GR K TH I N K E R S

'

A H I S T O RY O F A N C I E NT P H I L O S O P H Y

BY THEO DO R GOM PE RZ
PRO FESSO R EME R I T S A T T H E N I E RS I T F I EN NA A N D MEM E R O F
U U V Y O V B

T H E I MPE R I A L A CA D E M ; H O N LL D D LI N A N D CA M R I D E ; H O N P H D K O N I S ERG
,

Y UB B G G B

C O RR ES PO N D I N M M R I T I SH A C AD EM F T H E PR O M O T IO N O F
. . .
, . . .
,

G E BE R OF T HE B Y OR

P H I LO S O P H I C A L H I S TO R ICA L A N D P H I LOLO I CA L S T U D I ES
. , G

A U TH O R I Z E D E D I TI O N

VOL U M E I I I

TRAN S LATED BY

G . G . B E R R Y, B A . .

B ALLIOL C OLLEG E , O XFO R D

LONDON
J O H N M U R R AY A L B E M A R L E , S TR E E T
 213 0 the fl a unt s;

J O SE P H I NE V O N W E RTH EI M S TE IN

N OV . 1 9, 1 82 0 : J U LY 1 6 , x 894

1 DE DI C ATE

TH I S V O LU M E
‘
 C O N TE N TS .

BO O K V .

P L A TO .

C H AP TE R V I I I .

PL A TO S ’
DOC TRI N E O F TH E S OUL AND O F I DEA S
PA E G

1 3
5 4

C H AP TE R I X .

L ATO S
'

P H ZED R U S
’
P .

x6 3
20 4

C H AP TE R X .

TH E “
P H /E DO , AND P L A T OS ’
PR OO FS OF I M M O RTA L I TY .

C H AP TER XI .

P LA TO S
’ “
REP U B LIC .

48 § 6
Sl 7
54 § 8
56 § 9
61 IO
 CON TE N TS .

C H AP TE R XI I I .

P L A TO S ’
E TH IC A L ,
S OC IA L , AN D P O L I TI C A L I D E A L .

1 06 §6
1 09 §7
I I I §8
1 1 3 §9
I I S

C H AP TE R XI V

PL ATO S ’
SE CO N D AND TH I R D RE S I D E NC E S IN S I C I LY .

C H AP TE R XV .

P L A TO S ’ “
E U TH Y D E M U S
”
AND “
P A RM E N I D E S .

C H AP TE R XV I .

“ ” “
TH E TH E/ETE TU S AN D TH E C RATY L U S .

C H AP TE R X VI I .

TH E “
S O PH I S T ”
AN D TH E “
S TA TE S M A N .
 CON TE N TS . vi i

C H AP TE R X VI I I .

P L ATO S ’ “
P H I LE B U S .

C H AP TE R XI X .

“ “
TI M /B U S
”
TH E AND TH E C RI TI AS .

C H AP TER XX .

P L A TO S ’ “
L AW S .

C H AP TE R XXI .

RETR O S PECTS AND A NTIC I P A TI O NS .

O
N TE S AND
,
A DD I TI O NS

I ND E X TO V O L S II
. . AN D I I I .
 GRE E K TH I NKE RS .

B OO K V .

P LAT O .

C H AP T E R V I I I .

P L ATo s
’
D OCTRI NE O F TH E S OUL AND O F I DEA S .

TH E l e a rne d S p a n i s h Jes u i t Jo s é d Aco s ta clo s e s h i s

’
*
I .
, ,

acco u n t of a c e rt a i n bel i ef hel d by t h e I n di a n s of P eru w i t h ,

th e rem a rk t h a t i t a pprox i m at e s i n s ome me a s ure t o t h e

P l at on i c d oc t r i ne of i d e a s The bel i ef t o w h i ch he refers
.

h as a l s o been m e t w i t h a mong t h e I n di a n s of Nort h

A mer i ca ; here a g a i n t h e Abb é L a ffi te a u Td e t ecte d po i n t s
, ,

of a greemen t w i th P l a t o The i nh a b i ta n ts of t h e S a mo a n
.

I s l a n d s a n d l a s t ly t h e F i nn s pre s en t u s w i th a dd i t i on a l
, , ,

ex a mple s of th e s a me mo d e of t ho ught t h e e s s e n c e of ,

w h i c h m ay be s tat e d a s follo w s : T he o ccu rren c e i n n at ure

of numberle s s group s of s i m i l a r obj e cts p a rt i c ul a rly a n i m a l ,

a n d v ege t a ble s pe ci e s requi res a n expl a n ati on ; t h i s i s

,

a ffor d e d by t h e as s ump t i on of a pr i m a ry en t i t y or a rc he

type w ho s e rel at i on to t h e corre s pon di ng obje ct s i s va r i ou s ly

,

c on c e i ve d Some t i mes i t appe a rs a s a ki n d of e l de r a n d

.

b i gger brother ; s ome t i me s i t i s a p a tt ern re s i di ng i n t h e ,

w orl d of s p i ri t ; or a g a i n i t m ay be a go d or a gen i us
, ,

d w ell i ng on s ome d i s t a n t s t a r t o w ho s e i n fl u en ce p a r ,

t i c ul a r obje ct s o w e t he i r or i g i n a n d t he i r c on t i n u a n c e .

Th i s t en d en cy of th e h u m a n m i n d t o refer t h e perpe tu a l
B o rn 1 5 40 d i e d 1 5 99 1 Died 1 7 5 5
'
. .
,

VOL . I II . B
2 GR EE K TH I NKERS .

re curren ce of s i m i l a r qu al i t i e s to a re a l t yp e or mo del mu s t ,

be a llow e d no i n con s i d erable s h a re i n th e gene s i s of t h e

P l at on i c d o ct ri ne .

