CHAPTER 40

Early Quantum Theory

Major Points

1. The failure of classical physics to explain the spectrum of blackbody

radiation.
2. Planck's radiation law and Einstein's quantum hypothesis.
3. Einstein's introduction of the photon to explain the photoelectric effect.
4. In the Compton effect a photon is scattered by an electron.
5. Balmer's formula for the spectrum of hydrogen.
The development of the laser was 6. Rutherford's nuclear model of the atom.
based on ideas introduced by quantum 7. Bohr's theory of the hydrogen atom.
theory. Here, a laser is being used as a
precise cutting tool.

The theory of special relativity was the first part of the revolution in 20th-century
physics. It showed that classical mechanics is not correct when particles move at
high speed. Classical physics also does not provide adequate explanations for
issues such as the line spectrum emitted by atoms in a gas discharge tube or the
structure of the atom itself. The second part of the revolution was the formulation
ofthe theory of quantum mechanics between about 1900 and 1930. Its origin lay in
the study of the radiation emitted by hot bodies and in the photoelectric effect, in
which light ejects electrons from a surface.The explanation of these phenomena
required the introduction of the idea that energy appears only in discrete amounts;
it is said to be quantized. In 1911, E. Rutherford proposed that an atom consists of
a tiny nucleus surrounded by electrons. Two years later, Niels Bohr combined
Rutherford's model and the idea of quantization to explain the origin of the visible
spectrum of the hydrogen atom. Other developments in quantum theory are dis-
cussed in the next chapter.

40.1 BLACKBODY RADIATION

It is a familiar fact that hot bodies emit radiation, which we experience as heat. As
the temperature of an object is raised, it first glows a dull red, then changes to
orange-yellow, and finally becomes "white hot." Classically, such thermal radia-
tion is produced by the accelerations of electrons and the oscillations of mole-
cules. It was noted in the late 18th century that a variety of objects placed in a hot
oven all glow with the same apparent color. That is, at a given temperature, the
 40.1 BLACKBODY RADIATION 837

distribution of thermal radiation among the various wavelengths is the same for all
bodies.
When an object is placed in a hot furnace, it absorbs energy until it reaches the
temperature of the furnace. Since radiation continues to be incident on it, the
object must also emit radiation to remain in thermal equilibrium. By definition a
blackbody is an ideal system that absorbs all the radiation incident on it (sooty
carbon absorbs about 97%). Since a blackbody is the perfect absorber, it must also
be the ideal emitter (why?). In practice a cavity with a tiny opening, as in Fig.
40.1, acts as a blackbody since any radiation that enters the cavity is unlikely to FIGURE 40.1 A cavity with a tiny
opening absorbs any radiation entering
reemerge and is ultimately absorbed. The radiation emitted by the opening is it, so it acts like a blackbody. The
called blackbody or cavity radiation. The spectrum of cavity radiation is indepen- radiation emitted by the opening when
dent of the material in the walls of the cauity. the walls of the cavity are hot is
Figure 40.2 shows typical curves for the distribution of energy among the characteristic of a blackbody.
wavelengths. The spectral energy density, u>..( T), is defined so that u>..( T)dA. is the
energy per unit volume of the cavity in the wavelength interval A. to A. + dA.. The
unit of u>..( T) is (J /m 3)/m. When the temperature is raised, the total energy per unit
volume increases and the peak shifts to shorter wavelengths. The wavelength at
which the energy density is a maximum is related to the temperature by Wien's
displacement law:
A.maxT = 2.898 X 10- 3 m . K (40.1)
In 1896, W. Wien put forward an expression for the spectral energy density,
now called Wien's radiation law
(40.2)
where A and B were to be experimentally determined constants. This expression
was found to agree well with data for wavelengths from 0.7 JLm to 6 JLm, as
indicated in Fig. 40.3.
However, in June 1900, Lord Rayleigh pointed out that Wien's radiation law
implies that at long wavelengths the energy density does not increase with temper-
ature, which is not reasonable. He proposed another expression, now called the
Rayleigh-Jeans law, which he thought would be suitable at long wavelengths:
u>..(T) = cn- 4 (40.3) The spectrum of radiation emitted
by a hot furnace depends on the
where C = 81T'k and k is Boltzmann's constant. (Rayleigh had missed a factor of 2 temperature, not on the material in
in C, which was added later by James Jeans.) In September 1900, measurements the walls.

o 2 4 I6 8 10 12 14 16 18 A (10-
7
m)
(10- 7 m)
Am""
FIGURE 40.2 The spectrum of blackbody radiation at two FIGURE 40.3 Wein's radiation law is quite successful at short
temperatures. At the higher temperature, more radiation is wavelengths but not at long wavelengths. The Rayleigh-Jeans law
emitted and the peak shifts to shorter wavelengths. works well at long wavelengths (=15/Lm) but is a complete failure
at shorter wavelengths.
838 CHAP. 40 EARLY QUANTUM THEORY
FIGURE 40.4 Max Planck
(1858-1947) .
Planck's quantum hypothesis
Planck's radiation law
between 12 JLm and 18 JLm confirmed Rayleigh's prediction. Indeed, the devia-
tions from Wien's radiation law were up to 50% in this wavelength range. How-
ever, as Fig. 40.3 shows, the Rayleigh-Jeans law is totally inadequate at short
wavelengths.
Planck's Radiation Law
Max Planck (Fig. 40.4), a specialist in thermodynamics, had been working on the
problem of cavity radiation for several years. He was impressed by the fact that
the spectrum of cavity radiation was a universal property-independent of the
nature of the material in the walls. He noted that the entropy of any system, such
as the radiating oscillators in the walls of a cavity, must be a maximum when the
system reaches thermodynamic equilibrium (Section 21.8). In March 1900 he used
a simple condition to maximize the entropy and from this derived Wien's radiation
law-which is valid for short wavelengths. Later, in order to obtain Rayleigh's
law, which is valid at long wavelengths, he had to use a different condition. Planck
then simply combined these two conditions into one and obtained a new radiation
formula, which he presented on October 19, 1900:*
AA -5
Ulo. = eB/A.T _ 1 (40.4)
where A and B are constants. At short wavelengths the -1 can be ignored in
comparison with the exponential to yield Wien's radiation law. At long wave-
lengths, the exponential can be expanded, exp(BIAT) = I + BlAT + . '. When
this is substituted into Eq. 40.4, it yields the form ofthe Rayleigh-Jeans law. That
same night it was confirmed that this equation fit all available data perfectly!
Planck now felt obliged to justify the way he had dealt with entropy in arriving
at Eq. 40.4. He turned to the statistical approach developed by L. Boltzmann
(Section 21.11). In order to calculate the entropy, Planck had to determine the
number of ways a given total energy could be distributed among a fixed number of
oscillators in the cavity walls. Ifthe energy were treated as a continuous variable,
there would be an infinite number of ways in which to distribute it. So instead, to
facilitate the counting process, Planck divided the total energy of the oscillators
into energy "elements" of size e. He found that he could obtain the form of Eq.
40.4 provided he set e = hf, wherefis the frequency and h is a constant. The value
of Planck's constant is
h = 6.626 X 10- 34 J . S
Planck's radiation law was
87ThCA -5
Ulo. = ehc/A.kT - I (40.5)
This function correctly yields the complete spectrum of cavity radiation.
* Planck considered the entropy S to be a function of energy U and noted that S is a maximum jf
dSldU = 0 and d 2SIdU 2 < O. He showed that the condition d 2SIdU2 ex (- I1jU), where f is the
frequency, led to Wien's law. However, Rayleigh's law required d 2SIdU2 ex (-I1U2). He combined
these into d 2SIdU2 = -aIIU(bf + U)], where a and b are constants, and derived Eq. 40.4.
 40.1 BLACKBODY RADIATION 839

At this stage Planck did not realize the true significance of what he had done.
N either did anyone else. He thought of the discrete" energy elements" as merely
a calculational aid in determining the entropy of the oscillators. Indeed, he tried
for many years to incorporate the constant h into the framework of classical
physics.

Einstein's Quantum Hypothesis

Classically, there is no restriction on the amount of energy that an oscillator can
emit or absorb. In 1906, Einstein proved that Planck's radiation law could be
derived only if the energy of each individual oscillator (rather than the total
energy of all the oscillators) is quantized in steps of hf. Thus, according to
Einstein's quantum hypothesis, the energy of an oscillator can take on only values
that are integer multiples of hf. In the nth "level," the energy is
Ell = nhf n 0, I, 2, 3, .. (40.6) Einstein's quantum hypothesis
Einstein's hypothesis implies that an oscillator can emit or absorb radiation only
in multiples of hf. The spacing between the energy levels depends on the fre-
quency.

