Blackbody radiation

Blackbody radiation
• "Blackbody radiation" or "cavity radiation"
refers to an object or system which absorbs all
radiation incident upon it and re-radiates
energy which is characteristic of this radiating
system only, not dependent upon the type of
radiation which is incident upon it.
• Blackbody can be constructed in the lab by
making a hollow object with a tiny hole in it
 Experimental blackbody curve

The intensity also depends

on the temperature of the
blackbody.

A range of colors is emitted. Intensity depends on frequency.

 We think we have a basic experimental understanding of the
measured properties of blackbody radiation. How about
coming up with a theoretical* understanding?

Rayleigh and Jeans in the late 19th century developed a

mathematical description of blackbody radiation by modeling
it with standing waves set up inside a cavity.

8𝜋𝜈 2 8𝜋𝜈 2
𝑢 𝜈 𝑑𝜈 = 3 dν × 𝐸 = 3 dν ×kT
𝑐 𝑐

No. of standing waves

Avg. energy
(modes) in the interval
per standing
𝜈 and 𝜈 + 𝑑𝜈 in unit
wave
volume

*“The essential fact is that all the pictures which science now draws of nature,
and which alone seem capable of according with observational facts, are
mathematical pictures.”—James Jeans
 theory
𝜈 → ∞, 𝑢(𝜈) → ∞

experiment

𝜈 → ∞, 𝑢(𝜈) → 0

The Ultraviolet Catastrophe!

What’s wrong with the theory?

Rayleigh and Jeans assumed the radiation was absorbed and

emitted by oscillators in the blackbody walls. A valid assumption.

This is not as odd an idea as it may sound at first. Light is

E&M radiation. E&M radiation can accelerate electrons.
Electrons in the atoms of the blackbody wall will act like little
balls on springs (harmonic oscillators) when you “pull” on
them with light.

Electrons absorb light energy. Now they are “excited.” After a

very brief time, they will get rid of their excess energy.

The excess energy may come out at any valid oscillator

frequency, i.e., at any frequency of light corresponding to a
valid oscillator energy.
Rayleigh and Jeans assumed that the oscillators could later
emit their energy at any frequency. A valid assumption.*

Rayleigh and Jeans assumed that only wavelengths which

could “fit inside” the cavity could exist there. A valid assumption.

Rayleigh and Jeans assumed that the radiation exiting the

cavity was the same as the radiation inside. A valid assumption.

*according to classical physics

Planck spent many years investigating blackbody radiation,
and discovered that he could explain the blackbody radiation
distribution by assuming the blackbody to be made up of an
enormous number of oscillators, with each oscillator vibrating
at a fixed frequency, but with a wide range (from 0 to infinity)
of possible frequencies.*

However, the oscillators could not take on any

arbitrary frequency. Instead, they could oscillate only
in integral multiples of a frequency  which depended
on the blackbody temperature.**

*Same as Rayleigh and Jeans, so far. **A revolutionary idea.

These oscillators emit energy in units of h, which Planck
called "quanta" of energy. A quantum of energy is E = h,
and h is called Planck's constant

The fact that the oscillators in the cavity walls can interchange
energy with standing waves only in units of h is a dramatic
departure from classical physics.
Planck’s theory explained blackbody radiation, but even Planck
believed that later on somebody would reconcile blackbody
radiation with classical physics.*

“...the whole procedure was an act of despair because a theoretical

interpretation had to be found at any price, no matter how high that might
be.”—Max Planck

*Nevertheless, Planck won the 1918 Nobel prize for his discovery of quanta.
Here is Planck’s formula for blackbody radiation:

8𝜋𝜈 2 8𝜋𝜈 2 ℎ𝜈
𝑢 𝜈 𝑑𝜈 = 3 dν × 𝐸 = 3 dν × ℎ𝜈
𝑐 𝑐 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −1
𝑘𝑇

What’s the BIG IDEA here?

Oscillators can oscillate only in integral multiples of

some fundamental frequency.

These oscillators emit energy in units of h, called

"quanta" of energy. A quantum of energy is E = h.
 𝑢 𝜈 𝑑𝜈

(𝜈)