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PART I. A SHORT COURSE OF KNOTS AND PHYSICS.

This first part of the book is a short course on knots and physics. It is a rapid
penetration into key ideas and examples. The second half of the book consists in
a series of excursions into special topics (such as the Potts Model, map coloring,
spin-networks, topology of 3-manifolds, and special examples). These topics can
be read by themselves, but they are informed by Part I.
Acts of abstraction, changes of mathematical mood, shifts of viewpoint are
the rule rather than the exception in this short course. The course is a rapid
guided ascent straight up the side of a cliff! Later, we shall use this perspective -
both for the planning of more leisurely walks, and for the plotting of more complex
ascents.
Here is the plan of the short course. First we discuss the diagrammatic model
for knot theory. Then we construct the bracket polynomial (LK4], and obtain from
it the original Jones polynomial. We then back-track to the diagrams and uncover
abstract tensors, the Yang-Baxter equation and the concept of the quantum group.
With state and tensor models for the bracket in hand, we then introduce other
(generalized) link polynomials. Then comes a sketch of the Witten invariants, first
via combinatorial models, then using functional integrals and gauge field theory.
The ideas and techniques spiral outward toward field theory and three-dimensional
topology. Statistical mechanics models occur in the middle, and continue to weave
in and out throughout the play. Underneath all this structure of topology and
physical ideas there sounds a theme of combinatorics - graphs, matroids, coloring
problems, chromatic polynomials, combinatorial structures, enumerations. And
finally, throughout there is a deep underlying movement in the relation between
space and sign, geometry and symbol, the source common to mathematics, physics,
language and all.
And so we begin. It is customary to begin physics texts either with math-
ematical background, or with the results of experiments. But this is a book of
knots. Could we then begin with the physics of knots? Frictional properties? The
design of the clove-hitch and the bow-line? Here is the palpable and practical

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physics of the knots.

1°. Physical Knots.

The clove-hitch is used to secure a line to a post or tree-trunk. The illus-

tration in Figure 1 shows how it is made.

Clove Hitch
Figure 1

A little experimentation with the clove hitch shows that it holds very well indeed,
with tension at A causing the line at C to grab B - and keep the assemblage from
slipping.
Some physical mathematics can be put in back of these remarks - a project
that we defer to Part II. At this stage, I wish to encourage experimentation. For
example, just wind the rope around the post (as also in Figure 1). You will discover
easily that the amount of tension needed at A to make the rope slide on the post
increases exponentially with the number of windings. (The rope is held lightly at
B with a fixed tension.) With the introduction of weaving- as in the clove hitch
- interlocking tensions and frictions can produce an excellent bind.
In Figure 2 we find a sequence of drawings that show the tying of the bowline.

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The Bowline
Figure 2

In the bowline we have an excellent knot for securing a line. The concentrated
part of the knot allows the loop J-L to be of arbitrary size. This loop is secure under
tension at A. Pulling at A causes the loop >. to shrink and grab tightly the two
lines passing through it. This secures J.l· Relax tension at A and the knot is easily
undone, making loop adjustment easy.

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s
The Square Knot
Figure 3

In Figure 3 we find the square knot, excellent for splicing two lengths of
rope. Tension at A and B creates an effect of mutual constriction - keeping the
knot from slipping.
And finally in this rogue's gallery of knots and hitches we have the granny
(Figure 4), a relative of the square knot, but quite treacherous. The granny will
not hold. No mutual interlock here. A pull facilitates a flow of rope through the
knot's pattern until it is undone.
It is important to come to some practical understanding of how these knots
work. The facts that the square knot holds, and that the granny does not hold
are best observed with actual rope models. It is a tremendous challenge to give a
good mathematical analysis of these phenomena. Tension, friction and topology
conspire to give the configuration a form - and within that form the events of
slippage or interlock can occur.

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The Granny Knot

Figure 4

I raise these direct physical questions about knotting, not because we shall
answer them, but rather as an indication of the difficulty in which we stand. A
book on knots and physics cannot ignore the physicality of knots of rope in space.
Yet all of our successes will be more abstract, more linguistic, patterned and
poised between the internal logic of patterns and their external realizations. And
yet these excursions will strike deeply into topological and physical questions for
knots and other realms as well.
There are other direct physical questions for knotting. We shall return to
them in the course of the conversation.

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2°. Diagrams and Moves.

The transition from matters of practical knotwork to the associated topolog-

ical problems is facilitated by deciding that a knot shall correspond to a single
closed loop of rope (A link is composed of a number of such loops.). Thus
the square knot is depicted as the closed loop shown in Figure 5. This figure also
shows the loop-form for the granny knot.

Square Knot Trefoil Knot

Granny Knot Figure Eight Knot

Two Unknots

Figure 5

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The advantage for topological exploration of the loop-form is obvious. One

can make a knot, splice the ends, and then proceed to experiment with various
deformations of it- without fear of losing the pattern as it slips off the end of the
rope.
On the other hand, some of the original motivation for using the knot may
be lost as we go to the closed loop form. The square knot is used to secure two
lengths of rope. This is nowhere apparent in the loop form.
For topology, the mathematical advantages of the closed form are over-
whelming. We have a uniform definition of a knot or link and correspondingly, a
definition of unknottedness. A standard ring, as shown in Figure 5 is the canon-
ical unknot. Any knot that can be continuously deformed to this ring (without
tearing the rope) is said to be unknotted.
Note that we have not yet abstracted a mathematical definition of knot and
link (although this is now relatively easy). Rather, I wish to emphasize the advan-
tages of the closed loop form in doing experimental topological work. For example,
one can form both the trefoil T, as shown in Figures 5 and 6, and its mirror image
T* (as shown in Figure 6) . The trefoil T cannot be continuously deformed into its
mirror image T*. It is a remarkably subtle matter to prove this fact. One should
try to actually create the deformation with a model- to appreciate this problem.

T T*

Trefoil and its Mirror Image

Figure 6

A knot is said to be chiral if it is topologically distinct from its mirror image, and
achiral if it can be deformed into its mirror image. Remarkably, the figure eight

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