2.

BUILDING STONE

Stone is a naturally occurring material and is usually obtained from quarries for
construction purposes. It is used to construct different parts of building such as
foundations, floors, walls, and lintels and to construct retaining walls, bridges and dams.

2.1 Classification of Stone

Rocks from which building stones are obtained are classified on the basis of:

I) Their geologic nature

II) Their chemical composition

2.1.1 Geological Classification

Rocks are divided into three classes according to their geologic formation.

Igneous rocks e.g. Granite Trachyte Scoria

Basalt Pumice

Sedimentary rocks e.g. Sandstone

Limestone

Metamorphic rocks e.g. Marble

a) Igneous rocks are the product of heat and pressure, such as that caused by
volcanic activity and pressure exerted by the shifting of the earth’s surface. At
great depth inside the earth the temperature often reaches such a high degree that
silicates (quartz), feldspar and other constituents of the earth melt. The molten
mass, which is known as magma, is at times forced up due to pressure build-up
and solidification into rocks. If the solidification takes place near or at the surface
of the earth, the magma forms trap rocks that include the imperfectly crystallized
basalt and the usually completely crystallized trachyte. If, however, the magma
solidifies at greater depth after forcing its way into existing strata (hence its name
of intrusive rock) it forms a solid crystalline rock known as granite. Depending on
the rate of cooling of the magma, these igneous rocks could be coarse or fine
grained. The more rapid the cooling, the smaller the crystals formed. In the
process of cooling, the crystals inter-lock with each other, giving the rocks great
toughness and strength.

b) Sedimentary rocks are formed as a result of sedimentation either from the

disintegration products derived from decayed rocks or from accumulations of
organic origin.

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Eyob Yilma, Construction Technology Department, NCTTE
c) Metamorphic rocks are formed by the gradual change in the character and
structure of igneous and sedimentary rocks.

2.1.2 Chemical Classification

Chemically, rocks are classified on the basis of their major constituent mineral.

Argillaceous rocks are composed primarily of alumina (Al2O3)

Calcareous rocks are those where the constituent is lime (CaCO3)

Silicious rocks are composed primarily of silica (SiO2)

2.2 Properties of Different Stones

1. Granite

It contains silica in the form of quartz, feldspar and mica. These crystals often result in
very attractive coloring blue, green, red, black or white. The coloring depends on the
account of the range of the minerals they contain.

2. Basalt

Basalt is generally fine grained rock is mostly black or very dark in color. At times it
contains iron-bearing minerals that make it deflect a magnetic needle. It is a very hard
stone and a useful material for construction.

3. Trachyte

Trachyte varies from dark to light gray in color. It is usually coarse grained and contains
large crystals of feldspar. It could give medium to high strength and is a useful material
for construction.

While trachyte could give high to medium strength, both basalt and granite are very hard
stones; hence all the three are useful materials for construction.

4. Pumice and Scoria

Pumice is formed as a result of steam or gas bubbling out of molten lava leaving behind
empty pockets that give the solidified lava spongy appearance. It has a granular texture
and is very light to the extent it can float on water. It is usually white-gray to yellow in
color, but may be red, brown or sometimes black, according to the oxides, or impurities it
contains. Scoria or volcanic ash (red ash), has generally a porous rough surface, and is
usually red to black in color.
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Eyob Yilma, Construction Technology Department, NCTTE
5. Sandstone

Sandstones are solid and generally coherent rocks that consist of grains of sand cemented
together by natural cementing agents such as clay, iron oxide, lime carbonate or silica.
They are the result of the solidification of sand beds that either contained the cementing
substance or were impregnated with it during the process of solidification. Hence the
major constituent mineral of sandstone is quartz, making as much as 95% of the whole
rock. The rest is the cementing material, gravel, broken shells and other minerals.

6. Limestone

Limestone is sedimentary rock that contains carbonate of lime (CaCo3), the remains of
shells, or the skeletons of prehistoric animals, and certain other essential elements. In
most limestones, the lime plus magnesium carbonate content exceeds 75%; however,
when the silica content is high the stone might be classified as sandstone. In its pure
form, limestone is white, generally however, it is found in brown, reddish-brown or other
color depending on its content of clay, iron oxide or other impurities. The main problem
with limestone is acid attack, mainly from the atmosphere in the form of sulphurous or
sulphuric acids found in polluted atmospheres: H2O (rain)+SO2 (gas of combustion) =
H2SO3 (Sulphurous).

7. Marble

Marble is a metamorphic, crystalline, limestone, recrystallised by heat or pressure.

Marble has a wide range of colors, textures, grains, working qualities, and finish
properties. The attraction of marble results from the presence of impurities that form into
veins or mottled bands during the process. Marble may be white, black and white, green,
blue, gray, pink or yellow colored.

With proper methods of manufacture, all the marbles are considered equivalent in
performance, durability, and utility. Marbles vary greatly in their ability to withstand the
elements. Some crumble under severe weather conditions or pollutants in the air (like
limestone). Certain very beautiful marbles will disintegrate in the presence of water and
can be used only for interiors. The beauty of marbles is best revealed by polishing.
Polished marble tends to lose its polished surface and color on the exterior of buildings
unless it is constantly maintained.