EXAMPLE 40.1: The peak in the radiation from the sun oc- E =! kA 2 = (5 N/m)(O.1 m)2
curs at about 500 nm. What is the sun's surface temperature,
= 0.025 J
assuming that it radiates as a blackbody?
From Eq. 15.7, the frequency of the oscillation is
Solution: From Wien's displacement law, Eq. 40.1, we have
T = 2.898 X 10- 3 m . K f= Hz
500 X 10- 9 m
= 5800 K From En = nhf we find
In comparison, the temperature of the filament of an incandes- I kA 2 (0.025 J)
cent bulb is about 2000 K. n ="2 hf = (6.63 x 10 34 J . s)(0.80 Hz)
EXERCISE I. The temperature ofa person's skin is 34°C. What = 1032
is the wavelength at which the maximum radiation occurs? The change in energy (AE = hi) between levels n to n - I is
insignificant in comparison to the total energy. Thus in such a
EXAMPLE 40.2: A block of mass 0.2 kg oscillates at the end macroscopic system we would not expect to experience the
of a spring (k = 5 N1m) with an amplitude of 10 cm. What is its quantization of energy. For atomic systems, however, quanti-
"quantum number" n? zation assumes great importance.
Note that the physical quantity "energy" remains a contin-
Solution: In order to apply Einstein's hypothesis, Ell = nhf, we uous variable, that is, it can assume any value over a continu-
must first calculate the energy. The energy of a simple har- ous range. It is the energy of the possible states of a bound
monic oscillator is system that is quantized.

For a few years, Einstein's quantum hypothesis was more or less ignored
since few scientists were concerned with the "dull" problem of cavity radiation.
They focused their attention on more exciting fields such as relativity and models
of the atom. The most profound revolution in physics had begun, but hardly
anyone noticed! However, by 1908 most physicists had become aware of the
drastic disagreement between the prediction of classical physics (the Rayleigh-
Jeans law) and the radiation curve at short wavelengths. It was dubbed the "uItra- Ultraviolet catastrophe
violet catastrophe." Although Planck had introduced the constant h in 1900, the
idea that the energy of an oscillator is really quantized came from Einstein. Planck
himself accepted this idea only around 1910.
840 CHAP. 40 EARLY QUANTUM THEORY
v the light of the emitting electrodes. In 1888, Hallwachs found that when a zinc
FIGURE 40.5 Light strikes a plate P in
an evacuated chamber. The emitted
photoelectrons are collected by the
cylinder C, whose potential can be
varied to be either positive or negative
relative to P. When the retarding
potential reaches a critical value, the
stopping potential, even the most
energetic electrons are turned back.
The current in the ammeter, A, drops
to zero.
Current
. - - - - - - /2
f> fa
FIGURE 40.6 At positive accelerating
potential differences, the maximum
current is determined by the intensity
of the radiation. However, the stopping
potential does not change with the
intensity.
40.2 THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
The work of Young and Fresnel in the early 19th century had converted scientists
from the corpuscular theory to the wave theory of light. Maxwell's beautiful
theory of 1865 predicted that light is an electromagnetic wave and Hertz's experi-
ment in 1887 was its crowning glory (Section 34.6). Ironically, the very experi-
ment that demonstrated that light is an electromagnetic wave also produced the
first evidence of its corpuscular nature! Hertz noticed that the sparks at the
detector loop jumped more easily when the loop's electrodes were illuminated by
plate is illuminated with ultraviolet light, it becomes positively charged, and in
1899, J. J. Thomson showed that electrons were expelled from the plate. For some
alkali metals, such as Na, K, and Cs, visible light can produce this emission of
electrons, now called the photoelectric effect.
In 1902, P. Lenard conducted the experiment depicted in Fig. 40.5. Mono-
chromatic light illuminates a plate P in a glass enclosure. A battery maintains a
potential difference between P and a metal cylinder C, which collects the photo-
electrons. When the collector is positive with respect to the plate, the electrons
are attracted to it and the ammeter registers a current. At some value of the
potential difference, all the emitted electrons are collected. Increasing the acceler-
ating potential difference has no effect on the current, as is shown in Fig. 40.6.
When the polarity is reversed, the electrons are repelled and only the most ener-
getic ones reach the collector, so the current falls. When the retarding potential
difference reaches a critical value, the current drops to zero. At this stopping
potential, Vo, only those electrons with the maximum kinetic energy reach the
collector: *
I 2
2 mu max = evo
l)'
(40.7)
Lenard found that the number of photoelectrons (inferred from the maximum
current in Fig. 40.6) is proportional to the light intensity, even at very low intensi-
ties. However, for very weak light, one might expect to wait a long time before the
electrons absorb enough energy to escape from the material. In fact, the delay is
less than 3 x 10- 9 s. The absence of a threshold intensity is puzzling. Further-
more, the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons depends on the light source
and the plate material, but not on the intensity of the source. Certain combinations
of light sources and plate materials exhibit no photoelectric effect. According to
the wave theory, photoemission should occur at any frequency, provided the
intensity is high enough. Only one feature, the increase in the number of photo-
electrons with intensity, can be understood in terms of classical physics.
The Photon
In March 1905, Einstein published a paper on cavity radiation. He was uneasy
about a basic inconsistency in Planck's approach. Planck had treated the total
energy of the oscillators as consisting of discrete "elemevts" but had assumed
that the energy of the radiation is continuous. While he conceded that Maxwell's
wave theory is extremely successful in dealing with interference, diffraction, and
other properties of electromagnetic radiation, Einstein noted that optical observa-
* There is a correction to this equation if the emitter and collector are made of different metals.
 40.2 THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT 841

tions refer to values averaged over time, not to instantaneous values. The wave
theory may not apply to the individual events of absorption and emission. Einstein
obtained an expression for the entropy of the radiation in terms of the volume of
the cavity and noted that the form of this function was similar to that for the
entropy of a system of gas particles (Eq. 21.13). This prompted him to propose
that radiation behaves as if it were composed of a collection of discrete energy
quanta of magnitude
E = hf (40.8) Energy of a photon

wherefis the frequency of the radiation. The name photon was given to these light
quanta by G. N. Lewis in 1926. Einstein pictured a wavefront as consisting of
billions of photons. He assumed that the energy was not spread uniformly over a
wavefront, but concentrated in bundles, localized in space. (The modern view of
the photon is not quite so straightforward.)

The Photoelectric Equation

Einstein immediately applied the idea of light quanta to the photoelectric effect. In
the process of photoemission a single photon gives up all its energy to a single
electron. As a result, the electron is ejected instantaneously. The intensity of light
of a given frequency is determined by the number of photons incident. Increasing
the intensity will increase the number of ejected electrons. The maximum possible
kinetic energy, ! of the photoelectrons is determined by the energy of each
photon, hf:
hf = ! +¢ (40.9)
where the work function, 1>, is the minimum energy needed to extract an electron
from the surface of the material. More tightly bound electrons will emerge with
kinetic energies less than the maximum. From Eq. 40.9 we infer that there is a
threshold frequency, 10, given by
hfo = ¢ (40.10)
Below fo there will be no photoemission. By using Eqs. 40.7 and 40.10 in Eq. 4.9
we find Einstein's photoelectric equation:
eVo = h(f - fo) (40.11) Vo(V)

Not only did Einstein explain all the known facts, but he also predicted (1) the 2
existence of a threshold frequency, and (2) that a plot of V o versus f should
produce a straight line with a slope hie, independent ofthe nature of the material.
R. A. Millikan (who measured the elementary charge e) was uncomfortable
with the concept of the photon. In 1906, he began a series of experiments aimed at
disproving Einstein's equation. However, after nearly a decade of work, and 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 f(1014 Hz)
contrary to his expectations, he proved the validity of Einstein's equation in 1914.
FIGURE 40.7 Millikan's data verified
Figure 40.7 shows typical data on how the stopping potential depends on the Einstein's equation for the
frequency of the light. The slope of the line is correctly predicted by Eq. 40.11. photoelectric effect.
It is noteworthy that Einstein did not build on, or extend, Planck's idea of the
quantum; he worked from his own ideas in statistical thermodynamics. In the 1905
paper, he arrived at the equation E = Cf, where C is a constant, by using Wien's
radiation law, which is accurate only at high frequencies. It was only in the
following year that Einstein realized the connection to Planck's theory and that
C = h.
842 CHAP. 40 EARLY QUANTUM THEORY

EXAMPLE 40.3: Ultraviolet light of wavelength 207 nm (b) From ! = eVo we have
causes photoemission from a surface. The stopping potential is
2 V. Find: (a) the work function in eV; (b) the maximum speed Vrnax = = 8 x 105 mls
of the photoelectrons.
Solution: (a) From Eq. 40.1I,
The classical equation for kinetic energy is satisfactory pro-
he vided v < O.le.
1> = T - eVo
= (6.626 x 10-
34 8
J . s)(3 X 10 m/s) _ (l 6 x 1O- 19C)(2 V) EXERCISE 2. For the values in Example 40.3 find: (a) the
(2.07 x 10 7 m) . threshold wavelength; (b) the stopping potential when A = 250
= 6.4 X 10- 19 J = 4 eV nm.

