diagram.
CLOCK
CONTROL
UNIT
CENTRAL
OUTPUT
MEMORY
DATA
OPERATING
PROGRAM
PROCESS ING
UNIT
INPUT DEVICES
Input devices are the means by which a computer is fed with the information required for problem
solving and consist of the following typical hardware:
~ Keyboard
~ Scanner
~ Touch sensitive screen
~ Speech recognition
~ Mouse
~ Joy stick
~ Data from sensors
As long as the data is identifiable, the computer's processor is able to recognise it and
accordingly routes it along the appropriate internal buses or data lines. These form a network of
communication lines that connect the internal elements of the processor and lead to external
connectors linking the processor to the other elements of the computer system. The following
types of CPU buses exist:
~ A control bus consists of a line that senses input signals and another line that
generates control signals from within the CPU .
~ The address bus is a one-way line from the processor that handles the location
of data in memory addresses .
~ The data bus is a two-way transfer line that both reads data from memory and
writes new data into memory.
Electrics 17-3
Chapter 17 Computer Techn%K}'
+
PROGRAM I.. CENTRAL
PROCESSING UNIT
1. CENTRAL CONTROL
UNIT
-+1 -
DATA
2 . MEMORY
3. ALU
t t .1 CLOCK 1
INPUTS OUTPUTS
The CPU receives input data and uses that data to carry out specific instructions, from which an
output is derived. Typical input data might be wind velocity and direction or even the distance to
run to a destination. The CPU then carries out calculations on this data using the following parts
to give output data , such as TAS or time to run to the next waypoint.
A central control unit coordinates the functions carried out in each section of the computer via a
communication link or data transfer bus. The control unit decodes or reads the patterns of
data held in a designated register, or temporary storage area , and keeps track of any
instructions. The register also holds the location and results of these operations. The control unit
translates the pattern into an activity, such as adding or comparing . It also indicates the order in
which individual operations use the CPU and regulates the amount of CPU time that each
operation may consume.
Memory is normally divided into either volatile memory, which is lost whenever the computer
loses power, or non-volatile memory, which remains in the system until it is over-written with
new data. The main types of internal memory are:
RAM (random access memory) is volatile memory. The data deposited in it is lost
whenever the power is turned off or alternative states are written in.
ROM (read-only memory) is non-volatile memory and normally contains data that has
been inserted on the chip during its manufacture. The ROM typically contains start-up
details and mathematical formulae , which are maintained even after the power has been
switched off. Replacing the entire chip is the only way to change the instructions on
ROM .
PROM (programmable read-only memory) is non-volatile, but unlike the ROM can be
reprogrammed once only, with the chip still fitted in the aircraft's computer.
17-4 Electri cs
Computer Technology Chapler /7
Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) chips give the computer its calculating capability, allowing both
arithmetical and logical calculations using a combination of digital logic circuits. These circuits are
used to make specific true-false decisions based on the presence of multiple true-false signals at
the inputs. The signals may be generated by either mechanical switches or by solid-state
transducers, which are combined together to form an integrated circuit (IC)
OUTPUT DEVICES
The output devices enable the user to see the results of the computer's calculations or data
manipulations. The most common output device is the video display screen , which is a monitor
that displays characters and graphics on a cathode-ray tube (CRT), or television-like screen ,
which is usually small. Portable computers commonly use liquid crystal displays (LCD ) or other
forms of screen.
Examples of such screens are the EFIS and ECAM displays on modern aircraft.
The standard output devices include printers and modems. A modem links two or more
computers by translating digital signals into analogue signals so that data can be transmitted via
telecommunications.
Outputs may also be in the form of signals that are sent to the operating devices and are typically
used to control the engines or automatic fiight control system on the aircraft.
STORAGE DEVICES
Computer systems can store data internally (in memory) and externally (on storage devices).
External storage devices may physically reside within the computer's main processing unit or
externally to the main circuit board. These devices store data as electrical charges on a
magnetically sensitive medium such as an audiotape , a disk coated with a fine layer of metallic
particles, or as an imprint on a laser readable disk. The most common external storage devices
are floppy and hard disks. Floppy disks can contain from several hundred thousand bytes to
well over a million bytes of data , depending on the system. Hard or fi xed disks cannot be
removed from their disk-drive cabinets , which contain the electronics to read and write data onto
the magnetic disk surfaces. Hard disks can store from several million bytes to a few hundred
million bytes. CD-ROM technologies, which use the same laser techn iq ues that are used to
create audio compact disks (CDs) , also provide storage capacities in the ran ge of several
gigabytes (billion bytes) of data.
