E.

Kapon/Optics I (2016/2017)/ Chapter 4: Polarization

Chapter 4

Polarization

Most of the properties of light we have considered so far apply to each component of the
electric field vector, and hence a scalar treatment of the wave functions has mostly been
appropriate. However, the electric field being a vector quantity implies that a precise
description of light should include its state of polarization, i.e., the orientation of the electric
field in the plane normal to the propagation direction. This chapter defines and classifies the
various possible states of polarization of a light beam. Techniques for generating and
analyzing specific polarization states and their manipulations are then described.

4.1 States of Polarization

The orientation of the electric field vector E of a light wave defines its polarization state.
Particular polarization states are classified according to the pattern that this vector exhibits in
the plane perpendicular to the propagation axis.

4.1.1 Definition of Polarization State

Consider a monochromatic plane wave propagating along the +z direction. The vector E then
lies in the x-y plane and can be resolved into the two components:

 Ex (t) = E0x cos(kz − ω t )


 Ey (t) = E0y cos(kz − ωt + ε )

where ε defines the phase difference between the two components at a given position and
time. Each component represents a linearly polarized plane wave. The resultant electric field
is given by:

E( z,t ) = E x ( z,t ) + E y ( z,t )

where E x ( z,t ) = E x ( z,t )eˆ x and E y ( z,t ) = E y ( z,t )eˆ y .

In general, the phase difference ε between the two orthogonal components can be
€
either constant in time, a well-defined function of time, or even a random variable.
Accordingly, the resulting electric field vector can be a coherent or an incoherent
€ superposition of such€orthogonally polarized waves.

By eliminating the term (kz − ωt) from both field components, we obtain a
relationship between the amplitudes of the field in the x-y plane:

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E. Kapon/Optics I (2016/2017)/ Chapter 4: Polarization

2
 E   E 2  E   E 
 y  +  x  − 2  x  y  cos ε = sin 2 ε
 E0 y   E0 x   E0 x   E0 y 

This equation describes an ellipse (see Fig. 4.1) with principal axes rotated with respect to the
x-axis by an angle α that is given by the relation:

2E 0x E 0y cosε
tan 2α = 2 2
E 0x − E 0y

In a given polarization state, the electric field vector E always points to this ellipse. The
different classes of polarization states can then be defined using the parameters of the
polarization ellipse, as further described below.

Figure 4.1: The polarization ellipse. The electric field vector points to the elliptic curve,
defining the polarization state.

4.1.2 Jones Vectors

An effective way for defining polarization states and analyzing their manipulation is provided
by the Jones representation. In this framework, the polarization state of the electric field is
represented by a Jones vector:

 
 E x (t)   E 0x e iϕ x  E0 x eiϕ x
˜
E =  = iϕ 

E=  
 E y (t)  E 0y e y   E eiϕ y 
 0y 

The Jones vector is conveniently normalized such that

E˜ ⋅ E˜ * = 1

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 E. Kapon/Optics I (2016/2017)/ Chapter 4: Polarization

 a
A non-normalized Jones vector E˜ =   can be normalized by scalar multiplication with an
 b
appropriate factor:

1  a
E˜ → E˜ '=  
aa* + bb*  b

It can be directly verified that E˜ '⋅ E˜ '* = 1.

€
4.1.3 Classification of Polarization States
The different classes € of polarization states are defined according to the parameters of the
polarization ellipse introduced in section 4.1.1.

Linear Polarization (P state)

In this case, the relative polarization phase is given by:

  ε = lπ   ;   l = 0,±1,±2,...    

and hence the electric field components are related by

E 0y
Ey = ± E
E 0x x

The electric field vector is written explicitly

E( z,t ) = (eˆ x E 0x + eˆ y E 0y ) cos( kz − ωt )

The head of the electric field vector thus traces a linear trajectory in the x-y plane (see Fig.
4.2). It stays in the odd or the even quadrants depending on the relative sign of the field
components. €
Consider some examples of the Jones vectors of linearly polarized fields. The Jones
vector for linear polarization in the horizontal (h) x-direction and the vertical (v) y-direction
are given by:

1  0
E˜ h =   E˜ v =  
0  1

Normalized Jones vectors for light linearly polarized at 45° and -45° angle with respect to the
x-axis are written:
€
1 1 1 1
E˜ 45 =  E˜ −45 =  
2 1 2 −1

The orthogonality relations for these vectors are easily obtained by the scalar products:
€

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E. Kapon/Optics I (2016/2017)/ Chapter 4: Polarization

E˜ h ⋅ E˜ *v = 0

and

E˜ 45 ⋅ E˜ −45
*
=0

Figure 4.2: The electric field vector for a linearly polarized plane wave.