40.3 THE COMPTON EFFECT

The idea that the energy of a system is quantized required a wrenching adjustment
away from classical physics. The striking successes in blackbody radiation and
the photoelectric effect were still not sufficient to convince some scientists of the
validity of the quantum concept. Although by 1910 Planck had accepted the quan-
tization of the energy levels of an oscillator, he (and others) strongly rejected the
idea that the radiation itself is quantized.
In 1923, A. H. Compton found further evidence for the photon concept while
he was studying the scattering of X rays by graphite. Classically, the charges
should oscillate at the frequency of the incoming radiation and re-radiate at the
same frequency. Compton found that the scattered radiation had two compo-
nents: one at the original wavelength (0.071 nm) and a second at a longer wave-
length. The value of the shifted wavelength depended on the scattering angle but
not on the material of the target.
Compton analyzed his results in terms of a collision between a photon and an
electron. Since the energy of the X ray photon (= 20 keV) was very much larger
than the binding energy of an atomic electron, the electrons could be treated as
being "free." Classically we know that an electromagnetic wave carries momen-
tum given by p = E/e where E is the energy (Section 34.5). Since the energy of a
photon is hf, its momentum is
hf h
P = c=i (40.12)

The collision is depicted in Fig. 40.8a. The incoming photon is deflected by an

angle () and the electron, initially at rest, moves off at angle <p. From the conserva-
tion of energy, we have

FIGURE 40.8 Compton scattering. (a) he = he + K (40.13)

A photon of wavelength A is scattered
by an electron, which moves off at
angle 8. The scattered photon has a
longer wavelength A. (b) The Compton
shift at 8 = 135°.
A A'
where K = ('Y - l)moe 2 is the relativistic kinetic energy of the electron after the
collision. (We have omitted the rest energy of the electron from both sides.) The
conservation of linear momentum for the two components yields

2: Px: ih = h
""i:i cos () + P cos <p (40.14)

"
LJ Py : 0 = h sm
A' . () - P sm
. <p (40.15)
 40.4 LINE SPECTRA 843

where p = mv = ymov. Manipulation of Eqs. 40.13 to 40.15 (see Problem 7) leads

to

A' -' A = (I - cos (J) (40.16) Compton shift

moc
where mo is the rest mass of the electron. The quantity h/moc = 0.00243 nm is
called the Compton wavelength. One of the results is shown in Fig. 40.8b. The
unshifted peak is due to a scattering process in which the whole atom is involved
and is explainable in classical terms. The Compton effect persuaded most physi-
cists to accept the concept of the photon.

EXAMPLE 40.4: X rays of wavelength 0.24 nm are scattered
through an angle of 40° as they pass through a block of carbon.
What is the wavelength of the scattered rays?
Solution: From Eq. 40.16, the shift in wavelength is
A' - A = (0.00243 nm)(l - cos 40°)
= 0.00057 nm
The wavelength of the scattered rays is A' = A + = 0.24057
nm. By using shorter wavelength X rays, the fractional shift
can be made larger.
EXERCISE 3. What is the kinetic energy of the recoiling elec-
tron?

40.4 LINE SPECTRA

We saw in Section 40.1 that a hot body emits a continuous spectrum of radiation.
The emission from a rarefied gas that is very hot, or through which an electrical
discharge passes, consists of sharp lines. Each element has a characteristic set of
lines that may be used to identify it. Indeed, rubidium, cesium, helium, thorium,
and indium were discovered in the 1860s through the study of spectra. Classical
physics could neither explain these line spectra nor fit them into any scheme.
The visible spectrum of hydrogen consists of four lines: 410.12 nm, 434.01
nm, 486.07 nm, and 656.21 nm, as shown in Fig. 40.9. In 1884, J. J. Balmer, a
Swiss mathematics teacher, found that these wavelengths (in om) could be repre-
sented by a single formula. Balmer's formula was
m2 m = 3,4,5,6. (40.17) Balmer's formula
Am = 364.56
m2 - 4

-i\(nm)

N 0
<Ll cD <td
Series

H" H1 Limit

FIGURE 40.9 The visible spectrum of hydrogen consists of four lines.

844 CHAP. 40 EARLY QUANTUM THEORY

Sa

Ca

Na

Line spectra for various elements.

By inserting the integer values for m, the wavelengths were reproduced with an
error no greater than I in 40,O()()! By 1890, J. R. Rydberg had discovered similar
formulas for the spectra of the alkali elements Li, Na, K, and es. He also sug-
gested that the formula be rewritten as the difference between two terms. For
hydrogen

Rydberg's formula (40.18)

where
R = 1.09737 X 107 m- I
is now called the Rydberg constant.
In 1908, Ritz discovered a "combination principle": The frequency ofa line in
the spectrum of a given element could be expressed as a simple combination (sum
or difference) of the frequencies of two other lines in the same spectrum. At last,
line spectra were falling into place, but it took another five years before these
regularities were given some theoretical foundation.

40.5 ATOMIC MODELS

In the 19th century, there was considerable chemical and physical evidence for
the existence of atoms, but nothing was known about their structure. In 1904, J. J.
Thomson suggested that an atom consists of a positively charged sphere in which
electrons were embedded. He tried, without success, to relate the normal mode
frequencies of various electron configurations to line spectra. Although he made
several qualitative deductions, the model was not satisfactory.
 40.5 ATOMIC MODELS 845

Lead - 10- 5 em
collimator

,..,.,..,.-
....- ZnS
II parbele _lft _
source

FIGURE 40.10 In the experiment of Geiger and Marsden, high-energy alpha particles were
scattered by a thin gold foil. The scattered particles were detected as flashes on a ZnS screen.

In 1909, Ernest Rutherford asked two of his assistants, Hans Geiger and Ernst
Marsden, to study the scattering of alpha particles (doubly ionized helium atoms)
by a very thin gold foil (Fig. 40.10). Since the positive charge in the Thomson atom
was spread throughout the atom, most of the scattered beam was expected to be
about 3° wide, with perhaps a few scattered particles up to 20°. In fact, Geiger and
Marsden found that about one in eight thousand of the ex particles was scattered
through angles larger than 90°. Rutherford was stunned:
It was quite the most incredible thing that has ever happened to me in my
life. It was almost as incredible as if you fired a 15 inch shell at a piece of
paper, and it came back and hit you.
Since the mass of an ex particle is about 7000 times that of an electron, the
electrons playa negligible part in the scattering. The mass of the positive part of
the gold atom is about 50 times that of the ex particle. If the positive part were
spread uniformly over the whole atom (r = 10- 10 m) as Thomson suggested, it
could not cause such large deflections. Rutherford concluded that each deflection --- - - --- -
was caused by a single strong interaction. This meant that the positive part of the FIGURE 40.11 According to
atom had to be concentrated in an extremely small volume (r = 10- 14 m), which Rutherford's nuclear model, the alpha
we now call the nucleus. The deflection of an ex particle would depend on how particles were scattered by the
closely it approached the nucleus, as shown in Fig. 40.11, with the force of Coulomb force of a tiny particle (the
nucleus) rather than a large sphere, as
repulsion given by Coulomb's law. Occasionally there would be a "head-on" in Thomson's model of the atom. Each
collision in which the ex particle simply reverses its direction of motion. This alpha particle experienced a single
special case allows us to obtain an estimate of the size of the nucleus. strong collision.

EXAMPLE 40.5: An alpha particle moving with speed 2 x 107
mls makes a head-on collision with a gold (Au I97) nucleus that
carries a charge of 7ge. What is the distance of closest ap-
approach? Take rna = 6.7 x 10- 27 kg, qa = 2e, and assume that
the gold nucleus remains at rest.
sion for kinetic energy is roughly correct.) At the distance of
closest approach TO, the ex particle is momentarily at rest, and
therefore the system has only potential energy. The initial and
final energies are

Solution: This problem is easily solved with the conservation

of energy. The initial energy of the system is just the kinetic Equating these two we find '0 = 2.7 X 10- 14 m. This would be an
energy of the ex particle. (Since v < O.lc, the classical expres- upper limit to the size of the nucleus.

Rutherford's work on ex particle scattering established the existence of the

nucleus; he did not concern himself with how the electrons were distributed in an
atom. In 1904, H. Nagaoka had prpposed that the electrons formed rings (like
those around Saturn), but he could not explain how such a system would be
stable. A "planetary model," in which the electrons orbit the nucleus, would be
846 CHAP. 40 EARLY QUANTUM THEORY

mechanically stable, However, according to Maxwell's theory, an accelerating

electron emits radiation. The loss in energy would mean that the electron would
spiral, within about 10- 8 s, into the nucleus. This obviously does not occur.
Moreover, the radiation would cover a continuous range in frequency, in contrast
to the line spectra actually observed.

