D1.

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES

Complete the sheet of pre-lab questions to hand in when you enter the lab.

Part 1: Ball bearing

INTRODUCTION
Ball bearing assemblies are used in all kinds of everyday use devices. Wheels on roller
blades and bicycles, motors and pulleys in automobiles, refrigerators, furnace blowers, computer
hard drives, etc. all make use of these low friction bearings. In industry and transportation these
and many other types of bearings (cylindrical and tapered shapes) are critical in the performance
of their objectives. On the centre table a few samples are available for your viewing.

On your lab bench there’s a single steel ball bearing, along with a vernier caliper, used to
measure the diameter of the bearing. The caliper, using the bottom metric scale, is like a simple
ruler but in addition has a vernier scale on the sliding part of the caliper which allows you to
interpolate or measure accurately between millimeters. With the calipers set to the closed
position, compare the millimeter scale to the vernier scale and you will see that the lower vernier
scale has 50 divisions compared to exactly 49 mm on the metric scale. This means that every
vernier scale division is .98 mm (49 mm/50), or, is .02 mm less than a full mm. This .02 mm
“phase shift”, printed on the bottom right of the slider, is the resolution limit of this vernier
caliper. So with a relatively simple device the resolution has been improved by 50 times that of
a simple metric ruler.

PROCEDURE

Try to measure the diameter of the ball bearing by placing it at any position alongside or
on top of the metric scale of the caliper. You’ll soon notice there’s a problem: because of its
round shape, the steel ball extremities are at least a radius away from the measuring scale. This
means a parallax error is added to the uncertainty of the measured value. Variability in how you
visually align the edges of the ball onto the scale can be quantified by taking a number of
independent measurements. Do so by changing ball positions and using both lab partners’ input.
From your data decide on the ball diameter value and its uncertainty, following the guidelines of
the introductory section.

Question 1. Is the uncertainty greater than the limiting value of the metric scale, namely, ± .5
mm? If so, you’ll hopefully appreciate that measurement uncertainty involves not only the
measuring instrument but also the conditions under which it is used.

Now let’s use the vernier caliper for what it was intended; viz., to give an accurate value
of the ball bearing diameter. Open up the caliper arms and position the ball between them.

D 1.1
Gently squeeze down on the ball. To check that the arms are open to the ball diameter, push the
ball up and down several times through the caliper arms. When properly positioned the ball
bearing will be held in place without any other support. The ‘0’ mark on the sliding vernier scale
is lined up between two marks on the fixed mm scale. The lower value of the mm scale gives the
most significant digit(s) of the measurement. At some point a vernier scale mark is exactly lined
up with a mm scale mark. This vernier scale position determines the two least significant digits
of the measurement.

A picture showing the caliper measuring the diameter of a ball bearing (not the same as
yours!) should help to make things clear. The ‘0’ mark of the vernier scale is between the 9 mm
and 10 mm marks of the metric scale, so the ball diameter lies between these values. The two
scales match up or align at .52 mm on the vernier (26 marks times .02 mm/mark). Thus the ball
diameter is 9.52 ± .01 mm, with the measured uncertainty ± half the smallest scale unit.
Additional illustrations of the vernier caliper may be found on the Physics 1B03 website:
(physics.mcmaster.ca/~voroby/1B03Labs, section 0. Uncertainties, exercise 4). Now measure
and record your ball bearing diameter in a similar manner.

Using your value for the diameter d, calculate the ball’s volume ( π d3/6 ) and its
uncertainty. To do the latter make use of the error propagation rules, as discussed in the
introductory pages of the lab manual. You might find that the method of differentiation is less
cumbersome than the method of relative errors. Now calculate the relative error in the ball’s
volume and compare it to the relative error in the measured ball diameter. Notice how the
relative errors scale with dimension!

D1.2
Part 2: The Pendulum
PURPOSE

In this experiment, you will measure the strength of the earth’s gravitational field by
observing the period of a simple pendulum. The measurements themselves are simple, to give you
time to explore the use of graphs to interpret experimental results, and to further carry out analysis
of experimental uncertainties. You will be expected to complete a high-quality report, including
thoughtful discussion of your results. Answers to questions must be explained.

THEORY

According to the theory of a simple pendulum, the period T (the time for one complete
swing) is given by


T= 2 (1)
g

where ℓ is the length of the pendulum and g is the gravitational field. In deriving this result certain
assumptions are made: 1) the pendulum consists of a point mass suspended by a massless string
of length ℓ from a fixed support; 2) the amplitude of the swing is small, i.e., sinθ ~θ (measured
as the angle between the vertical and the string at the maximum of its swing).

Squaring Eq. (1) yields the following relation, which will be used for analysis of your data.


T 2  4 2 (2)
g
PROCEDURE

PART A

Verify that relation (2) is approximately true by measuring the period for two values of ℓ,
20 cm and 80 cm. It is useful to measure the time for 20 cycles in order to get an accurate
measurement. Repeat the measurements several times to determine the precision, and ensure you
are counting 20 swings. Check that if ℓ is increased by a factor of 4 (as in your experiment), T
doubles. From these measurements calculate the value of g. You will encounter difficulties in
making the measurements, so choose procedures that will make your measurements as accurate as
possible. See how your neighbouring groups overcome the experimental problems that arise. To
determine errors from a set of measured values refer to the introductory section (pp. vi to x).

Question 1. To what point on the mass do you measure ℓ ? (The theory assumes a point mass,
but does it make any difference which point is used?)