OPERATING SYSTEMS
An operating system is a master control program , which is permanently stored in the memory. It
interprets user commands and reque sts vari ous kinds of services, for example, to display , print,
or copy a data fi le; list all files in a directory; or execute a particular program . Different types of
peripheral devices, such as disk drives, printers, communications networks , and so on handle
and store data differently from the way the computer handles and stores it. Internal operating
systems are usually stored in ROM memory, and are developed primarily to co-ordinate and
translate data flows from dissimilar sources, such as disk drives or co-processors (processing
chips that perform simu ltaneous but different operations from the central unit).
PROGRAMMING
A program is a sequence of instructions that tells the hardware of a computer wh ich operations to
perform on the data. Programs can be built into the hardwa re itself, or they may exist
independently as software. In some specialised computers, the operating instructions are
embedded in their circuitry; as in the Flight Management System (FMS).
I
Once a computer has been programmed , it can only do as much , or as little, as the software
instructions enable it to do. Software in widespread use includes a wide range of applications
programmes and instructions to the computer on how to perform various tasks.
Electrics 17-5
~
~u"lJIIJ lJ I JJ!:'EJ !J!)f)2)
-.
INTRODUCTION
Air carrier operations ideally require uninterrupted communications when:
~ Contacting Air Traffic Control to ensure a safe fiow and separation from other traffic
and to be kept up to date with conditions along the route and at the destination.
Being able to communicate is also essential in the event of any incident that might
endanger the aircraft or those on board.
In 1994 for example , 99% plus of such communications were achieved by voice , using either
short range VHF or HF for long distance communications. This situation has now dramatically
changed, and information is now digitised and routed over data links including satellites , with
printouts available as required. The antenna map below shows the typical equipment installation
in a modern jet transport aircraft for communication purposes.
SATCOM
ATC 1 & 2 VHF 1
VHF2
Electrics 18-1
Chapter 18 HF and Satellite Airborne Communications
AIRBORNE COMMUNICATIONS
LONG RANGE COMMUNICATIONS (UP TO 4000 KM)
At present, when flying over 370 km (200 miles) from land , aircraft use HF transceivers, which are
lin ked with unreliable propagation characteristics. Such HF installations are usually duplicated ,
with one set used for ATC purposes and the other for company messages. HF communications
are also used in areas where VH F communications are not possible (e.g. sectors over the oceans
or over sparsely populated continents such as Africa). Since HF communications rely on skywave
propagation, it is essential to use the correct frequency (i .e. at night, the frequen cy needs to be
redu ced to maintain the skip distance). A typical HF radio control panel is shown below.
FREQUENCY DISPLAY
FUNCTION SWITCH
The frequency range covers the part of the spectru m between 2.8 MHz and 24 MHz (and very
often between 2 and 30 MHz) in 1 kHz steps. There is also a facility for AM and LSB operations.
However, USB is the standard operating mode. Similar to other receivers, a squelch control cuts
off background noise in the absence of ground transmissions. The power output is approximately
400 watts on voice peaks , which gives ranges greater than 3700 km (2000 nm) in good
conditions.
18-2 Electri cs
HF and Satellite Airborne Communications Chapter 18
An audio selector panel is situated at each crew station and enables switching between the
various radio devices.
I I I
AUDI O SELECTOR PANEL
AND INTERCO M AMPLIFIER
~
II I
I I
SAMPLE OF SPEE CH IS
MICROPH ONE
NO. 1
FED BACK TO HEADSET
'SIDETONE'
I MICROPHONE
NO, 2
I
I HEADS ET
NO. 1
I HEAD SET
NO.2
I
BLOCK SCHEMATIC - AUDIO SELECTOR PANEL
Commonly, a VHF control unit displays two frequency readouts. Each is controlled by its own
selector knob. A transfer switch is used to select one VHF frequency as active, whilst the other is
at standby. A light over the frequency window shows which frequency is active.
J
Electrics 18-3
Chapter 18 HF and Satellite Airborne Communications
-tJ::
I
VIlFCOMM
0
( 1 Ids b b ) ( i Is 12 17
1 1 )
TRANSFER
®
SQUELCH
The radio also has a fine-tuning (filter) facility and incorporates features such as:
An automatic volume control (AVC) that maintains the receiver output signal at a given
strength and automatically reduces the receiver gain if the signal becomes stronger.