40.6 THE BOHR MODEL

After Niels Bohr obtained his doctorate in 1911, he worked under Rutherford for a
while (see Fig. 40.12). He believed that Planck's constant was the key to a suc-
cessful atomic model and was encouraged by the following dimensional analysis.
If m and e are the mass and charge of the electron, and k is the constant in
Coulomb's law, then the quantity h 2 /mke 2 has the dimensions of length and its
numerical value agreed roughly with the known size of atoms. However, Bohr
made limited progress until he found out about the Balmer-Rydberg formula in
July 1912. He then focused his efforts on obtaining this result theoretically. In
1913, he presented a model of the hydrogen atom, which has one electron. Bohr
stated two postulates.

I. The electron moves only in certain circular orbits, called stationary states.
This motion can be described classically.
This postulate does not explain why an atom is stable; it merely asserts that it is.
Figure 40.13 shows an electron of mass m and charge -e, moving at speed v in a
FIGURE 40.12 Ernest Rutherford (left)
stable circular orbit of radius, r, around a nucleus of charge +e. The centripetal
(1871-1937) and Niels Bohr
(1885-1962). force is provided by the Coulomb attraction between the electron and the nucleus.
From Newton's second law we have
_ - __ e- mv 2 ke 2
// 'e, (40.19)
r r2
/ " The total mechanical energy of the electron is

\ P+\)
uf a \
I
ke 2
\ r /
E =K + U = ! mv 2 - -
r
\ /
'" '-..
----- / From Eq. 40.19 we find K = ke 2/2r, therefore
FIGURE 40.13 In the Bohr model of ke 2
the hydrogen atom an electron is in a E= - - (40.20)
2r
circular orbit around a single proton.
Bohr knew that Maxwell's theory could not explain the spectrum of black-
body radiation or the photoelectric effect. So he abandoned the ideas that the
accelerating electron must radiate and that an oscillator radiates at the (mechani-
cal) frequency of oscillation. The second postulate was
.., Radiation occurs only when an electron goes from one allowed orbit to
another of lower energy. The radiated frequency is
Izf = E/II Ell (40.21 )
where E", and Ell are the energies of the two states.
At this point we deviate from Bohr's initial work and present a simplified
approach. There is no justification for the first postulate about stationary orbits-
a postulate Bohr had to make since atoms do not spontaneously collapse. To
address this fact we need a quantum condition that restricts the allowed values of
 40.6 THE BOHR MODEL 847

the orbital radius. Near the end of Bohr's first paper he made a passing comment
that the angular momentum of the orbits is quantized, but he did not take this idea
seriously. It was realized only later (c. 1915) that this is afundamental aspect of
quantum theory, and so it serves as our "third" postulate:
3. The angular momentum of the electron is restricted to integer multiples of
h121f (= Ii):
mur = nh (40.22)
When u = n hi mr from this equation is equated to u = V ke I mr from Eq. 40.19, we
2

find the radius of the nth orbit is

(40.23)

From Eq. 40.20, the total energy of the nth orbit is

2 4
= _ mk e (40.24)
Ell 2h 2 ,,2

Combining this with Eq. 40.21 immediately leads to Rydberg's formula:

f= Rc
n2
J,)
111-
(40.25)

where

(40.26)

Bohr had derived the correct form of Rydberg's equation (Eq. 40.25). More im-
portantly, he had expressed the empirical number R in terms of fundamental E (eV)
constants. When their values were inserted, the calculated value of R was within
II = 00
6% of the then-accepted value. -0.54
" = 6
Bohr's theory may be applied to other single electron systems such as He+ or -0.28
-0.85 r- - n=5
n = 4
Li++, provided the nuclear charge is replaced by Ze, where Z is the atomic -1.51 III I /1 = 3

I
Paschen
number. The energy of the nth level is given by Eq. 40.24. Expressed in terms of f--

electronvolts, we find -3.40

l-
n = 2
C-.
Balmer
2
E = - 13.62 eV (40.27)
n n2 -
-
The energy level diagram for hydrogen (Z = 1) is shown in Fig. 40.14. Each
-
state is characterized by the integer n, which is called the principal quantum
- Series
number. When the atom is unexcited, the electron is in the ground state with limit
n = 1. The energies of the various levels are E; = -13.6 eV, E2 = -13.6/22 = - 3.4 -
eV, E 3 = -13.6/3 2 = -1.51 eV, and so on. Since we have chosen the potential -
energy to be zero at r = 00, the total energies are negative, as is required for the -
electron to be in a bound state. The electron may be raised to a higher level by a -
collision with another electron or by absorbing a photon. Note that the photon
energy must correspond exactly to the energy difference between the two states
-
-13.60 n = 1
- Lyman
involved in the transition. If the photon energy is large enough, the electron may
be ejected from the atom. This is called ionization. From Fig. 40.14 we see that the -
ionization energy for hydrogen is 13.6 eV. The Bohr theory is remarkably accu-
FIGURE 40.14 The energy level
rate in this prediction. diagram for hydrogen. Light is emitted
The electron may return from an excited state to the ground state in one step or absorbed when an electron makes a
or via intermediate levels. A single frequency is emitted in the first case, but there transition between two levels.
848 CHAP. 40 EARLY QUANTUM THEORY

are two or more in the second. Balmer's series corresponds to transitions from
higher levels to n = 2. Transitions to level n = 1 form the Lyman series; those to
n = 3 form the Paschen series. For each series there is a maximum possible
frequency called the series limit. This corresponds to a transition from n = 00 to
the lowest level of the series.

EXAMPLE 40.6: According to the Bohr theory, what is the = (1.09 x J07 m- I)(3.00 x 108 = 4.58 x 10 14 Hz
radius of the ground state orbit of the hydrogen atom?
Solution: From Eq. 40.23, hi = -
h2
'1 = mke 2 = (1.09 X 107 m- I)(3.00 x 108 m/s)G) = 2.48 x 10 14 Hz
1.05 X 10- 34 J . S
= (9.11 x 10 31 kg)(9 X 109 N . m2/C 2)(1.60 x 10 19 C)2
= 5.29 X 10- 11 m EXAMPLE 40.8: In Section 20.3 we showed that the average
kinetic energy of a particle in a gas at temperature T is k T,
Note that the radius of the nth orbit is simply related to 'L: where k is Boltzmann's constant. At what temperature would
this be equal to the energy needed to make a transition from the
ground state to n = 2?
Solution: The energy needed is 13.6 - 3.4 = 10.2 eV = (10.2
eV)(1.6 x 10- 19 J/eV) = 1.63 x 10- 18 J. We set this equal to the
EXAMPLE 40.7: An electron is in an excited state for which
thermal energy:
n = 3. (a) What is the highest frequency that can be radiated?
(b) What other frequencies are possible?
t::.E = kT
Solution: (a) From the second postulate we havef= t::.Elh. The
maximum frequency will be emitted in a direct transition to the from which
ground state, n = 1. From the energy level diagram we see that
E I = - 13.6 eV and E 3 = - 1.51 eV. Therefore T = 2t::.E
3k
- (E3 - E I) 2( 1.63 x 10- 18 1)
f 3L - h
3(1.38 X 10- 23 J/K)
_ (+ 12.1 eV) = 7.87 x 104 K
- (4.14 x 10 15 eV . s)
It would be quite difficult to excite the hydrogen atom purely by
= 2.92 X 10 15 Hz
thermal collisions. An electrical discharge through the gas is
(b) Instead off = t::.Elh, we could also use Eq. 40.25. Thus, usually employed.
EXERCISE 4. What is the shortest wavelength possible in the
f32 = Rc - Balmer series?

Bohr's theory correctly predicted the frequencies of the spectrum of hydro-

gen and other one-electron systems. However, it provided no information regard-
ing the relative intensities of the lines or on the spectra of multi-electron atoms. As
we will see in the next chapter, Bohr's theory has been replaced by quantum
mechanics. The second and third postulates remain valid, but the picture of an
electron in well-defined orbits is not correct. Nonetheless, Bohr's approach is a
good example of how a scientist pulls together different strands in developing a
remarkably successful theory.