D1.3
Question 2. Is it better to start and stop the stopwatch at the end of the swing or at the center?
You may wish to check this by doing a short experiment.

Question 3. Can you eliminate your reaction time between the moment you see the pendulum
and the moment you press the stop watch? Does it help if two different people do the timing?

Question 4. Does the non-rigidity of the pendulum support affect the measurement?

PART B

In this part we check the variation of period with the amplitude of swing. Select a
convenient pendulum length for which you will measure N periods (choose N for a reasonable
precision). A protractor is not necessary for measuring the angle: measure the length of the string
and the horizontal displacement, and use trigonometry.

Measure the period for a small (~5°) and a large

amplitude. The largest angle that can be used is about 60°.
Before making any further measurements, prepare a graph
for the data points. The horizontal scale on which you plot
the amplitude should run from 0 on the left to 60° on the
right, with a scale that allows you to use as much of the
graph paper as possible. Select a vertical scale that allows
you to see the uncertainty ranges and the variation of the
period clearly. The upper plot on the right, with a vertical
scale starting at zero, compresses the error bars and any
variation in period into a small fraction of the vertical
space on the graph. Instead, choose a vertical scale such
that the data points and error bars fill about the middle half
of the page, as on the lower graph on the right. The choice
of scale does not change the accuracy of the measurements.

Estimate the uncertainty range in the measurements,

if necessary by repeating the measurement 4 or 5 times.
Plot vertical error bars on each data point. The
experimental uncertainties in your readings will be the
same for many data points, so it may only be necessary to
do this repetition for one amplitude value.

Complete the remaining measurements and plot the

results on the graph. Plot the points on the graph as you
go to allow you to see the pattern as it develops.

Draw a horizontal line on the graph that best fits the low
amplitude data and parallel to that a line with the maximum
allowable period for low amplitude.
D1.4
Question 5. Is period independent of amplitude for the simple pendulum? If you had timed
only a single swing for each amplitude, would it have affected your answer to this question?

Question 6. Based on the two horizontal lines you drew on the graph above, estimate how large
an amplitude can be used with the small-amplitude theory presented in the introduction? You can
see that if your measurements were more precise (smaller error bars) the maximum amplitude
value would be both smaller and more clearly defined.

PART C

In the final part of the experiment, select an easily measured amplitude for which you have
shown the simple pendulum theory to be valid. Using this amplitude throughout, determine the
periods for 5 different lengths, spaced uniformly over a large range. For the uncertainty range of
the periods T use the average value of all s determined in Parts A and B.

Plot your data for T2 as a function of ℓ. According to the theory, this should give a straight
line through the origin with a slope of 4π2/g .

Draw the best fit straight line (with a ruler) on your graph and measure the slope and y-axis
intercept. Hence determine a value of g. Also draw the lines of maximum and minimum slope
that go through all the uncertainty ranges to determine the largest and smallest possible values of g.

Allowing for the error limits, is your result for g in agreement with the accepted value?
Provide details in the discussion section and, if necessary, give plausible reasons for any
disagreement.

D1.5
D1.6
 PHYSICS 1D03

Name:_____________________ Lab Section:______________

Student No:_________________ Date:______________

Lab D1

Pre-Lab Questions: To be completed and handed in before the lab.

1. Why is the value for the period, T, more precise if you measure 20 swings (20T) at once?

2. If the value of T is 5.2 ± .2 sec., what is the uncertainty in T2. Show your calculation.

3. In the theory for a simple pendulum, what is the mass of the string?

4. For the graph of period squared versus length (T2 vs. ℓ) what is the expected slope of
the line of best fit?

D1.7
D1.8
 PHYSICS 1D03

Name:_____________________ Lab Section:______________

Student No:_________________ Date:______________

Partner:____________________ Lab Section:______________

Student No:_________________

LAB D1
WRITE-UP

Ball bearing diameter readings determined directly from mm scale

Lab partner 1 values ± ( ) Lab partner 2 values ± ( )

Use all data readings to determine ball diameter and uncertainty value:

Answer to question 1:

Ball bearing diameter (d) reading from vernier caliper, including uncertainty (d):

Calculated volume V of ball bearing along with its uncertainty V :

Relative error of ball volume (V/V): Relative error of ball diameter (d/d):

What is the ratio of these two relative errors?

D1.9
D1.10
 D1. INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES

Name: _____________________ Name _____________________

Part A: Preliminary Study Amplitude =

Length Time for 20 swings T(period) ±  T

(several measurements at (sec) 4 2 
each length) ± ( ) g (  2 )  g
T
(ms-2)
20 cm (approx.)

80 cm (approx.)

Note that the uncertainty is determined from the measured values of total time (20 T), and that the
error in T is calculated from this result. In this instance the calculation is simplified in that the
integer 20 has no error. The error in g is determined from uncertainties in length ℓ and time T by
successive use of the rules for error propagation (multiplication and division).

Ratio of lengths =

Ratio of periods squared =

D1.11
D1.12
 D1. INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES

Name: _____________________ Name _____________________

Part B: Variation with Amplitude Length =

Amplitude (degrees) Time for ______ swings ± ( ) Period ± ( )

Part C: Variation with Length Amplitude =

Length ± ( ) Time for 10 swings Period T ± T T2 ± (T2)

± ( ) ( ) ( )

For  use average value from Parts A and B.

D1.13
D1.14
 D1. INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES

Name: _____________________ Name ___________________

Discussion and answers to questions (include explanations with your answers). Since graphs show
the results of all your data, refer to them in your discussion.

Conclusions:

D1.15