An automatic frequency control (AFC) that keeps the receiver tuned to the selected
signal irrespective of any slight wandering of the transmitted frequency.
18-4 Electrics
HF and Satellite Airborne Communications Chapter 18
Operational Check
System operation should be checked by calling the ground station and requesting a SELCAL
check using the code set in the decoder. Operation of both SELCAL units is checked
simultaneously if receivers are on and selected to the same frequency. An intermittent light and
two-tone chime indicate proper operation. Operation continues until the SELCAL light cap is
pushed or until a microphone is keyed to transmit on the appropriate HF or VHF system. Either
action resets the system for the next call.
Electrics 18-5
Chapter 18 -HF and Satellite Airborne CommunicOIions
-,
" (
----t-j~
=
~ ,. =
~
,
"
=
~
~
z
0 ~
.' l;
«
u
w~W
.U >
•~
j
'"
w
~
\ .0
.~ ~
z •
=
~
=
~ =
~
i =
• I
=
~
=
~
18-6 Electrics
HF and Satellite Airborne Communications Chapter /8
t
L-BAND
~
t
C - BAND
t
PRIVATE PUBLIC
NETWORKS 1------ GES ~-----
SWITCHED
NETWORKS
(AOC - AAC)
(AAC, APC)
CAA
DISTRIBUTION
NETWORK
I I
ACCOR
I
AFTN SAR, MET, OTHER
OCEANIC TOWERS
(CIDIN) AIS , ETC_ NETWORKS
CENTRE
Electrics 18-7
Chapter 18 HF and Satellite Airborne Communications
To operate high-speed data and digitised voice , a high-gain directional antenna must be installed
on the aircraft. This antenna is steered electronically from knowledge of satellite position and
aircraft position derived from the aircraft's flight management computer. An option also exists to
use low-gain antennas, which are significantly cheaper than the high-gain variety, but this
precludes voice link-up and operation is restricted to low-speed data transfer. Each aircraft may
be individually addressed by its 24-bit unique transponder mode S code and is able to download
FMC information and engine/performance related information on request.
GEOSTATIONARY
SATELLITE
AREA OF
E UA
,
,
One shortcoming of the geostationary satellite is the inability to cover polar areas. The limit is
81 Y, degrees north and south at sea level , which is increased by 2 or 3 degrees for high fiying
aircraft. 80° is most commonly quoted for the purposes of JAA examinations.
18-8 Electrics
Electrics
Airframes and Systems, Electrics, Powerplant, and Emergency Equipment (ASEPE) - Aeroplanes, subject 021, covers
a broad swathe of infonnation that is examined in one paper. To make this infonnation manageable, the 021 subject
is broken down into tbree volumes; these are Airframes and Systems (which incorporates Emergency Equipment),
Electrics, and Powerplant. This volume covers Electrics.
It is recognised that not everybody has a natural inclination towards technical subjects such as electricity. These
notes are written in an informative style which leads you from the most basic DC circuits to understanding and
appreciating the concepts behind advanced aircraft electrical systems. On completion of study, you will have all the
required infonnation to pass this part of the Aircraft Systems and Powerplant examination.
Jeppesen and Atlantic Flight Training (AFT) have teamed to produce these ATPL training volumes. The philosophy of
both Jeppesen and AFT is to train pilots to fly, not to simply pass the exams.
Jeppesen was founded in 1934 by barnstormer and pioneer airmail pilot EIrey B. Jeppesen to provide accurate
airport and airway information to the growing aviation induslry. Since then, the company bas become the world
leader in navigation information and flight planning products. In the 1960s, Jeppesen emerged as the foremost
creator of state-of-the-art flight training materials using the latest technologies. With offices in the United States,
the United Kingdom, Gennany, Australia, China, and Russia, Jeppesen is committed to introducing a fully integrated
line of JAA training products.
Atlantic Flight Training, based at Covenlry Airport U.K., is an independent Joint Aviation Authority approved Flight
Thaining Organisation for professional training &om a Private Pilots Licence to an Airline Transport Pilots Licence,
including Multi Crew Co-operation and Crew Resource Management. AFT has over twenty years experience in
training Commercial Pilots, including the conversion of ICAO to JM Licences, and specialises in full time and
distance learning ground school (Aeroplane and Helicopter).
We at Jeppesen and Atlantic Flight Training wish you the best in your flying career, and hope that our materials
contribute to your understanding, safety, and success.
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