40.7 WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY OF LIGHT

In this chapter we have presented evidence that light behaves like a particle.
However, Young's double-slit experiment provides clear evidence for the wave
nature of light. How are we to reconcile these two apparently contradictory facts?
 40.7 WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY OF LIGHT 849

Suppose that the light intensity in the double-slit experiment is reduced to

such an extent that only one photon is present in the system at any time. Depend-
ing on the size of the apparatus, this still involves a rate of perhaps 109 photons/so
With just one slit, one observes (on a photographic plate) a single-slit diffraction
pattern. The light intensity recorded at a given point is proportional to the number
of photons that arrive at that point. The two-slit experiment with very weak light
was first performed by G. I. Taylor in 1909. Mter a long enough wait (up to 3
months!), the usual interference fringes were recorded. When both slits are open,
the total number of photons reaching the screen doubles. Yet at some points the
intensity is more than double that of the single-slit pattern, and at other points it is
zero. This is strange behavior for "particles."
If light consists of particles, then it seems reasonable to assume that each
photon has to go through either one slit or the other. Suppose that the slits are
alternately closed and opened such that at any given instant one slit is open, while
the other is closed. If this is done, the interference pattern is lost. In fact, any
attempt to find out through which slit each photon passes causes the interference
pattern to disappear.
We might try to explain the interference by saying that each photon somehow
splits into two parts and therefore passes through both slits. Thus each photon
would interfere only with itself. However, if the energy of the photon is halved,
E = hjimplies that its wavelength (i.. = elf) is doubled. This would lead to a fringe
spacing twice as large as that actually observed.
Young's double-slit experiment, which was so crucial in establishing the wave
nature of light as opposed to the corpuscular model, turns out to be not so defini-
tive after all. The same ambiguous result accompanied Hertz's demonstration of
Maxwell's wave theory. It was conclusive proof of the wave nature of light and
yet, by revealing the photoelectric effect, it was also a good demonstration of its
particle nature.
As we saw earlier, the equation E = hjfor a photon leads to p = h/>... Both of
these equations involve a mixture of particle and wave concepts. E is the energy
of a light quantum, whereas j is the frequency of a wave. p is a quantity we
normally associate with particles, whereas A is a property of waves. It seems that
wave theory is appropriate for the propagation of light but that quantum theory is
needed for the interaction of light with matter. So light that is a wave suddenly
pulls itself together into a localized quantum when it encounters matter? Not
quite. Everyday language is simply inadequate for describing many subatomic
events.
Light exhibits a wave-particle duality. Depending on the experiment per-
formed, it will behave either as a particle, or as a wave. This does not mean that
light "really is" either a particle or a wave: These are our simple models that have
proven to be very helpful. At low frequencies-for example, in radio waves-we
can detect only billions of photons, and so the model of the radiation as a continu-
ous wave is adequate. In the optical region, different experiments-for example,
on interference or the photoelectric effect-require either the wave or the particle
model. At high frequencies, such as X rays, we tend to observe only single-photon
events, although it is still possible to demonstrate the wave nature of X rays
through crystal diffraction (Section 38.8).
The concept of the wave-particle duality of light was introduced by Einstein.
In his 1905 paper that introduced the photon, Einstein had used only Wien's
radiation law to show that short wavelength radiation has properties similar to
those of a gas of particles. The Rayleigh-Jeans law, which is valid for long
850 CHAP. 40 EARLY QUANTUM THEORY

wavelengths, was of course based on the wave nature of radiation. In yet another
analysis of cavity radiation in 1909, Einstein proved (in effect) that the complete
spectrum of cavity radiation, given by Planck's law, requires both the particle and
the wave models.
We might make a connection between our inability to pin down the nature of
light and the principle of the constancy of the speed of light. If light were a wave,
its speed would be measured with respect to a medium-but there is no ether. If it
consisted of particles, its speed would be measured with respect to the source-
but this is not what is observed. According to special relativity, the photon moves
at c simply because it has zero rest mass. We might conclude that light is neither a
wave nor a particle! It is indeed remarkable that these simple models have been so
fruitful.

40.8 BOHR'S CORRESPONDENCE PRINCIPLE

Classical physics is very successful in dealing with a large number of phenomena.
Bohr felt that when a newer, more general, theory is proposed, its predictions
should reduce to the classical results when the appropriate limit is taken. This
requirement that the results of a new theory correspond, in the limit, to classical
physics is called the correspondence principle. For example, Planck's radiation
law reduces to the classical Rayleigh-Jeans formula when h O. In the special
theory of relativity, the Lorentz transformation reduces to the Galilean transfor-
mation when v « c. In his second derivation for the hydrogen atom Bohr used the
correspondence principle.
Bohr compared the second postulate with Rydberg's formula to obtain
E = Rch (40.28)
n n2

The (mechanical) frequency of the orbital motion is v = v/2rrr while from New-
ton's second law Eq. 40.19, we have v 2 = (ke 2)/mr = 2E/m. Thus, for the nth
orbit, we find

(40.29)

To proceed further Bohr invoked his correspondence principle. Here it meant that
in the limit of large quantum numbers n (say, n = 104), the radiated frequency, f,
should be the same as the mechanical frequency, v, as predicted by Maxwell's
theory. From the second postulate, f = IiE/h, and Eq. 40.28, the radiated fre-
quency in the transition from n to n - I is

f = Rc [(n 1)2 -

-- RC[ n 22n(n -- I ]
1)2
As n 00, this becomes

Equating this to V n in Eq. 40.29 leads to Eq. 40.26 for R-which was a major
success of the theory.
 40.8 BOHR'S CORRESPONDENCE PRINCIPLE 851

SUMMARY
The spectrum of the radiation emitted by a small opening to a cavity is indepen-
dent of the material in the walls of the cavity. The spectrum is described by
Planck's radiation law.
According to Einstein's quantum hypothesis the energy of an oscillator is
quantized in steps of hf, wherefis the frequency and h is Planck's constant. The
energy of the nth level is
E = nhf

The energy of electromagnetic radiation offrequency fis also quantized in units of

hf. Each quantum of energy is called a photon.
In the photoelectric effect a single photon, of frequency f, interacts with a
single electron and ejects it from a material. The maximum kinetic energy of the
electrons may be found from the stopping potential V o: ! = e V o . According
to Einstein's photoelectric equation,
hf= eVo + ¢

where ¢ is the work function-the minimum energy needed to extract an electron

from the surface. The photoelectric effect will not occur below the threshold
frequency, fo :
hfo = ¢

In the Compton effect, a photon is scattered by a free electron. The change in

wavelength of the photon is given by

/l,\ = (I - cos 8)
moe

where 8 is the angle through which the photon is deflected.

The Bohr model of the hydrogen atom successfully accounts for the line
spectra of the hydrogen atom. It is also applicable to other one-electron systems.
The energy levels can be derived with the following postulates:
(I) The electron moves only in certain stable circular orbits called stationary
states.
(2) Radiation occurs only when an electron jumps from one orbit to another. The
frequency being given by

(3) The angular momentum of an electron is quantized according to

mvr = nh

The energy levels of the electron in the hydrogen atom are given by

En = - 13;6 eV
n

An electron can be excited into a higher state by a collision with another

electron or by the absorption of a photon of the correct frequency.
852 CHAP. 40 EARLY QUANTUM THEORY
ANSWERS TO IN-CHAPTER EXERCISES
1. From Wien's displacement law, with T = 307 K, we find
Amax = 9.4 /Lm. This lies in the infrared region.
2. (a) Since cf> = hc/"o, we have 1..0 = he/cf> = 310 nm.
(b) From Eq. 40.11,
Vo = (he/A - cf»/e
= 0.97 V
Note that cf> must be in joules.
QUESTIONS
1. Could a sufficiently powerful AM radio signal produce a
photoelectric effect?
2. (a) When a surface is illuminated with monochromatic
light, why is there a maximum kinetic energy for photoelec-
trons? (b) For a given frequency greater than the threshold
frequency, why is there a range of kinetic energies of the
emitted electrons?
3. When light with a continuous range of frequencies passes
through a sample of hydrogen gas at room temperature,
only the Lyman series (see Fig. 40.14) is observed in the
absorption spectrum. Why?
4. If the intensity of light is fixed, does the number of photo-
electrons depend on frequency?
5. The existence of a photoelectric work function is not con-
trary to classical physics. Since the work function is equal
to hfo, why isn't the existence of a cutoff frequency also
acceptable classically?
6. What easily observed phenomenon is described by the fol-
lowing: (a) The Stephan-Boltzmann law? (b) Wien's dis-
placement law?
7. In what way(s) are the photoelectric effect and the Com-
pton effect (a) similar, (b) different?
8. Why does the Compton effect not occur with visible light?
9. What effect, if any, would the temperature of a metal have
on the photoelectric effect?
10. Light from stars may appear reddish or bluish. What infor-
mation would one infer from this observation?
11. Why is it difficult to produce an incandescent bulb with a
visible spectrum similar to sunlight?
12. Show that the unit of Planck's constant is the same as that
of angular momentum.
13. Ultraviolet rays are responsible for tanning and sunburn.
Why doesn't visible light have the same effects?
14. Would a hotter filament in a light bulb be more efficient in
3. From Eq. 40.13, the kinetic energy of the electron is
K = hc(± - :,) = 1.97 X 10- 18 J = 12.3 eV
4. In this case the electron makes a transition from n = 00 to n =
2. From Eq. 40.25 we have Ill.. = R(I/4 - 11 00 ), which means
that 1..= 41R = 365 nm.
converting electrical energy to light? Explain why or why
not.
15. According to Bohr's second postulate the frequency f of
emitted light is given by liE = hf, where liE is the differ-
ence in energy between two levels. Can this equation be
exactly true? (Think of conservation of linear momentum.)
16. An electron in a hydrogen atom is in its ground state. (a)
What happens when radiation with a frequency greater than
(E3 - E1)1 h but less than (E4 - E1)1h is incident? (b) What
happens if a beam of electrons with a kinetic energy greater
than (E) - E\) but less than (E4 - E 1) is used?
17. What experimental evidence did Bohr use to formulate his
theory?
18. Bohr's first postulate abandons two features of classical
radiation theory. One was mentioned explicitly. What is the
other?
19. Which aspects of Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom are
(a) classical, and (b) nonclassical?
20. Hydrogen has only one electron, yet one observes many
spectral lines. Explain why.
21. What is the maximum possible kinetic energy of a beam
of electrons such that collisions with hydrogen atoms are
elastic?
22. Show how Fig. 40.6 is modified if the intensity is kept fixed
but the frequency is varied (f> fo).
23. Since Eq. 40.8 involves e4 , why does changing e to Ze lead
to Z2 in Eq. 40. II? Trace the steps.
24. Explain the physical basis of Ritz's combination principle
(Section 40.1).
25. Suppose the electron in the hydrogen atom starts at the n =
4 level. How many possible lines could be observed?
26. In the Compton effect why is iiI.. independent of the mate-
rial? Why is it independent of A?
27. In the Compton effect, why is it preferable to use short
wavelengths for the incident radiation?