B ut t h e d efin i t e s h ape w h i c h t h i s t heory t oo k i n th e

m i n d of P l a to mu s t be expl a i ne d from t h e pre vi ou s h i s t ory
“
of Gree k t ho u ght D i vi de th e B e com i ng of H era cl i t u s
.

by t h e B e i ng of Pa rmen i d e s a n d you w i ll O b tai n th e

,

e
I d as of P l a t o — s u ch i s t h e form u l a i n t o w h i c h Herb a r t

c ompre s s e d h i s V i e w of t h e c o u r s e of ph i lo s oph i c d e v elop

men t The a u then t i c a ccoun t of t h e m att er w h i ch w e

.
,

o w e t o A r i s t o t le
*
i s n o t v ery d i ff eren t :
, P l at o h a d been
e a rly fa m i l i a r w i t h C ratyl u s a n d th e H eracl i t e a n d o ct ri ne s
t ou ch i ng t h e perpe t u a l fl ux of t h e w orl d of s en s e a n d ,

th e i mpo s s i b i l i t y of t h at w orl d be i ng t h e obj e ct m att er of -

s c i en c e . To t hes e d o ct r i ne s he a dhere d i n l at er l i fe .

Moreov er S o cra t es confin i ng h i m s elf a s he d i d to e th i ca l

, ,

s pe c ul a t i on s and
, m aki ng n o att emp t t o s t u dy n at ure
a s a w hole h a d s ough t t h e un i v ers a l w i t h i n t h e
, l i m i ts
of h i s o wn s u bj ect a n d h a d g i ven h i s ch i ef atten t i on
,

t o th e con s t ru ct i on of d efin i ti on s P l at o w h o follow e d

.
,

h i m w as t hu s l e d t o th e O p i n i on t h at th e re a l i t i e s c orre
,

s p o n d i n g t o d efin i t i on s a re o t her t h a n th e obj e cts g i ven

i n s en s e . Th i s s ome th i ng el s e he ca lle d i d e a s of
e n ti t i e s ; th e obj ects of s en s e w ere for h i m a dd i ti on s t o
t h e i de as a n d n a me d a ft er t hem for i t w a s by p a rti ci p a
, ,

t i on i n th e i d e as (here A r i s t o t le re ca ll s th e pre ce d en t of
”
th e Py t h agore a n s ) t h at t he i r m ater i a l n a me s a k e s ex i s t e d .

Th i s expl a n a ti on m ay be s umm a ri ze d by s ay i ng t h at
m at t er w a s vol at i l i ze d i n t o a n ab s t ra ct i on w h i le co n ,

ce p ts t o
,
m a k e t h e b a l a n ce even be ca me c on c ret e a n d
,

a lmo s t m a t er i a l The pl ace of n at ure w i t h i t s perpe t u a l

.
,

fl ux w as u s urpe d by t h e w orl d of c on cep ts w h i ch l a i d

, ,

c l a i m to t h e fi x i ty d en i e d t o t h e w orl d of B e com i ng .

Th i s d en i al i t mu s t be remembere d h a d n o t been m a d e
, ,

by Hera cl i t u s a lone b u t a l s o by t h e E le ati cs wh o t en de d

, ,

more an d more t o releg at e t h e t h i ngs of s en s e t o th e

re a lm of a ppe a ra n ce s A d di t i on a l s uppor t w as d eri ve d by
.

t h i s vi e w from c erta i n d i ffi c ul t i e s of t hough t w h i c h w e

 GE NE S I S OF TH E D O C TRI NE .
3

h ave men ti one d i n a p re vi o ns s ecti on — t h e problem s of

I nheren ce an d P re d i cat i on i n w h i ch we re cogn i ze t h e o l d
,

en i gm a formerly k no w n a s th e problem of ch ange an d

, ,

c on cerne d w i th th e rel ati on s of t h e O ne to th e M a ny ,

re appe a ri ng i n a n e w gu i s e d ue t o th e S oc rat i c s t u dy of co n
,

ce p t s ( c f Vol I I p I 7 5 3
. . . .
9g), Re a l i t.y— s o w e m ay formul a t e

th e con clu s i on t o w h i c h th i s t ra i n of t hough t n at ura lly l e d

— i s t o be foun d only i n t h at of w h i ch t h e s elf i d en t i ty -

i s i n t errup t e d by no ch a nge a n d i mp ai re d by no i nco n

s i s t en cy i n th e con ten t of concep ts n o t i n i n d i vi du a l th i ng s
, ,

e ach of w h i ch i n i ts rel ati on s of s p ace a n d t i me i s s ubje ct

, ,

t o m a n i fol d va ri a ti on an d c on t r a di cti on .

I t i s t rue t h at t h e d iffi cul t i e s of t hough t to w h i ch w e

h av e a ll u d e d w ere n o t remo ve d by t h e n e w t e ach i ng b ut ,

only c lo t he d i n a di fferen t g a rb They re a ppe a re d i n t h e.

form of q u e s ti on s s u ch a s —H o w a re t h e flee t i ng i n di vi du a l
t h i ng s c onne cte d w i t h t he i r e t ern a l a rche type s ? D o t hey
“ ” “
p a rt i ci p at e i n t hem or a re t hey cop i e d from them ?
,

An d w h at i s t h e pre ci s e n at ure of t h i s p a rt i ci p at i on or
proc es s of c opy i ng ? To t he s e ques ti on s P l a to never
s u cc ee d e d i n re t u rn i ng a s at i s fa ct ory a n s w er ; b ut a s ,
“
A r i s t ot le rem a r ks i n t h e a bo ve quot e d p a s s a ge -
he left ,
”
t hem t o be i n v e s t i g at e d by o t hers .

B ut t h i s i s n o t t h e pl ac e t o di s cu s s th e c on s equen ce s
of a d o ct ri ne w ho s e ori g i n w e h ave n o t ye t comple t ely
a c coun t e d for We mu s t on ce more d raw t h e re a d er s
.
’

a t t en t i on t o a fun d a men t a l t en d en cy of th e hum a n m i n d ,

a n d t o i t s fa r re a c h i ng e ff e ct s
- Ab s t ract i on s a r e clothe d
.

by l a n gu a ge i n t h e s a me d re s s a s obj ects of percep t i on .