Circular Polarization (R- and L-states)

In this case, the tip of the electric field vector exhibits a circular motion in the x-y
plane (see Fig. 4.3). We distinguish two types circular polarization, termed R- and L-states:

 π
ε = − 2 + 2lπ ; l = 0,±1,±2,... R - polarized

ε = + π + 2lπ ; l = 0,±1,±2,... L - polarized
 2

The electric field components are given, for both types, by

€ E 0x = E 0y = E 0
and the electrical field vectors read:

ER ( z,t ) = E 0 [eˆ x cos( kz − ωt ) + eˆ y sin( kz − ωt )]

EL ( z,t ) = E 0 [eˆ x cos( kz − ωt ) − eˆ y sin( kz − ωt )]

€
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 E. Kapon/Optics I (2016/2017)/ Chapter 4: Polarization

Figure 4.3: The electric field vector of a right-circular polarized plane wave.

The electric field of a right- (left-) circular polarized wave rotates clockwise
(counterclockwise) when the wave propagates towards the observer.
Note that a linear superposition of R- and L-polarized waves of identical amplitudes
yields a P-polarized wave, since

ER ( z, t ) + E L ( z, t ) =

E0 ê x cos ( kz − ω t ) + ê y sin ( kz − ω t ) + E0 ê x cos ( kz − ω t ) − ê y sin ( kz − ω t )

= 2E0 ê x cos ( kz − ω t )

The normalized Jones vectors of the two types of circular polarization are written:

1  1  1 1
  E˜R =   ;   E˜ L =    
2  −i 2 i 

and satisfy the orthogonality relation:

E˜ R ⋅ E˜ *L = 0

Using the Jones representation, it is easy to see that the linear superposition of right- and left-
circular waves yields a linearly polarized wave:
€

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 E. Kapon/Optics I (2016/2017)/ Chapter 4: Polarization

E˜ R + E˜ L = 2 E˜ v

Elliptic Polarization (E-state)

€
All other values of the electric field ratios E 0x / E 0y and the relative phase ε yield elliptic
polarization, also referred to as an E-state. In fact, linearly and circularly polarized light can
be viewed as special cases of elliptically polarized light with specific relations between the
field components, as defined above.
The normalized Jones vector for elliptically polarized light is given by:

1  a 
E˜ =
a2 + 1  ±i

Natural Light

The superposition of independent wave trains with well-defined states of polarization (as
defined above), but finite lengths, yields randomly polarized light. In this case, the well-
defined polarization states add up with random relative phases because the different wave
trains do not have well defined mutual phase relations. This polarization state is also referred
to as natural light, and can be thought of as a non-polarized state of light.
Such random polarization state can also be represented as a superposition of two
mutually incoherent, orthogonal P-states with random relative phase εrandom (t) :

 E x = E x 0 cos( kz − ωt )

 E y = E y 0 cos( kz − ωt + εrandom€(t))

Equivalently, natural random polarization can be configured as a superposition of many

waves of random P -polarization direction and amplitudes (see Fig. 4.4).
€
€
Partially Polarized Light

Partially polarized light can be obtained by superposing polarized and natural (non-polarized)
light. When polarization analysis is performed on such light (see section 4.2), it will indicate
that some of the intensity is not in a well-defined polarization state.
Note that three parameters are needed to specify the state of polarized light: the two
orthogonal components of the electric field and their relative phase ε . For the more general
state of partially polarized light, a fourth parameter describing the fraction of unpolarized
component (the admixture of polarized and non-polarized components) is also required.
€

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 E. Kapon/Optics I (2016/2017)/ Chapter 4: Polarization

Figure 4.4: Two ways of describing natural (non-polarized) light: (a) superposition of two
orthogonal linearly polarized fields with random mutual phase; (b) superposition of many
linearly polarized waves with random polarization direction and different amplitudes.

