Reactor and Reactor Kinetics

Component of a Reactor
1. The Reactor Core
 The heart of the nuclear reactor system
 Where the fission chain is sustained and most of fission energy is released as heat
 The core geometry is designed such that it allows the heat generated to be readily removed
by the reactor coolant
2. The Fuel Element
 Uranium is the basic fuel
 The fuel provided for the containment of the fuel and most of the fission products formed
3. Primary Coolant System
 Provides sufficient coolant circulation to remove the heat generated within the core and
transport the energy to a prime mover or to a secondary system which also transports to a
prime mover
 Typical coolants: H20, D20, Liquid Na, liquid organic compounds, air C02, He, boiling H20
4. Reflector
 The reflector surrounds the core
 The purpose of the reflector is to reduce the loss of neutrons from the core by scattering
back many of those which would otherwise escape.
 Reflector Material – determined by energy distribution of neutrons in the core
 Benefit of the reflector is to lower the critical mass of fissile nuclide
5. Moderator
 Used to slow down high-energy fission neutrons by mainly elastic scattering, to thermal
energies where the probability of fission is large.
 The best moderators are elements of low mass number with small neutron capture cross
section, e.g. H20, D20, Be, Be oxide, graphite
6. Containment Structure
 It is the structure around the reactor and is designed to protect it from the outside intrusion
and to protect those outside from the effects of radiations in case of any serious
malfunction inside. It is usually a metre thick and steel structure.
7. Steam Generator (Boiler)
 Part of the cooling system of some designs where the high pressure primary coolant
bringing heat from the reactor is used to make steam form the turbine, in a secondary
circuit.
 Transferring heat from one fluid to another.
8. Reactor Control System
 The reactor must bring the reactor to power, maintaining it there and shutting the reactor
down when desired using control rods and neutron poison
i) Control Rods – made up of neutron absorbing material (poison) inserted or
withdrawn from the core to control the rate of reaction, or to halt it. Control is
achieved by varying neutron density in the core. Example – Boron (B), Gadolinium
(Gd), Cadmium (Cd) and Dysprosium (Dy) all of these are poison material.
 ii) Neutron Poison – allows control of reactor during startup, operations at any desired
power level, and enables shutdown.
Insertion of poison material results in decrease of reactivity of the core, i.e.
decreases neutron density. Hence, reactor power is reduced. Withdrawing the
poison increases multiplying properties, which increase the neutron density and
power level.
9. Neutron Source
 In a new reactor with new fuel a neutron source is needed to get the reaction going and it is
usually Beryllium (Be) mixed with polonium (Po), radium (Ra) or other alpha-emitter
 Restarting a reactor with some used fuel may not require this, as there may be enough
neutrons to achieve critically when control rods are removed.

Reactor Kinetics

 Fates of neutrons
 Multiplications Factor, Reactivity and Criticality
 Leakage and Critical Mass
 The Four Factor Formula

The Various Fates of Neutron

 Neutron Economy – To maintain a chain reaction, neutrons must be conserved and managed in
a manner as to promote further fissions.
 The two process through which neutrons can be lost are LEAKAGE AND ABSORPTION
1. From fission to fission (the preferred fate)
 Fast neutrons born in fission diffuse through the material
 Neutrons slow down through interactions with the moderator and other materials reaching
their thermal state
 Neutrons are absorbed in the fuel
 The fuel undergoes fission
 Fast neutrons are born in fission
2. Leakage as fast as thermal neutrons
 Leakage can occur at any stage of the neutron life
 Can involve leakage from the entire reactor system and total loss of the neutron
 Reactors are designed to reduce leakage
 Reflectors are used to return the neutrons back to the core
 Critical size of the reactor will also reduce leakage
3. Absorption as fast neutrons (fast fission)
 Non-absorption material as 238 239
92𝑈 eventually produce 92𝑃𝑢 its subsequent double 𝛽 decay

 238
92𝑈 + 10𝑛 → 239 239 0 239
92𝑈 → 92𝑁𝑝 + −1𝛽 → 92𝑃𝑢 + −1𝛽 + −1𝛽
0 0

 The above process creates a new source of fission since Pu is fissile (able to undergo nuclear
fission)
 4. Resonance Capture
 One particularly “hazardous” energy interval, ranging from approximately 100keV to 1eV
contains numerous “resonances” in which fuel nuclei in particular 238U, have a high cross
section for capturing the neutron
 The choice of moderator helps overcome resonance capture by 238U
5. Absorption in non-fuel components, Non-fission absorptions
 Neutrons can also be absorbed into non-fuel components such as the pressure tubes and
calandria tubes.
 Non-fission absorptions include absorptions by 238U, and various Pu isotopes

MULTIPLICATIONS FACTORS

 A nuclear reactor is designed to achieve a very delicate balance between fission reaction,
neurons capture and neutron leakage.
 A given neutrons will be “born” in a fission event and will then usually scatter about the
reactor until it meets its eventual “death” in either an absorption reaction or be leaking out
of the reactor.
 Certain numbers of these neutrons will be absorbed by fissile or fissionable nuclei and
induce further fission.
 This leads to a birth of new fission neutrons that is to a new generations of fission neutrons.
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑘=
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑛
 In an infinite nuclear reactor, no neutrons can be lost so we used the 𝑘∞
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑘∞ =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
 To account for the losses in a reactor in a real finite reactor we use the term 𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
 When 𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 1, the number of neutrons born is equal to the number of lost (reactor is
critical)
 When 𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 > 1, the number of neutrons born is greater than the number of lost
(reactor is super-critical)
 When 𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 < 1, the number of neutrons born is less than the number of lost (reactor
is sub-critical)
 What is Reactivity? Reactor reactivity measures the deviation of core multiplication from its
critical value of k=1
𝑘−1
𝜌=
𝑘
 1 milli-k = 0.001
 The unit milli-k is abbreviated as mk

CRITICALITY

 Supercritical
 If keff is greater than 1, a greater number of neutrons are born in every successive
generation.
 The neutron populations and the power level increase with time.
  Critical
 If keff is equal to 1, a equal number of neutrons are born in every successive generation.
 The neutron population and the power level remain constant with time
 Subcritical
 If keff is less than 1, the chain reaction is not self-sustained
 The neutron population and the power level decrease with time.

 The reactor can be critical at any power level:

 Full power
 Very low power
 Power greater than normal

CRITICALITY CONTROL

 To increase or decrease power, the reactor must be made supercritical or subcritical for some
length of time until the desired power is reached
 After which criticality must be regained
 To shut down reactor, sub-criticality must be achieved and maintained
 A divergent power “excursion” may lead to overheating of the fuel and other core components

Departure from Criticality and Criticality Control

1. Production
 Adjust the amount of fissile material in the core region
 Adjust the effectiveness of the moderator
2. Absorption
 Use solid, moveable absorbers (control rods)
 Dissolve absorbing material in the coolant (soluble poisons)
 Employ solid, fixed absorbers (burnable poisons) which “burn out” gradually with neutron
reactions over the lifetime of the reactor life.
3. Leakage
 Change the system dimension and density and/or modify the effectiveness of neutron
reflections.

Leakage and Critical Mass

 Difference between the infinite and effective multiplication factor is related to the leakage
from the reactor
𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑁𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑
= =𝑃
𝑘∞ 𝑁𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 + 𝑁𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑢𝑡
 P is the measure of the probability that neutrons will not leak out of the finite reactor, but
will remain until absorbed
- P is the non-leakage probability
- P increases with the size of the reactor