EXERCISES
40.1 Blackbody Radiation
1. (I) What is the wavelength of the peak in blackbody radia-
tion at the following temperatures: (a) The 3 K cosmic
background radiation that is a remnant of the "big bang"
that created the universe, (b) a tungsten filament at 3000 K,
and (c) a fusion reaction at 107 K?
2. (I) (a) The peak in the radiation from the sun occurs at 470
nm. What is the surface temperature of the sun? (b) What
would be the surface temperature of a star whose thermal
radiation peaked at 350 nm?
3. (I) For what range of temperatures does the wavelength of
the peak in blackbody radiation vary through the visible
range (400 nm-7oo nm)?
4. (I) The net loss due to radiation of a blackbody at tempera-
ture Tis
R = (T(T4 - W/m 2
where (T = 5.67 X 10- 8 W . m- 2 • K-4, and To is the temper-
ature of the surroundings. Estimate the net radiated inten-
sity for the following:
(a) A hot coal at 2000 °c in a room at 20°C.
(b) A person with a skin temperature of 34°C in air at 10°C.
(c) The earth's surface at 22 °c radiating into space at -270
°C.
5. (I) Given that the sun's surface temperature is 5760 K. Find
the total power radiated into space (taken to be at 0 K). The
sun's radius is 6.96 x 108 m. (See Exercise 4.)
6. (I) A heater filament has a radius of 2 mm and a length of 20
cm. If its temperature is 2000 K, what is the net radiated
power? (See Exercise 4, and set To = 0 K.)
7. (I) What is the wavelength of the peak in the blackbody
radiation of a body at 300 K?
8. (I) A CO 2 molecule vibrates at 5.1 x 10 13 Hz. What is the
separation between adjacent energy levels in eV?
40.2 Photoelectric Effect
9. (I) A radio station transmits 40 kW at 100 MHz. How many
photons per second does it emit?
10. (I) (a) Show that the energy, E, of a photon (in eV) can be
written in the form
E = 1240
A V. What is the threshold frequency for this surface?
where the wavelength A is in nanometers. (b) What is the
range in energy of photons in the visible region from 400 nm
to 700 nm?
11. (I) The work function for potassium is 2.25 eV. A beam
with a wavelength of 400 nm has an intensity of 10- 9 W 1m 2 •
Find (a) the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons,
(b) the number of electrons emitted per meter squared per
EXERCISES 853
second from the surface assuming 3% of the incident pho-
tons are effective in ejecting electrons.
12. (I) The minimum intensity that the eye can detect is about
5 x 10- 13 W1m2• If the pupil diameter is 5 mm find: (a) the
power needed, and (b) the number of photon/s required at
500 nm.
13. (I) The threshold wavelength for cesium is 686 nm. If light
of wavelength 470 nm illuminates the surface, what is the
maximum speed of the photoelectrons?
14. (I) Find the energy (in eV) of photons of the following
wavelengths or frequencies: (a) visible light at 550 nm; (b)
an FM radio wave at 100 MHz; (c) an AM radio wave at 940
kHz; (d) an X ray at 0.071 nm.
15. (I) (a) The dissociation energy of CO is II eV. What is the
minimum frequency of radiation that could break this
bond? (b) The maximum wavelength of radiation capable of
dissociating the O2 molecule is 175 nm. What is the binding
energy in eV?
16. (I) The C-C bond has a dissociation energy of2.8 eV. What
is the longest wavelength of radiation that could break this
bond? To what part of the spectrum does it belong?
17. (I) The intensity of solar radiation incident on the earth's
atmosphere is 1.34 kW/m 2 • Assuming it is monochromatic
at 550 nm (yellow), how many photons/m 2 • s does this
involve?
18. (I) A continuous wave helium-neon laser produces I mW
at a wavelength of 632.8 nm. How many photons/s does it
emit?
19. (I) The work function for lithium is 2.3 eV. (a) What is'the
maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons when the sur-
face is illuminated with light of wavelength 400 nm? (b) If
the stopping potential is 0.6 V, what is the wavelength?
20. (I) Radiation of wavelength 200 nm is incident on mercury,
which has a work function of 4.5 eV. What is (a) the maxi-
mum kinetic energy of the ejected electrons, and (b) the
stopping potential?
21. (I) When radiation of wavelength 350 nm is incident on a
surface, the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons
is 1.2 eV. What is the stopping potential for a wavelength of
230 nm?
22. (I) When violet light of wavelength 420 nm illuminates a
surface, the stopping potential of the photoelectrons is 2.4
23. (II) A 100-W bulb coverts 5% of the electrical energy input
to visible light. Assume the light has a wavelength of 600
nm and the bulb is a point source. (a) What is the number of
photons emitted per second? (b) If the eye can detect 20
photons/s, at what distance would the bulb be visible? Take
the pupil diameter to be 3 mm.
854 CHAP. 40 EARLY QUANTUM THEORY
24. (II) When a metal is illuminated with light of frequency f,
the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is 1.3
eV. When the frequency is increased by 50%, the maximum
kinetic energy increases to 3.6 eV. What is the threshold
frequency for this metal?
25. (II) (a) What is the frequency of a photon whose energy is
twice the rest energy of an electron? (b) What would be the
linear momentum of the photon?
26. (II) With a pupil diameter of 5 mm, the eye can detect 8
photons/s at 500 nm. What is the required power of a point
source at the distance of (a) the moon; (b) Alpha-centauri,
4.2 light-years away?
27. (II) The following data on wavelengths and stopping poten-
tials were obtained from an experiment on the photoelectric
effect.
A (nm): 500 450 400 350 300
Vo(V): 0.37 0.65 1.0 1.37 2.0
Plot a graph and from it determine (a) hi e; (b) the threshold
frequency.
40.3 Compton Effect
28. (I) A beam of X rays with an energy of 30 keY undergoes
Compton scattering. A scattered photon emerges at 50° rel-
ative to the incoming beam. (a) Find the modified wave-
length. (b) What is the kinetic energy of the scattered elec-
tron?
29. (I) An X-ray beam has an energy of 40 keY. Find the maxi-
mum possible kinetic energy of Compton scattered elec-
trons.
30. (I) A 0.071-nm wavelength X ray is scattered by a carbon
target. It suffers a 0.02% shift in wavelength. At what angle
to its original direction does it emerge?
31. (1) The wavelength of a photon is equal to the Compton
wavelength. What is its energy?
32. (I) A 30 keY beam of X rays is Compton scattered through
37°. (a) What is the shift in wavelength? (b) What is the
energy of the scattered photon?
33. (II) The fractional shift experienced by a beam of Compton-
scattered radiation is /lA/A = 0.03%. What is the energy of
the incident photon if it is scattered through 5JC?
34. (1) An X ray of wavelength 0.08 nm is scattered by 70° by a
block of carbon. (a) What is the Compton shift in wave-
length? (b) What is the kinetic energy of the scattered elec-
tron?
35. (I) X rays with an energy of 50 keY are scattered by 45°.
Find the frequency of the scattered photons.
36. (I) A beam of X rays of wavelength 0.08 nm undergoes
Compton scattering by a target. Calculate the shift in wave-
length if the scattered photon is deflected by (a) 30°, (b) 90°,
(c) 150°.
40.6 The Bohr Model
37. (I) (a) A gas of hydrogen atoms in their ground state is
bombarded by electrons with kinetic energy 12.5 eV. What
emitted wavelengths would you expect to see? (b) What if
the electrons were replaced by photons of the same energy?
38. (I) (a) Find the three longest wavelengths of the Paschen
series (to n = 3) for the hydrogen atom. In what part of the
spectrum do they lie? (b) What is the shortest wavelength in
this series?
39. (1) What is the maximum wavelength that can ionize a hy-
drogen atom in the ground state? In what region of the
electromagnetic spectrum does this wavelength lie?
40. (1) Calculate the frequency of the orbit of the electron in the
ground state of the hydrogen atom. If radiation were classi-
cal, to what part of the spectrum would this belong?
41. (I) The electron in the hydrogen atom is in the n = 2 state.
What is its (a) potential energy, (b) kinetic energy?
42. (I) (a) Determine the first four energy levels of Li++ ion (Z
= 3). (b) What are the wavelengths of the three highest
frequency emissions possible with these four levels?
43. (1) Calculate the radii of the first three states of the hydro-
gen atom.
44. (I) (a) What are the first three energy levels of the He+ ion
(Z = 2). (b) What is the energy required to remove the
electron from this ion?
45. (I) Consider an electron in the ground state of the hydrogen
atom. Determine its (a) speed, (b) linear momentum, and
(c) acceleration.
46. (II) An electron orbits a nucleus with a charge Ze. Show
that the radius of the nth level is given by r n = n 2r)/Z, where
rJ = fi-imke 2 •
47. (II) An electron orbits a nucleus with a charge Ze. Show
that the speed for the nth level is given by Un = 2.2 X 106 ZIn
m/s.
48. (II) In a muonic atom, the electron is replaced by a particle
called the muon that has the same charge as the electron
but with a mass 207 times larger. By what factor does each
of the following quantities change in comparison with an
ordinary "one electron" atom: (a) the energy levels? (b) the
radii of the orbits?
49. (II) An electron orbits a nucleus with a charge Ze. Show
that the energy of the nth level is given by Eq. 40.27.
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
SO. (I) The waves in a microwave oven have a frequency of
2450 MHz. Find: (a) the wavelength; (b) the energy of a
photon in eV.
51. (I) When light of wavelength 490 nm is incident on a photo-
electric material, the stopping potential is 0.63 V. What is
the work function in eV?
52. (I) The work function for a metal is 2.2 eV. (a) What is the
threshold wavelength for the photoelectric effect? (b) What
is the maximum kinetic energy (in eV) of emitted electrons
if light of wavelength 420 nm is used?
53. (I) The maximum speed of photoelectrons emitted by a
metal is 5.2 x 105 m/s when light of wavelength 428 nm is