4.1.4 Angular Momentum of the Photon

The concept of circular polarization is related to the angular momentum state of light.
This angular momentum can be evaluated by considering the effect of the electric field
carried by a circularly polarized wave on a charged particle.
The electric force associated with the electric field of the circularly polarized light
exerts a torque τ on a charged particle. The corresponding power of this torque is given by

dε
τω = P =
dt

where ω is the angular frequency of the light and ε is the energy. Since the angular
momentum L is related to the torque by

dL
€ τ =€
dt

we have

dLω = dε

and hence

L=
ε = ω = 
ω ω

Here, we used Planck’s relation ε = ω for the energy of the photon.

The angular momentum of a photon in a beam of circularly-polarized light has thus a
projection (on the propagation axis) given by ± , depending on the sense of the circular
polarization:
€

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E. Kapon/Optics I (2016/2017)/ Chapter 4: Polarization

R - state : −

L - state : +

(where the rule of a right-handed screw is applied). Other polarization states are described by
a proper (quantum mechanical) superposition of photons in R- and L-states.

4.2 Generation of Polarized Light

Starting from natural (non-polarized) light with no specific state of polarization, one can
generate light beams with particular polarization states using polarizers. A polarizer is an
optical device that uses one of a number of mechanisms to select a certain (usually linear)
polarization out of all the random ones contained in a natural light beam. Such linear
polarizer is characterized by a transmission axis, which defines the polarization direction of
the electric field of the transmitted light. Figure 4.5 shows schematically such linear
polarizer. The transmission axis, and hence the polarization plane of the transmitted light, is
oriented at an angle θ with respect to the y-axis of the coordinate system selected in this
case. (Note that the plane of polarization is defined as the plane containing the electric field
vector and the wave vector of the wave.)
Several physical mechanisms that are typically used to generate polarized light are:
€
• Dichroism (selective absorption)
• Birefringence (double refraction)
• Scattering
• Reflection

These mechanisms are described in some detail in the next section. We start, however, with
the description of a technique for analyzing the state of polarization of a light, formulated by
Malus’s law.

Figure 4.5: A linear polarizer generating linearly polarized light with plane of
polarization oriented at an angle θ with respect to the y-axis.

4.2.1 Malus’s Law

Consider a natural light beam that is linearly
€ polarized by means of a linear polarizer, with
polarization plane tilted by an angle θ with respect to the y-axis. A second linear polarizer,
called the analyzer, is placed in front of the first polarizer, with its transmission axis oriented

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 E. Kapon/Optics I (2016/2017)/ Chapter 4: Polarization

exactly along the y-axis (see Fig. 4.6.). The analyzer transmits, by definition, only electric
field components that are parallel to its transmission axis. Denoting the amplitude of the
polarized light generated by the first polarizer by E 0 , the amplitude transmitted by the
analyzer is thus E 0 cosθ . The intensity transmitted by the analyzer hence reads:

I(θ ) = I (0) cos2 θ

€
€
where I (0) indicates the intensity of the polarized light entering the analyzer. This expression
is known as Malus’s law.
This law, in conjunction with the set up shown in Fig. 4.6, is useful for analyzing the
polarization state of light beams. For example, for light polarized linearly along the x-
€ direction, Malus’s law yields I (π /2) = 0 . Hence, if the analyzer can be oriented such that no
light is transmitted beyond it, it can be concluded that the incident light is linearly polarized,
and that its plane of polarization is oriented at 90° with respect to the transmission axis of the
analyzer.
€

Figure 4.6: Set up for deriving Malus’s law: natural light is polarized by a linear
polarizer, and is subsequently analyzed by another linear polarizer (analyzer).

4.2.2 Polarizing Mechanisms

Dichroism

In certain materials and structures, light is absorbed preferentially when it is linearly

polarized along a specific axis. This property derives from a wire-like structure (such as a
molecular grid) that results in electric charge displacement along a given axis, or due to the
peculiar electronic structure of a dichroic crystal. For example, a structure consisting of
metallic wires would absorb light polarized along the wires due to the induced oscillations of
free electrons in the metal. This, in turn, allows transmission of the electric field component
oriented perpendicular to the wires (see Fig. 4.7). In general, the transmitted light is polarized
perpendicular to the absorption axis of the dichroic structure or material.

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E. Kapon/Optics I (2016/2017)/ Chapter 4: Polarization

Figure 4.7: Linear polarization selected by a dichroic structure.