B o t h a re d e s i gn a t e d by s ub s t a n t i ve s an d perh a p s co u l d n o t
,

be d e s i gn at e d i n a ny o t her w ay I n th e un tra i ne d m i n d .
,

th e Re a l an d t h e Th i ng a re s o c lo s ely as s oc i at e d t h a t i n ,

ordi n a ry l a ng u a ge th e tw o t erm s a re s ynonymou s The .

“ ”
v ery w or d re a l i s d eri ve d from r es a t h i ng Forc es ,
.
,

qu a l i t i e s s tat e s rel at i on s a re reg a r de d a s en t i t i es h avi ng

, , ,

t h e n at u re of th i ng s and
,
w hen t h ey pro d u ce l as t i ng
,

i mpre s s i on s upon t h e m i n d a s l i vi ng be i ng s en d o w e d w i t h
,

w i ll —a s go ds a n d d ae mon s After t h e myt hologi ca l come s

.

a n on t olog i c a l s t a ge a n ai ve re a l i s m (i n t h e me d i a
,
e va l s en s e ) ,
4 G REEK TH I NKE RS .

of w h i ch w e fin d t race s i n th e e a rl i er h i s t o ry e ven of Greek

t hough t P l ague an d fe v er ce as e to be daemon s b ut t h e a rt
. ,

of he a l i ng i s s t i ll a s pe ci e s of t h i ng As i ll u s t ra t i o n s t a k e
.
,

th e follo w i ng expre s s i on s u s e d by t h e a u thor of th e t re at i s e

”
“
O n th e Art H e mee ts d oub ters i n th e re al i ty of t h e
.

he a l i ng a rt by t h e que s t i on — “
H o w c oul d w e h av e e ver
c ome t o s pe a k of t h e a r t of me d i c i n e as a re a l i t y i f i t w ere

n ot s o i n t ru t h ? I n o t her w or ds : The long s er i e s of

’
j u dgmen t s t ou ch i ng t h e l aw s of n at ure and m an s a b i l i ty
t o perce i ve t hem a n d t u rn t hem t o a cco u n t i n t h e ca re of
he a l t h— t h i s s er i e s o f j u dgmen ts w i t h i ts t rue or fa l s e ,

“ ”
c on c lu s i on : The a rt of he a l i ng ex i s t s i s p ut on a le vel ,

w i th th e per cep t i on of an ex t ern a l obje ct a n d reg a rd e d a s ,

a n a ct of men t a l v i s i on The b a re fact O f a n a me h avi ng

.

been g i ven t o th e a rt of he a l i ng i s t ak en t o be a s u ffi ci en t
re as on for as cri b i ng obj e ct i ve ex i s t en ce t o i t j u s t a s i n th e ,

ca s e of a ct u a l t h i ng s I n a v ery s i m i l a r s t ra i n t h e com i c
.

poe t Ep i ch a rm us (cf Vol I I p . . .w hom w e s h all pre s en t ly

.

h ave o cca s i on t o men t i on as a precurs or of P l at o i n another

“
re s pe ct h a d a lre a dy d raw n th e i nferen c e : The goo d i s
,
”
a t h i ng i n i t s elf
- -
a ft er pre vi ou s ly c a ll i ng fl u t e pl ay i ng a
,
-

“ ”
t h i ng
. H e goe s on t o prove t h at a s i t i s th e a c qu i s i t i on
of s ki ll i n fl ute pl ay i ng d a n ci ng o r w e avi ng th a t m ak es
-
, ,

t h e w e av er th e d a n c er or th e fl ut e pl a yer s o i t i s th e
, ,
-
,

po s s es s i on of th e goo d t h at m ak e s t h e goo d m an No t .

t h at t here w as any l ac k of pro t e s t s a g a i n s t t h i s obj e ct i fy i ng

’
of c on cep ts e ven before P l a t o s t i me ; s u ch a pro t es t i s
,

c on t a i ne d i n a n expre s s i on of t h e s oph i s t A n t i phon w h i ch ,

h as a lre a dy been qu o te d (cf Vol I p 4 3 7 a l s o . . . .

,

We h ave t hu s two t en den ci es of t ho u gh t ; t h e one

le a di ng t o t h e a ss ump ti on of re a l t ype s t h e o ther to t h e ,

obj e ct i fy i ng of a b s t r acti o n s th e t w o t oge ther re s u l ti ng i n

,

t h e prom o t i on of con c ep t s t o t h e s t a t u s of obj e cti v e t ype s .

W i t h t hes e there w ere a s s o ci ate d i n t h e m i n d of P l at o

t wo s u b s i d i a ry t e n d en ci e s The firs t w h i ch w e n t t o
.
,

s t rengt hen t h e obj e ct i fy i n g i mp u l s e h a d i t s or i g i n i n t h e ,

’
s pe ci a l n a t ure of P l a t o s fa vo u ri t e s t u d i e s The s e w ere i n .
,

“
t h e w or d s of H erm a nn B on i t z c on c ep ts belong i ng t o t h e
,

“
s phere of e t h i cs a n d agai n M athem a t i c a l c on cep t s ;
,
 TH E A P RI OR] TEND EN CY .
5

i n th e e of th e former i t i s th e un con di ti on a l a ccep t a n ce

c as
‘

c l a i me d by t h e e t h i ca l j u d gmen t i n t h e c as e of t h e l at t er
, ,

th e u n i vers a l v a l i d i ty a n d i n d epen d en c e of i n d i vi d u a l
”
ca pr i c e w h i ch pro d u c e s th e a of obje t i e re l i y
, p p e a r a n ce c v a t .

On th e o ther h a n d th e t en den cy t ow a rds th e a s s u mp t i o n

,

of type s wa s re i n force d by th e a rt i s t i c a n d vi s i on a ry
elemen t i n P l at o N at ure s type s be ca me fo r h i m i d e a l s
’
.
,

t h a t i s a s th e t i c p a t t ern s a n d s t a n d a r ds
, The d i s po s i ti on
.

t o s e e i n t h at h a rmon i ou s u n i on of perfe ct e d ex cellen ce s

w h i ch w e c a ll a n i d e a l no mere s yn t he s i s of a m i n d fire d
,

w i t h t h e c re a t i ve i mp u l s e b u t a re a l ex i s t en c e of w h i ch t h e
, ,

c orrel a t i v e O bj e c t i s a di m re flex i on — th i s d i s po s i t i on so ,

c ongen i a l t o a rt i s t i c a n d i m ag i n a t i v e n a t u re s h a d c ert a i nly ,

s ome s h a re t hough n o t a s
, j ohn S t ua rt M i ll a s s ume d t h e
,
’
,

ch i ef s h a re i n th e gene s i s of P l a t o s t heory
, .