2.3 Production of Stone

The process of removing stone from its natural bed is known as quarrying, and the
method of quarrying will depend to some extent on the nature of the stone.

Some stone is stratified horizontally, and the horizontal demarcations between the strata
are known as bedding planes. In other stone, the vertical separations are more visible, and
they are called joint planes. In some stone both are apparent, where both bedding planes
and joint planes are clearly visible.
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Eyob Yilma, Construction Technology Department, NCTTE
The ancient Egyptians drove wooden wedges into natural faults of the stone and then
poured water onto them. The swelling of the wooden wedges split the rock into sizes
suitable for the mason to work into final shape with a hand tools.

Sandstone and limestone are stratified, which simplifies their removal from their natural
beds. In stratified rocks a series of holes is drilled perpendicular to the stratification, and
the material between the holes is removed. Stones are then split from the quarry along the
lines of stratification. In rock that is not stratified, such as granite, holes must be drilled
both horizontally and vertically into the bed.

In quarrying of softer stones, such as limestone, sandstone, etc, channeling machines or

wire saws may be used to remove the stones. Harder stones must still be removed by
drilling and wedges.

The stone blocks thus produced are transported from the quarry by truck.

2.4 Building-Stone Requirements

Despite the abundance of rock, relatively few stones satisfy the requirements as building
stones. The important requirements are:

ƒ Strength
ƒ Hardness
ƒ Workability
ƒ Durability.
ƒ Color and grain
ƒ Porosity and texture
ƒ Ease of quarrying
ƒ Accessibility

2.5 Common Stones for Construction Purpose

Basalt and Trachyte are very common in Ethiopia and are mostly used for stone masonry
work and as bolder or crashed stone for road construction and crashed aggregates for
concrete making. Owing to its beautiful colors, its roughness and durability, granite is
used as polished floor finishing material or cladding to external walls. Granite and basalt
should never be used in place where they will be subjected to great heat owing to their
tendency to explode due to the different rates of expansion of their constituent minerals.

Other rocks that are made from magma and are included in the family of igneous rock are
those that are commonly known as volcanic rocks. They are formed from magma that
poured out from the craters of volcanoes and spread as molten lava over the earth’s
surface. These include the porous lightweight rocks pumice and scoria.

Some standard code of practice for concrete include pumice and scoria among the several
types of dense and lightweight, natural as well as manufactured aggregates considered to
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Eyob Yilma, Construction Technology Department, NCTTE
be admissible for subsidiary members, including wall panels, floor and roof slabs on
condition that they are free of impurities such as iron components, clay lumps and coal.
Although pumice and scoria are found in Ethiopia in large quantities especially along the
rift valley, their use has been limited to the manufacture of partially or non compacted
light weight masonry blocks. Owing to its lightweight, pumice concrete is also used for
forming slopes on flat concrete roofs.

Sandstone and Limestone are used for external and internal walls and as polished floor
finishing materials.

Marble has a wide range as building material. It is used for external walls and
representative of internal walls, and as well as polished floor finishing material.
There might be much more possibilities of using natural stones as Building Materials.
This could be done on recommendation of the experienced engineer.

2.6 Tests on Building Stone

In practice building stones are used for construction purposes as quarried and are rarely
tested. However, it is at times useful to known some of the characteristics of a particular
stone and tests on water absorption and specific gravity are recommended.

The ASTM method of test, ASTM C97-47 (2), covers tests for determining the
absorption and bulk specific gravity of all types of natural building stones, except slate.
Specimens for these tests may be cubes, prisms, cylinders, or any regular form with least
dimension not under 50mm and greatest dimension not over 75mm, and the ratio of
volume to surface are not less than 0.3 nor greater than 0.5. The percentage of absorption
by weight of specimen is calculated as follows:

B−A
Absorption by weight, percent = X 100
A
Where
A = Weight of specimen after oven drying at 105+ 2 oC for 24 hours.
B = Weight of the surface dry specimen after complete immersion in filtered or
distilled water at 20 + 2oC for 48 hours.

A
Bulk specific gravity =
B−C

Where
A = Weight of the dried specimen at 105 + 2 oC for 24 hours
B= Weight of the soaked and surface dried specimen in air (soaking is done
for 1 hour on the specimen that has been oven dried for 24 hours)
C= Weight of the soaked specimen in water

It is generally observed that he strength of building stones increases with increasing

specific gravity. Also, the higher the specific gravity the greater the stability of a
hydraulic structure built of the stone.

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Eyob Yilma, Construction Technology Department, NCTTE
 Table 2.1 Physical Properties of Some Selected Building Stones

Type of stone Specific Gravity Absorption (% wt) Strength in

compression MPa

Basalt 2.7-2.9 100-200

Granite 2.7-2.9 100-200

Trachyte - -

Scoria - -

Limestone 2-2.7 10-60

Sandstone 2.5 15-150

Marble 2.6-2.7 80-150

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Eyob Yilma, Construction Technology Department, NCTTE