Birefringence

Consider the harmonic oscillator model introduced in Chapter 2 for describing the dispersion
properties of an optical medium. The frequency dependence of the refractive index n(ω ) is
determined by the oscillator resonance frequencies. Therefore, if the harmonic oscillators
display a spatial anisotropy (that is, if the corresponding spring constant is different for two
perpendicular directions in space), it follows that the refractive index will show a similar
anisotropy. This is illustrated schematically in Fig. 4.8, which shows the anisotropic
harmonic oscillator model and the corresponding frequency dependence of the refractive
index. For light linearly polarized in the x- and y-directions, two different resonance
frequencies exist, and thus for given frequency two different refractive indices will apply.
This phenomenon is referred to as birefringence. In a birefringent medium, different
refractive indices apply for two perpendicularly polarized P-states. In the particular case
when the light frequency overlaps with one of the corresponding absorption lines, the optical
medium will be dichroic. Otherwise, the birefringence will result in two different phase
velocities for the x- and y-polarizations.

Figure 4.8: Model of birefringence: anisotropic harmonic oscillator system (left) and the
resulting frequency dependence of the refractive index .

The phenomenon of birefringence can be utilized to separate the optical paths of light
that is€linearly polarized at different orientations. Birefringent crystals, such as calcite, are
characterized by an optic axis, around which the crystal shows rotational symmetry. Consider

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 E. Kapon/Optics I (2016/2017)/ Chapter 4: Polarization

the propagation of rays in one of the principal sections passing through such an optic axis
(see Fig. 4.9). The propagation of such ray will depend dramatically on its polarization. For
light polarized normal to the plane of the principal section, i.e. along the optic axis,
propagation proceeds like in an isotropic medium. The corresponding ordinary ray will thus
propagate straight when incident perpendicular to the crystal facet. On the other hand, rays
polarized in the plane of the principal section will have polarization components parallel and
perpendicular to the optic axis. Such an extraordinary ray will experience propagation in a
birefringent medium, with phase velocities that are different along the optic axis and
perpendicular to it. This results in a deflection of the incident ray, and thus a separation of the
two perpendicular incident polarizations (see Fig. 4.9). This process is also referred to as
double refraction.

Figure 4.9: Double refraction in calcite. The plane represents a principal section of
calcite, defined by the optic axis and the normals of two opposite planes.

Scattering

Scattered light retains the polarization of the incident beam in the forward direction, as
illustrated in Fig. 4.10. Laterally scattered waves are polarized due to the transverse nature of
the electromagnetic wave. Hence, scattering of natural light results in linearly polarized with
polarization orientation dependent on the scattering direction.

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 E. Kapon/Optics I (2016/2017)/ Chapter 4: Polarization

Figure 4.10: Polarization by scattering (see text).

Reflection

As shown in Section 2.3, Fresnel’s equations indicate that natural light is polarized when
reflected at the Brewster angle (see also Fig. 4.11). At this angle of incidence θ i , the
reflectivity for the p- and s-waves is given by

R// = 0 p - wave
2
€
sin (θ − θ )
R⊥ = 2 i t s - wave
sin (θ i + θ t )

where θ t is the transmission angle.

For non-polarized light, the incident wave is a superposition of s- and p-waves with
€ relationship. Denoting the incident intensity by I and the intensities of the
no definite phase i
reflected s- and p-waves by Ir⊥ and Ir // , the reflectivity is written
€
Ir // + Ir⊥
R= €
Ii
€ €
1
Since for non-polarized light the intensities of the incident waves satisfy Ii // = Ii⊥ = Ii , we
2
have €

Ii I
Ir // = Ir // = R// i €
2Ii // 2

and similarly
€

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 E. Kapon/Optics I (2016/2017)/ Chapter 4: Polarization

Ii
Ir⊥ = R⊥
2

Hence,
€ I I +I 1
R = r = r // r⊥ = ( R// + R⊥ )
Ii Ii 2

At Brewster’s angle, R// vanishes, and polarized light is generated.

€

Figure 4.11: Polarization by reflection at Brewster’s angle.

4.3 Waveplates and Polarizers

Modification of the state of polarization of a light beam is useful for many applications in
optics. In particular, the response of certain optical system depends on the state of
polarization of the incident light (e.g., direction of linear polarization) and thus the beam has
to be “prepared” so as to match the specification of the optical system. Modifications in the
state of polarization of an optical beam can in fact be implemented using retarders and
waveplates.