.2 Clos er con s i d erat i on i s d em an de d by a t en den cy of

t h o ugh t on w h i ch w e h ave a lre a dy bri efly t ou che d a n d ,

w h i ch ma y be s umm a r i ly d e s c r i be d a s a le a n i n g t o w a r d s
t h e a p r i or i I t i s c on c erne d w i t h q u e s t i on s re s pe ct i ng t h e
.

ori g i n of con cep ts a n d j u dgmen ts w h i ch do n o t s eem to be

d eri ve d from exper i en c e When c e i t i s a s k e d c ome s th e
.
, ,

c on cep t of a l i ne a s leng t h w i t hou t bre a d t h or t h a t of p u re ,

s urfa c e d e s t i t u t e of t h i c kne s s ? When ce c ome s th e i de a

of a c i rc le or a s phere form s w h i ch d o i n d ee d occur i n
, , ,

t h e w orl d of s en s e b u t ne ver i n t h at i d e a l perfe ct i on w h i ch

,

t he i r d efin i t i on s i mply ? W i t h t he s e m athem a ti ca l co n

ce p t s a re j o i n e d o thers — con cep ts of rel a t i on s s u ch a s ,

i d en t i ty or equ a l i ty— w ho s e or i g i n i n experi en ce P l a t o

”
c on t e s t s on groun d s exempl i fie d i n t h e Ph ae do z w hen
e ver w e s pe a k O f t wo t h i ng s a s eq ua l w e re a lly d eny th e ,

a b s olu t e equ a l i ty w h i c h our w or d s a ppe a r t o a ffirm ; for

w hen t h i s i s pre s en t t h e t w o t h i ngs a re no longer t w o

, ,

b ut one a n d i n di s t i ngu i s h able .

To a ll s u ch que s t i on s t h e emp i ri ci s t re t urn s o n e a n d

t h e s a me a n s w er Wh a t ever s t o ck of i de as w e pos s es s i s
.

o u rs to d e a l w i t h a s w e l i k e ; w e m ay a t ple a s u re jo i n
w h a t i s d i vi de d a n d d i v i d e w h a t i s j o i ne d Leng th w i t ho ut .

bre a dt h i s no d o ub t s o me th i ng w h i ch exper i e n c e h a s never

pre s en t e d t o u s B ut w e m ay d i s reg a r d or o verloo k bre a dt h
.

VO L I I I
. .
C
 6 G REE K TH I NKERS .

t h i c k ne s s t o o, i n t h e e of a s urfa ce ) a n d s o by a n
(an d cas , ,

a c t of a b s t r act i o n c o n t empl a t e s p ac e of one or of t w o

,

d i men s i on s .O n t h e o t her h a n d ne i ther n at ure nor t h e

,

h a n d of m an h as e ver fa s h i one d a s phere i n w h i ch t h e

ex acte s t po s s i ble me a s uremen t w oul d n o t d i s cover i m
perfe ct i on a n d a b s o l u t e equ a l i ty i s s i m i l a rly u nrepre s en t e d
by a n y con cre te i n s ta n ce B ut a long w i t h t h at fa c u l ty of
.
,

a b s t r a ct i on w e po s s e s s a no t her a c omb i n i ng fa c ul ty by
, , ,

th e a i d of w h i ch w e a re e n a ble d t o c on s t ru ct c omple t e
equ al i ty o ut of p a rt i a l equ a l i t i e s a n d a b s ol u t e perfe ct i on
,

o u t o f th e d i fferen t d egree s of i mperfe ct i on Th i n k ers .

,

how ever t o w hom t h i s w ay o u t of th e di ffi c ul ty h a s e i ther

,

n o t o cc urre d or h as s eeme d i n a d equ a t e h av e been obl i ge d ,

t o s ee k a s ol u t i on el s e w here — i n t h e a s s ump t i on t h at t h e
con c ep t s i n que s t i on a re g a i ne d by i mme di at e i n t u i ti on ,

a n d t h a t t h e obj e ct s of t he s e i n t u i t i on s be i ng a l i en t o t h e ,

w orl d of s en s e a re of a s u pers en s u a l or d er
,
Th u s ye t .

a no t her mo t i v e i mpelle d P l a t o t o w a r d s t h e hypo t he s i s t h at

t here ex i s t re a l a rche type s of co n c ep t s w h i c h t h e s o u l h as ,

behel d i n a former l i fe The remembr a n c e of t he s e v i s i on s

.
,

s o P l a t o hel d s lumber s i n t h e s oul a n d i s a w a k ene d t o fre s h

, ,

l i fe by th e s i ght of t ho s e i mperfe ct cop i e s of t hem w h i ch

experi en c e fu rn i s he s .

Nex t t o c on cep ts c om e t he i r comb i n a t i on s — j u dgmen ts .