incident on the surface. Find the threshold frequency for
photoemission.
54. (I) The electron in a hydrogen atom makes a transition from
the n = 2 energy level to the ground state. What is the
wavelength of the emitted photon?
55. (I) What is the shortest wavelength (a) in the Balmer series,
and (b) in the Lyman series?
56. (I) Photons of energy 4.8 eV are incident on a surface for
which the work function is 2.78 eV. What is the maximum
speed of the emitted photoelectrons?
57. (I) The cutoff wavelength for photoemission from a mate-
rial is 360 nm. What is the maximum speed of ejected elec-
trons when it is illuminated by photons of wavelength 280
nm?
PROBLEMS
1. (1) In a Compton-scattering experiment, the scattered pho-
ton has an energy of 130 keY and the scattered electron's
kinetic energy is 45 ke V. Find (a) the wavelength of the
incident photons, (b) the angle 8 through which the photon
is scattered, and (c) the angle cf> at which the electron moves
off.
2. (I) Show that Wien's radiation law, Eq. 40.2, leads to
Wien's displacement law, Eq. 40.1. (Hint: What is the con-
dition for .\max ?)
3. (I) By considering the special case of a one-dimensional
collision, show that a free electron cannot completely ab-
sorb a photon. (Show that linear momentum and energy
cannot be simultaneously conserved.) The "free" electrons
in a metal are still bound to the material. An atom or crystal
as a whole satisfies the momentum conservation without
taking much energy.
4. (1) Show that the fractional energy loss of a Compton-scat-
tered photon is given approximately by I1E/E = -11.\/.\.
5. (l) The two protons in the hydrogen molecule are 0.074 nm
apart and rotate about their center of mass. The total angu-
lar momentum is quantized in units of nh/2n. (a) What is
the moment of inertia, I? (b) Ifthe angular momentum IW II
is quantized, find W n. (c) Where does In+ I - In lie in the
electromagnetic spectrum?
6. (I) The electron in a hydrogen atom makes a transition from
the n = 5 level to n = 1. Find the recoil speed of the atom.
PROBLEMS 855
58. (1) An atom absorbs radiation of wavelength 392 nm and
then re-radiates the energy in two steps. If one emitted
wavelength is 712 nm, what is the other wavelength?
59. (II) A hydrogen atom emits radiation of wavelength 102.5
nm. What are the n values of the two levels involved?
60. (I) An X-ray photon of energy 30 keY is scattered by 60° by
a free electron. What is the energy of the scattered photon?
61. (I) A photon with an energy of 120 keY is scattered by a
free electron and loses 5% of its energy. Through what
angle is it scattered?
62. (I) A 0.15-nm X-ray photon is scattered by a free electron
that recoils at 2.6 x 106 mls. (a) What is the change in
wavelength of the X-ray? (b) Through what angle is the X-
ray scattered?
7. (II) Derive Eq. 40.16 for the Compton effect. (Hint: First
use Eqs. 40.14 and 40.15 to eliminate cf> and obtain an ex-
pression for p2. Second, use E2 = p2 e2 + rnk 4 = (K +
rnoe2)2 and Eq. 40.13 to obtain another expression for p2.)
8. (II) (a) In Planck's radiation law, set x = he/HT. By taking
the derivative with respect to x show that the wavelength at
which the maximum occurs is given by the equation 5 -
x = 5e- x • The solution to this equation is x = 4.965. (b)
Show that Planck's radiation law leads to Wien's displace-
ment law.
9. (II) The total intensity, R, radiated from the surface of a
blackbody is found by multiplying the integral of the energy
density over all wavelengths, V = J u"d.\, by cf4, that is,
R = Ucf4. Derive the Stefan-Boltzmann law R = (TT4.
Where the constant (T = 2n 5 k 4 /15c 2 h 3 • Set x = hcf.\kT and
note that
10. (II) Positronium consists of an electron and a positron (a
positive electron) orbiting about their common center of
mass. Use the Bohr model to show that the energy levels
are given by En = -6.8 eV/n 2 .
856 CHAP. 40 EARLY QUANTUM THEORY
SPECIAL TOPIC: Lasers
In 1917 Einstein published a paper in which he discussed
the thermodynamic equilibrium between cavity radiation
and the matter in the walls of the cavity. He assumed that
the atoms could occupy a discrete set of energy levels. Let
us consider two atomic states of energies E1 and E2 • as in
Fig. 40.15. The ratio of the numbers in the levels at tempera-
ture T is given by the Boltzmann factor (Eq. 20.17):
(40.30)
In thermal equilibrium, N2 < N 1 ; that is, the higher state is
less populated.
a " I" @ flJ E)
FIGURE 40.15 In thermal equilibrium the relative number of
particles in the two energy levels is given by the Boltzmann
factor: N 2 /N 1 = exp[ -(E2 - E1)/kT).
Radiation enters the problem as follows. Even at ther-
modynamic equilibrium, there is an ongoing absorption
and emission of radiation. First consider an atom in state 1.
If an incoming photon has the correct frequency (hf = E2 -
E1 ), it will be absorbed and raise the atom to level 2, as in
Fig. 40.16a. This process of absorption depends on the
energy density p of the radiation at this frequency and on
N 1 • The number of such 1 2 transitions per unit time is
N 18 12 p, where 8 12 is a measure of the probability of the
transition taking place. The probability that an atom in the
llJ E2
f
0 E)
(a)
III
(b)
E1
FIGURE 40.16 (a) A particle in the lower state absorbs a photon
and makes a transition to the higher state. (b) The particle falls
from the higher to the lower state in the process of spontaneous
emission.
upper level will drop to E1 , as in Fig. 40.16b, is given by
A21 . The numbers of such spontaneous emissions de-
pends on N2 , but not on the presence of the external rad ia-
tion. The number of 2 1 transitions per unit time is A21 N2 .
In thermodynamic equilibrium one would expect the
rate of upward transitions to equal the rate of downward
transitions, that is, N2 A21 = N1 8 12 P. Thus the energy density
of the radiation has the form p = (A 21 /8d(N 2 /N 1). When Eq.
40.30 is substituted, the function resembles Wien's radia-
tion law rather than Planck's radiation law-which perfectly
describes the energy density of cavity radiation.
This difficulty led Einstein to propose another mecha-
nism by which an atom can interact with radiation. In Fig.
40.17, the atom is in state 2. An incoming photon of the
correct frequency causes the atom to "resonate" in some
fashion and induces it to drop to level 1. In this case there
are two outgoing photons of the same frequency. Einstein
also showed that the stimulated photon must move off in the
same direction as the incoming photon. This process of
stimulated emission has a certain probability 8 21 , The
number of such transitions per unit time, which depends on
the radiation density and on N2 , is N 2 8 21 P.
With the inclusion of stimulated emission, the require-
ment that the rate of emission balance the rate of absorption
now reads
N 1 8 12 P = N2(A 21 + 8 21 P)
When the Boltzmann factor for N2 /N 1 is used, we find that P
has exactly the form of Planck's law provided 8 21 = 8 12 and
A21 is related to 8 in a simple way. This astonishingly sim-
ple derivation of Planck's law showed that the process of
stimulated emission is necessary for the system to attain
thermodynamic equilibrium. Under normal circumstances
the absorption process dominates because there is a larger
number of atoms in the lower level
- - - ( I ' - - - - E2
-------E)
---i>---=:;-
FIGURE 40.17 In the process of stimulated emission, an
incoming photon causes a particle in the upper level to fall to
the lower level. The photon that is emitted is coherent with the
original photon and the two photons move off in the
same direction.