4.3.1 Retarders
If a birefringent crystal like calcite is shaped into a plate such that the optic axis is parallel to
its interface, an incident plane wave will “see” a different refractive index depending on its
polarization. An ordinary wave, linearly polarized perpendicular to the optic axis, will have a
smaller phase velocity and hence a larger refractive index than that of the extraordinary
wave:

no > ne

Therefore, the optical path will have a different length for plane waves traversing the plate
with polarization parallel or perpendicular to the optic axis. The difference in this optical path
length is: €

Λ = d( n o − n e )

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E. Kapon/Optics I (2016/2017)/ Chapter 4: Polarization

which corresponds to a phase difference of

Δφ = k 0 Λ = k 0 d ( n o − n e )

4.3.2 Wave Plates

Such phase-retardation plates
€ can be used to introduce a desirable phase difference between
the orthogonal components of the transverse electric field in a plane wave. For example, a
linearly polarized wave incident on a retarder plate with the electric field at a certain angle
with respect to the optics axis will have the ordinary and extraordinary components undergo
different phase shifts while propagating through the retarder. The light will thus emerge with
a different polarization state, depending on the retarder optical thickness.
We consider several important examples of waveplates and their use for control of
polarization states.

Half-Wave Plate

In this case, the thickness of the retarder is designed so that a phase shift Δφ = π is
introduced at the selected wavelength of light. Thus, we have

d ( n o − n e ) = (2m + 1) λ0 /2
€
The effect of such retarder on a linearly polarized light whose plane of polarization makes an
angle θ with the optic axis is illustrated in Fig. 4.12. The emerging wave is linearly polarized
€
at an angle -θ with respect to the optic axis. In addition, a half-wave plate will also change
right-circular light into left-circular light, and vice versa.

Quarter-Wave Plate

In this case, a phase shift of Δφ = π /2 is introduced between the two axes, and the optical
thickness difference is given by

d ( n o − n e ) = ( 4m + 1) λ0 /4
€
This phase shift can convert linearly polarized light into elliptical light, and vice versa. When
the electric field vector is at 45 degrees angle with respect to the principal axes of the quarter-
wave plate, a circularly€ polarized light will emerge (see Fig. 4.13). A quarter-wavelength
plate would also convert a circularly polarized light into linearly polarized one.

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 E. Kapon/Optics I (2016/2017)/ Chapter 4: Polarization

Figure 4.12: Effect of a half-wave plate on linearly polarized light.

Figure 4.13: Use of quarter-wave plates (90° retarders) for transforming between linearly
and circularly polarized light.

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E. Kapon/Optics I (2016/2017)/ Chapter 4: Polarization

4.3.3 Jones Matrices

The Jones representation (4.1.2) is useful for simple description of the state of polarization.
Similarly, one can introduce Jones Matrices to effectively describe the manipulation of Jones
vectors, or the equivalent polarization states.
A Jones matrix has the form

˜˜ =  M11
M
M12 
 
 M 21 M 22 

and, operating on an “input” polarization state, it produces an “output” state:

€
E˜ out = M˜ E˜ in

Thus, a linear polarizer producing horizontal or vertical P-states is represented by the Jones
matrices

1 0  0 0
M˜ h =  M˜ v = 
0 0  0 1

whereas 45-degrees polarizers correspond to:

1 1 1 ˜ = 1  1 −1
M˜ 45 =  M −45
2 1 1 2  −1 1 

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 E. Kapon/Optics I (2016/2017)/ Chapter 4: Polarization

4.4 Summary

2 2
 Ey   Ex   E  E 
-Polarization ellipse   +  − 2 x  y  cosε = sin 2 ε
 Ey 0   Ex 0   E x0  E y 0 

˜  E x (t)   E 0x e iϕ x 
-Jones vectors E =  = iϕ 
 E y (t)  E 0y e y 

1  0
-Linear polarization E˜ h =   E˜ v =  
0  1

1 1 1 1
-Circular polarization E˜ R =   E˜ L = 
€ 2 −i 2 i

 a
1
-Elliptic polarization E˜ =  
€a + 1 ±i
2
€

2
-Malus’s law I(θ ) = I (0) cos θ
€
-Retarder Δφ = k 0 d ( n o − n e )

-Jones matrices:
˜˜ =  M11
€ M
M12 
 
 M 21 M 22 

E˜ out = M˜ E˜ in
€

17