I t i s i n t h i s qu a rter t h a t t h e a p r z or z ph i lo s ophy a n d i n
' '

p a rt i cul a r t h a t form of i t k now n a s th e d o ct ri ne of i d e a s ,

fin ds i ts s t ronge s t s upport A w i d e c h as m w e a re t ol d
.
, ,

y aw n s be tw een t h e kn ow le d ge w h i ch w e d eri ve from

experi en ce a n d t h a t w h i ch c l a i m s a n o t her a n d a h i gher
,

or i g i n. K now le dge O f th e firs t ki n d m ay re s t on th e

g u a ra n t ee of a n experi en ce h i thert o w i tho ut ex cep ti on a n d ,

y e t w e d o n o t feel c ompelle d t o bel i e v e i n i t s u n c on di t i on a l

t ru t h i t l acks t h e c h a r a ct er of un i vers a l i t y a n d ne ce s s i ty
w h i ch d i s t i ngu i s he s t h e s e c o n d k i n d of k no w le d ge I n all .

t i me s a n d i n a l l pl a ce s w a t er h as quen che d t h i rs t w e h av e
n o t t h e s l i gh t es t re a s on t o s uppo s e i t w i ll e ver c e a s e t o d o

S t i ll t here i s no th i ng t o preven t u s from tfiz nkz ng of

’ ’

so .
,

a d r a u gh t of w a t er w h i c h m o i s t en s t h e t hro a t b ut br i ng s n o

feel i ng o f refre s hmen t More genera lly how e v er firm ly

.
,
 TR UTH S O F R EA S ON A ND O F EXP E RI ENCE .
7

w e m ay be c on vi n ce d t h a t t h e rel a t i on s of s u cce s s i on a n d
c oex i s t en c e , t h e s u m of w h i c h c on s t i t u t e s for u s th e pres en t
or d er of th i n g s w i ll c on t i n u e to pre va i l t here i s no t h i ng
, ,

i n con ce i v a ble i n t h e c on t ra ry s uppo s i t i on O n t h e o t her .

h a n d i t i s i n con ce i va ble a n d u n th i n k a ble th a t th e w hole

,

s houl d e v er be le s s t h a n t h e p a rt t h a t tw i c e t w o s ho u l d
,

be o t her t h a n four t h a t tw o s t ra i gh t l i ne s s ho u l d en c lo s e
,

a s p ac e . No th i ng c o u l d be more n a tura l t h a n t h a t th i s
d i s t i n ct i on be tw een t h e t ru t h s of exper i en ce a n d t h e s o
c a lle d t r u th s of re a s on s houl d h a v e m a d e t h e d eepe s t i m

pre s s i on on t ho s e w h o firs t perc e i v e d i t a n d s houl d h a v e ,

l e d t hem t o a s c r i be t o t a lly d i fferen t or i g i n s t o t h e t wo

s pe c i e s of k no w le dge . For P l at o t ho s e p a rts of kno w le dge
,

w h i ch a re a n t er i or bo t h i n t i m e a n d r a n k t o a l l exper i en c e
, , ,

h av e t he i r s o u rce i n t h e w orl d of i de a s a n d exh i b i t th e ,

rel a t i on s w h i ch ob ta i n t here S i m i l a rly a l a ter a g e s pe a ks

.
,

“
of i nn at e i de a s ; a n d t h e s a me mo d e of t ho u gh t h a s i n

t h e c ours e of t i me re c e i v e d a gre a t va r i e ty of expre s s i on .

O ur o w n d ay h a s w i t ne s s e d a n a tt emp t e d re con c i l i a t i on
be tw een th e t w o po i n t s of v i ew — a c omprom i s e w h i ch i s a t
o nce emp i ri ca l i n re s pe ct of th e race a n d a p r z or z i n
' '

re s pe ct of t h e i n di vi du a l I t a ppe a l s n o t t o t h e pers o n a l
.
,

pre ex i s t en ce as s ume d by P l ato b u t t o th e re a l pre ex i s t en c e

-
,
-

o f a l i ne of a n c e s t or s For e on s i t i s a s s u me d o u r fo re
.
, ,

fathers h ave been colle cti ng exper i en ce s th e e ff e ct o f ,

w h i ch i n c re as i ng by a cc um u l a t i on h a s been t o mo di fy th e
, ,

s t r u ct u re of our org a n of t hough t a n d t o g i ve t h e corre ,

s p o n di n g bel i efs a n i rre s i s t i ble po w er o ver our m i n d s .

The emp i r i ca l s chool gra t efu lly t a ke s no t e of t h e

a t t emp t t o u t i l i ze a gelong h ab i tu at i on a n d t ra n s m i s s i o n
by here d i ty i n t h e expl a n at i o n bo t h of i n t elle ct u a l a n d
mora l d i s po s i t i on s ; a t th e s a me t i me i t c l a i m s t h at t h e ,

problem n o w before us can be s ati s factor i ly t re a t e d w i t ho u t

th e a i d of s u c h hypo the s e s I t po i n ts o ut th at m a ny a s o
.

ca lle d t ru t h of re as on re s ts on a mere a n a lyt i c a l or ex

p l a n a t o ry ju d gmen t ; i t i s so for i,
n s ta n ce i n t h e cas e of ,

T he w hole i s gre a ter t h a n i t s p a r t

“ ”
t h e propo s i t i o n ,
.

The prop o s i ti on h a s un con d i t i on a l va l i d i t y b ut i t d oe s no ,

m o re t h a n u nfol d t h e t hough t a lre a dy c on t a i ne d i n th e

8 GREEK TH I NKE RS .

“ “
w ord s w hole p a rt By a
and p a rt w e only me a n
.

on e of t w o or m o re qu a n t i t i e s w h i ch t oge ther form a t o ta l

A= a 6 e tc ,
To s ay t h at a
. b i s gre a t er th a n 5 th at ,

(1 i n cre a s e d by b i s more t h a n b i s merely t o expre s s ,

d i fferen t ly t h e rel a t i on s i mpl i e d by t h e u s e of t h e w or d s

“ ”
w hole and p a rt Al l t rue ne ce s s i ty of t hough t i s (a s
.

John S t u a r t M i ll h a s a p t ly rem a rke d) ne ces s i ty of i nferen c e .

The i n con c e i vab i l i ty of th e con t ra ry me a n s th e i mpos s i b i l i ty

of a t on ce a ffirm i ng an d d e n yi ng th e s a me propo s i t i on ;
a n d t h e ne c e s s a ry v a l i d i t y of a c on c lu s i on i s c o n firme d by

c lo s i ng u p t o t h e d en i er of i t e v ery o t her me a n s of e s c a pe .