The idea of using stimulated emission to amplify micro-
wave radiation occurred to several people in the early
1950s. In the spring of 1951, C. H. Townes thought of a
device that would accomplish this and in 1953, with co-
workers, he successfully operated the first maser (micro-
wave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) us-
ing energy levels in the ammonia molecule. In 1958,
Townes and A. Schawlow proposed a way of producing
stimulated emission at optical frequencies, and in 1960,
T H. Maiman, operated the first ruby laser (light amplifica-
tion by stimulated emission of radiation).
The Ruby Laser
The red color of ruby (A120 3) is caused by a small number
of Cr3 + impurities. The relevant energy levels of this ion are
shown in Fig. 40.18. E1 is the ground state and E3 is a short-
lived (10- 8 s) excited state, whereas E2 corresponds to a
long-lived (3 x 10-3 s) metastable state. The atom decays
readily from E3 to E2 , but not from E2 to E1 . Maiman placed a
ruby crystal in the form of a rod within a coiled discharge
tube, as in Fig. 40.19. A flash, covering a range of wave-
lengths around the required value of 550 nm, raises the
-----'--...L---E1
FIGURE 40.18 The energy levels for the operation of the ruby
laser. The level marked E2 is a metastable state For laser action
to occur, the population of this state must be greater than that of
the ground state, E1 •
Flash lube
Polished
end face
Ruby
crystal
FIGURE 40.19 In the ruby laser the crystal is "optically
pumped" by a flash tube wrapped around it. This produces the
population inversion necessary for laser action.
SPECIAL TOPIC: LASERS 857
Maiman and his laser.
Cr 3 + ions to Ea. From this state they decay quickly to E2 • If
the flash is intense enough, it is possible to have more
atoms in the metastable state than in the ground state. This
process of optical pumping creates a nonequilibrium con-
dition called population inversion in which N 2 > N 1 .
Let us emphasize two conditions necessary for the op-
eration of a laser:
1. Recall that 8 21 = 8 12 , that is, the probabilities for ab-
sorption and stimulated emission are equal. The popu-
lation inversion (N 2 > N1 ) allows the stimulated emis-
sion to occur more frequently than absorption.
2. The requirement of a metastable state allows stimu-
lated emission to occur before spontaneous emission
and makes population inversion a practical possibility.
A stray (spontaneously emitted) photon will stimulate
an atom in the state E2 to emit a photon. The two photons
have the same frequency and travel in the same direction.
These two photons can then stimulate two other atoms to
emit two more photons, and so on, as shown in Fig. 4020.
This process occurs simultaneously in various directions. In
practice the ends of the rod are coated with aluminum so
that they act as mirrors and are made parallel to an accu-
racy of less than l' of arc! One end is slightly leaky-it
transmits 1% of the light. With this arrangement, only those
photons that travel along the axis of the rod will be reflected
back and forth many times The stimulated radiation builds
in intensity only in this direction until, ultimately, a short
pulse of nearly unidirectional and monochromatic radiation
is emitted through the leaky mirror. The ruby laser emits
only short pulses (several pulses per flash of the discharge
tube). Furthermore, in this three-level scheme, the "lasing"
leaves the atom in the ground state. It therefore takes a
great deal of input power to produce a population inversion.
858 CHAP. 40 EARLY QUANTUM THEORY
FIGURE 40.20 The ends of the laser have mirrors that cause the
photons to reflect back and forth within the cavity Although
initially the stimulated photons are emitted in all dlrections, only
those that travel parallel to the axis increase streadily. The laser
light leaks through one mirror that is slightly transparent.
The Gas Laser
In 1960, A. Javan et al. operated the first continuous-wave
laser using a mixture of He and Ne gases in a discharge
tube. Collisions between the electrons and ions raise the
He atoms to a metastable state at f 1 = 20.61 eV above the
ground state (see Fig. 40.21). It so happens that Ne has a
metastable state at nearly the same energy, f 2 = 20.66 eV.
Rather than decaying to its own ground state by emitting a
photon, the He atoms can transfer the energy to Ne atoms
during collisions. The small difference of 0.05 eV is sup-
plied by the kinetic energy of the atoms. The Ne atoms are
also raised to f 2 by collisions with electrons, but the He
helps considerably in populating this state This four-level
scheme is more efficient (a 15 W input produces a 1 mW
beam output) than the three-level scheme because atoms in
state f 3 = 18.70 eV decay very quicl<ly to state f 4 . It is
therefore easier to maintain a population inversion between
states f 2 and f 3 . The laser light emitted is at 632.8 nm. Let
us now consider some properties of laser light.
1. The beam is unidirectional: The beam that emerges from
a typical laser has a divergence of about l' of arc. (Dif-
He Ne
(20.61 eV) (20.66 rM
E2 632.8 nm
E 1- - . -
-(1-=8'"'.7-0-eV-) 8 a
- - - - E4
FIGURE 40.21 The four energy levels involved in the He-Ne
laser. The metastable state, E2 • of the neon atoms is populated
by collisions with electrons in the state E1 of the helium atoms
fraction always produces some divergence.) Thus the
beam diameter increases by about 1 mm per meter of
travel. This also implies that the light consists of nearly
plane waves and that the intensity decreases slowly with
distance.
2. The beam intensity is high: A powerful searchlight can
produce about 1 kW of radiation, whereas a continuously
operating CO 2 laser can produce 10 kW Operating in
pulses of duration 10- 12 s, a neodymium-glass laser
can produce an instantaneous power of 109 W! Consider
the low (1 mW) power output of a continuous He-Ne
laser at 632.8 nm. Depending on the beam size, its in-
tensity is about 100 W/m 2 . Thermal radiation from a
blackbody at a temperature of 4580 K would have its
peak at this wavelength. The radiated intensity within the
specified range would be about 25 mW/m 2 • Thus, within
its spectral range, even the relatively low-power He-Ne
laser is 4000 times brighter than sunlight (a good reason
NEVER to look into a laser beam).
3. Laser light is nearly monochromatic: Although perfectly
monochromatic light does not exist, laser light comes
close to this ideal. Every spectral line from an atom has a
natural range in wavelength or frequency. The effects of
collisions between the atoms, and the Doppler effect,
cause further broadening of the lines. A fine line from an
ordinary gas discharge tube may have a spread in wave-
lengths, a linewidth, of ±0.01 nm, while the very best
have ±0.0005 nm. In contrast. the linewidth of a He-Ne
laser can be as small as ± 10- 6 nm
The narrowness of the laser output arises from a
resonance effect. The rad iation bei ng reflected back
and forth between the mirrors forms resonant standing
wave modes with sharply defined frequencies. So,
within the (Doppler and collision broadened) linewidth,
the laser output consists of a few very sharp (M < 103
MHz) mode frequencies, as shown in Fig. 40.22. There
are several ways of getting the laser to operate in a
single mode, but we will not discuss them.
4. Laser light is coherent: It was pointed out earlier that a
photon produced by stimulated emission travels in the
/
/
'-.,.--J
c/2L
FIGURE 40.22 The sharp frequency of laser light is associated
with resonant modes that are set up in the laser cavity.

same direction as the original photon. Just as significant
is the fact that the two photons are exactly in phase. and
have the same polarization. This leads to the remarkable
coherence of laser light (see Section 37.7). The spatial
coherence of laser light means that two points on oppo-
site sides of the beam are coherent. Laser light also has
great temporal coherence.
The coherence time. T e • is the maximum time for
which two points on a wavetrain have a fixed phase
relation. It is also an estimate of the lifetime of the upper
level involved in a transition. Any wavetrain of finite
length may be considered to be the result of superpos-
ing of waves of infinite length (each with a single fre-
quency) but having a spread in frequencies M. Analysis
A laser beam being used to determine Laser eye surgery.
particle size and concentration aflame.
SPECIAL TOPIC: LASERS 859
shows that the linewidth and the coherence time are
related according to
Te
Thus a narrow linewidth implies that a beam has long
temporal coherence. The coherence length, ee = CTc ,
is an indication of the length of a wavetrain. Typically, for
a single atom T c "" 10- 8 s, and so ee = CT e = 3 m. In a
gas discharge. Doppler and collision broadening in-
creases the measured linewidth. One of the sharpest
lines from cadmium has = ±0.001 nm, which leads
to ee = 25 cm if A = 500 nm. In contrast. the coherence
length of a laser line may be over 30 km!