Al l men a re mort a l ; C a i us i s a m an : t herefore C a i u s i s

”
morta l he w h o h as a d m i tt e d th e tw o prem i s s e s ca n
reje ct th e con c lu s i on only by s i m u l t a n eou s ly a ffi rm i ng a n d
d eny i ng th e mort a l i t y of m a n ki n d (w h i c h i n c lu d e s C a i u s )
or t h e hum a n i ty of C a i u s B ut th e i n c omp at i b i l i ty of an
.

a ffi rm a t i on a n d i t s c orrel a t i v e neg a t i ve
(c om monly ca lle d

t h e pr i n c i ple of con t r a d i cti on ) i s i n our op i n i on n o t , ,

so mu ch a ca non of re as on a s a fun da men t a l property

a t t a ch i ng t o a ll perc ep t i on a n d i n d ee d t o a l l proc e s s e s o f
, , ,
”
c on s ci ou s ne s s The very expre s s i on i n comp at i b i l i ty i s
.

n o t s t r i ct ly s pe a k i ng a ppropr i a t e
,
The fu n da men t a l fa ct
, .

i s r ather t h i s — t h a t w e a re a c q u a i n t e d w i th a b s en ce a s w ell
a s pre s en ce d efi ci en cy a s w ell a s pro vi s i on om i s s i on a s w ell
, ,

a s a ct i on .I n t he s e neg a ti ve s ta t e s t h e ex c lu s i on of t h e
corre s pon d i ng po s i t i v e s i s a lre a d y c o n t a i ne d .

“
Nor (i n s p i t e of t h e h i n ts s ca t tere d i n t h e M eno is
t h e c a s e e s s en t i a lly d i ff eren t w i t h m at hem a t i ca l k no w le dge .

H ere t oo ne ce s s a ry t r ut h i s ne ce s s a ry i nferen c e from

, ,

hyp o t he s e s As fa r as rel at es t o geome t ry w i t h i ts

.
,

d e d u ct i on s from d efin i t i on s only a pprox i m at ely a ppl i c able

t o re a l obj e ct s t h e t ru t h of t h i s s t a t emen t i s ob vi ou s
,

enough Nex t t o t h e d efin i ti on s come c ert a i n propo s i ti on s

.
,
“
w h i ch a re s ome ti me s c a lle d genera l no ti on s an d s ome ,
”
t i me s a x i om s s u ch a s t h a t equ a l s a d d e d t o equ a l s g i ve
,

equ a l t ot a l s or th at t w o s t ra i gh t l i nes ca nnot en clo s e a s p ac e

, .

The firs t of t he s e a s s ert s t h at i f t o a s qu a re ya r d on my

r i gh t h a n d I j o i n a s e con d s qu a re y a r d t h e s um tw o s qu a re , ,

y a rd s i s th e s a me a s w hen I perform a s i m i l a r opera t i on

,
IO GR EE K TH I NKE RS .

3 . To th eh a s m thu s ope n e d be tw ee n t h e w o rl d of
c

i d e a s a n d t h e w orl d of s en s e t here c orre s pon de d a gro w i ng

,

s ep a r a t i on of t h e p s y c h i c a l from t h e c orpore a l P l a t o here .

c o n t i n u e d a pro c e s s of d e v elopmen t w h i c h h a d beg u n lo n g

before h i s t i me B e s i de s t h e O rph i e s an d th e Py th a gore a n s

.
,

X enoph a ne s m ay be n a me d i n t h i s connex i on H e i t w a s .
,

s o w e re a d w h o g a v e t o t h e p s y ch i c pr i n c i ple a n e w n a me
, ,

wveii ju a (bre a t h s p i r i t) of w h i ch l a t er a ge s m a d e m u c h u s e
, , .

S uch a ch an ge of n a me ge n er a lly goe s h a n d i n h a n d w i t h ,

a n d help s fo rw a r d a c h a nge of t ho ugh t on th e m atters

,

c o n c er n e d . We h ave re a s o n t o s u ppo s e th a t i n t h i s s ubje ct ,

a s i n h i s rel i g i ou s i n n o va t i on s X e n oph a n es re v er t e d t o o l d
,

A ry a n no t i on s w h i ch h a d n ev er been c omple t ely era di ca te d

fro m t h e n a t i o n a l c on s ci ou s ne s s S u ch a no ti on i s t h a t
.

a c c or d i n g t o w h i c h t h e s o u l ,
or bre a t h of l i fe re turn s t o ,

c ele s t i a l s p a ce a n d t h e e t her wh i c h fill s i t Th i s i s a co n

.

c e p t i o n t o w h i ch w e h av e been a ble t o po i n t as h avi ng been

c u rren t i n At hen s d ur i ng t h e l a s t t h i r d of t h e fift h c en tu ry ,

one t o w h i ch E uri p i de s g av e l i t era ry expres s i on (s e e Vol I I . .

p . H e h a d been a n t i ci p a t e d by E p i ch a rm u s i n v ers e s ,

w h i c h w ere app a ren t ly i n t e n d e d t o con s ole a mourner

Wha t wa s jo i n e d i s n o w di s seve red e very p art ha th sought i ts o wn

Du st to dus t a n d bre ath to h e ave n I s thi s m o re than th o u
.

c a n st b e ar

I t m ay be conj e cture d t h a t t h e ph i lo s oph i c come dy

w r i t er here foll o w e d i n t h e fo o ts t ep s o f X e n oph a n e s w hom ,

he h a d m e t a t t h e co u rt o f H i ero o n w hom he bes to w e d,

t h e s i g n i fi ca n t pra i s e (a s w e g a t her from a n a ll u s i on of

”
A r i s t o tle ) t h a t h i s d o ct r i n e wa s n o t pro b a ble b u t t ru e , ,

a n d w i t h w hom he exh i b i t s a fa r re ach i n g a gree men t on

-

o t her m att ers Thu s he reg a rd e d th e gre a t fa ctors of

.

n a tu re a s go ds — a pr i m i t i v e A ry a n bel i ef c le a rly t r a ce a ble

a mong t h e P ers i a n s w h i c h w e co u l d o n ly i n feren t i a lly

,

a s c r i be t o X enoph a n e s (Vo l I p . . b u t for w h i ch

. ,

i n t h e ca s e of E p i ch a rm us w e h av e t h e t e s t i mony of
,

t h e c om i c poe t M en an d er

Th e go ds of Epi cha rmus a re th e sun ,

Th e moon , th e s tars , fire , w ater, earth ,

an d a i r .
 P L A TO S ’
D UA L I S M . I I

An d j u s t X enoph a ne s repre s en t e d h i s s upreme De i t y a s

as

po s s e s s i n g kno w le dge g a i ne d by t h e me di um of no bo di ly
org a n s s o w e fin d E p i ch a rmus s ay i ng
,

M ind i s e ar a n d e ye together, bl i n d and de a f i s all besi de .

At t h i s po i n t th e en t i ve re a d er of t hes e vol u me s m ay
a tt

perh a p s feel a di ffi cu l ty I s i t t o be s uppo s e d t h a t from t h e

.

a u t hor o f t h e d o ct r i ne of t h e All O n e -
i n w ho s e s upreme
,

Go d he ad w e recogn i ze d a s pe ci e s of u n i vers a l s o u l t here ,

pro cee d e d i nfl u en ce s w h i c h s moo t he d t h e w ay for p s y ch i c

d u al is m ? I t m ay s eem s t ra nge t h at i t s houl d be s o b u t ,

t here i s no c on t r a d i ct i on .There a re po i n t s of c lo s e
con t ac t be tw een p s y c h i c a n d c o s m i c d u a l i s m b u t ne i t her,

of th e tw o nece s s a ri ly i mpl i e s t h e o ther E a ch h as a .

t en d en cy t o le a d t o t h e o t her ; b ut t h e ro a d i s oft en
l o ng a n d oppo s i ng forc e s m a y c he c k or d e s t roy th e
,

t en d en cy . I t w a s s o w i t h O rph i ci s m ; w e h av e a lre a dy
“
s po k en (Vol . I p I 3 8 ) of t h e d u a l i s m w h i ch
. . was i m

p l i c i t i n t h e fu n d a men t a l pri n ci ple s of O rph i ci s m t ho u gh ,

”
t h e O rp h i cs ne v er d e d u c e d i t t hem s el ve s Th i s w as firs t
.

d one by P l a t o . To t h e s plen do u r of th e i de as he oppo s e d

t h e pe t ti ne s s of i n d i vi d u a l t h i ng s t o t h e re a l i t y of th e
,

s u p ra te rre n e th e unre a l i ty of n a t ure t o t h e perfe ct goo d ne s s

,

of t h e De i ty th e d u ll po w er w h i ch t hw a rts t h e d i vi ne rule ,

S i m i l a rly he repres en ts t h e s oul a s ex i le d fro m i ts firs t

,

home a mong t h e go ds t o a bo dy w h i ch d a r ken s i ts kno w

le dge a n d c lou ds i ts h app i ne s s i n w h i ch i t i s en clo s e d a s
,

a pr i s oner i n h i s c ell or a d e a d m an i n h i s gr a v e The .

prem i s s e s of O rph i c Py th a gore a n i s m a re here follow e d t o

t he i r u l t i m a t e c on s eq u e n c e s E xpre s s i o n i s g i ven t o a
.

s t ra i n of t ho u gh t a n d feel i n g w h i c h exer t e d a pers i s te n t

i n fluen c e upon l a t e a n t i qu i t y a n d pro d uce d long e n du ri ng
,
-

a ft er e ff e ct s
-
perc ep t i ble d o w n to o u r o w n d ay The .

s pe c u l a t i ve t en d en cy a n t a gon i s t i c t o o l d Hellen i c t ho u gh t

o w e d pr i n ci p a lly t o P l a t o a v i c to ry w h ich i f n o t i mme di a t e , ,

w a s none th e le s s a s s ure d . L e t u s dw ell for a momen t on

t h i s c on t ra s t be tw een t w o mo de s o f c on ce i vi n g th e w orl d .

4 D u a l i s m i s n o t ne c e s s a r i ly ho s t i le t o n a t u re I t s l i ne .

of d i v i s i on m a y be d ra w n verti ca lly a s w ell a s hori zon ta lly .

 GREEK TH I NKE RS .

I n s te a d of oppo s i ng th e De i ty to th e w orl d m i n d to m a tt er , ,

s oul t o b o dy i t i s po s s i ble to s ee k a n d w hen foun d to

, ,

u t i l i ze a n t i t he s es w i th i n e a c h of t h e gre a t d i vi s i on s o f
,

ex i s ten c e c on t ras t e d p a i rs a n d s eri e s of en ti ti e s w i th i n

, ,

th e w orl d of go ds a s w ell a s i n t h e w hole a n i m a t e

and i n a n i m a t e c re a t i on Th i s i s w h at w as d o n e by
.

Z oro as t ri a n i s m a rel i g i on w h i ch fa ll s s hort of i ts more

,

fort un a t e s i s ters i n lo ca l a n d t empora l ex ten t b ut h a rdly ,

i n i n t en s i ty of i mme d i a t e e ffi ca cy I t t e ache s t h at t h e
.

mo s t fun da men t a l of a ll di s t i n cti on s th e one w h i ch per ,

va d e s a l l t h e pro vi n ces of B e i ng i s t h at be tw een goo d

,

a n d e vi l . I t a rr a ys th e u n i vers e i n t w o oppo s i ng ho s ts ,

a n d s u mmon s m a n t o t a k e h i s p a rt i n t h e n ever re s t i ng -

c onfl i c t . Thu s i t h as been i n a gre a ter degree t h a n mo s t

,

o t hers a rel i g i on of s t renuou s e ff or t a n d s t r uggle le avi ng

, , ,

i t i s t r u e t o t h e a r t i s t i c i m a g i n a t i on l i t tle more s cope t h a n

,

d i d n at u re h at i ng a s ce ti ci s m
-
The di s ci ple s of Z oro a s t er
.

fulfille d t he i r rel i g i ou s d u ty by begetti ng numerou s ch i l d ren ,

t i ll i ng w a s t e l a n d ex t erm i n a t i ng nox i ou s be as t s s ub d u i n g
, ,

b a rb a ro us people s — i n a w or d by ex t en di ng th e re a lm of
,

l i gh t a n d ord er a n d c urt a i l i ng th a t of da rk ne s s a n d d ea th .

Througho ut th e Ave s ta w e s eem to he a r t h e m urm ur i ng s

of fo un t a i n s g u s h i ng for t h you th s t rengt h a n d hea l th
, , .

I t i s a g a i n t o a confl i ct t h at t h e O rph i c P l at on i c -

d u a l i s m i n vi t e s men b ut i t i s a g a i n s t h i m s elf ra t her t h a n

t h e ex t ern a l w orl d t h a t he i s n o w b i dd en figh t To .

d eepen th e i nner l i fe a n d t o m a k e c on s ci en ce s more

t en d er w a s t h e h i s tori ca l m i s s i on of t h i s ph as e of though t .

The moveme n t begun by th e O rp h i cs a n d con ti nue d by

P l a t o here j o i n s h a n ds w i t h th e c ul t of Apollo w h i ch from ,

i ts cen t r a l s e a t exert e d a n i nfluen ce upon th e w hole Gree k

w orl d i n t h e d i re ct i on O f a h i gher mor a l i ty I t i s n o t by .

c h a n c e t h at t h e e a rl i es t i n di cat i on s of a refine d mora l

s en s e —a refinemen t w h i ch s ome t i mes s t ri kes u s a s a
s t ra nge pro d u ct of t h e a n ci en t w orl d —are foun d i n th e

D elph i c oracle s T a k e for a n i n s ta n ce t h e s t ory t ol d

.

by Hero d o t u s of Gl a u cu s th e Sp a rta n wh o d e s i re d t o ,

a ppropr i a t e i lleg a lly a s u m of money en t ru s t e d t o h i s

ca re , a n d w h o w en t t o th e Delph i c or ac le for a dvi ce .

 TH E GREEK NA TUR E -REL I GI O N I
.
3

H e as ke d whe ther he s houl d re ta i n th e money a n d

c omm i t t h e ne c e s s a ry perj ury The Py th i a repl i e d i n .

vi gorou s vers e w h i c h h as been pre s erv e d

,

S wea r, fo r th e truth -
l o vi ng man mus t d i e o ne death wi th th e
pe rjured
Ye t ha th th e o ath whi ch thou swea re s t a s o n ; he i s n ameless
a n d h an dle ss ,

Fe et ha th he n o ne ; ye t s wi ftl y he follo ws n o r res ts from ,

pursui n g
Ti ll th y whole race be c o n sumed an d cut o ff fro m th e ea rth ,
”
wi tho u t remn an t .

Gl a u c u s i n
, fri ght g i ve s up h i s pl a n a n d a s ks th e go d
a , ,

“
for p a r don B ut th e P yt h i a a n s w ers
. To t emp t t h e go d ,
”
a n d t o do t h e d ee d i s a l l one A n d i n t ru t h s o th e p i ou s
.
,

“
h i s tori a n m ak e s h i s a ut hori ty fi n i s h th e t ale O f th i s ,

Gl a ucu s t here i s no w here a ny po s ter i ty left ; no hou s e or

”
he a rt h be a rs h i s n a me he h a s been blo tte d o ut of Sp a rt a .

I n s p i t e of t h i s a d m i x t ure of s t rongly m a r ke d e th i ca l
s en t i men t i n s p i t e of t h a t mor a l progre s s of t h e go d s w h i ch
,

w a s ne ce s s i t a t e d by th e a dva n c e of c ul ture a n d promo t e d

by th e w or ks of th e gre at poe ts (cf p 5 s eq) th e Hellen i c . .
, ,

rel i g i on a l wa ys rem a i ned pr i n ci p a lly a w ors h i p of t h e

, ,

pow ers of n at ure As s u ch i t m ay be comp a re d to a

.

g a rmen t w h i ch cover s eve ry p a rt of t h e bo dy w i th

r i c h a n d gra cefu l fol ds Wi t h generou s i n clu s i vene s s i t
.

a c kno w le d ge s t h e c l a i m s of e v e ry a s pe c t a n d e very i m

pul s e o f hum a n n at u re ; i t pro v i de d grow i ng s p ace a n d -

n u t ri men t for e very po w er of t hough t a n d feel i ng ; couple d

as i t w as w i t h t h e pe c u l i a rly Gree k s en s e of propor t i on i t ,

ennoble d every ki n d o f energe t i c a ct i on a n d p as s i ve e njoy

men t Free a n d s erene i s th e l i fe of one w h o i s g u i de d
.

a n d i n s p i re d by s u c h a rel i g i on w h o s ee s or s urm i s e s a ,

d i vi ne elemen t i n e very m a n i fes tat i on of n atu re I f w i th .

Ar i s t o t le here i n th e org a n a n d exponen t of t h e Gree k

,

n at i on a l m i n d w e un d ers t a n d by th e hyg i ene of th e s o u l

,

t h e a vo i d a n ce of a l l ex t reme s t h e equ i l i br i um of th e ,

po w ers th e h a rmon i ou s d e velopmen t of a p t i t ude s none of

, ,

w ich h is a llo e
w d t o s ta v r e or p a r a lyze t h e o t her s — then ,

w e s h a ll c omprehen d t h at s pe ci e s of i n di vi d u a l mora l i ty
1 4 GR EEK TH I NKE RS .

to th e requ i remen ts of w h i ch th e Gree k rel i g i on w a s s o

ex cep t i o n a lly a dequ at e I t w a s i n t h e dom a i n of s o c i a l
.

mora l i t y t h a t th i s rel i g i on prove d i n s u ffi ci en t S elf .

a s s ert i on a n d s elf s ee k i ng w ere i n a l mo s t e v ery a ge

-
of
a n t i qu i ty fa r t o o pre dom i n a n t fe at ures of Hellen i c l i fe .

Ch a ra ct ers of s pot les s p u ri ty i n t h i s re s pe ct w ere a mong

t h e gre a t e s t of ra r i t i e s Al l t h e di s ci pl i n a ry re s ourc e s of th e
.

S ta t e bo th pol i ti ca l a n d m i l i ta ry w ere a l w a ys nece s s a ry

, , ,

a n d b a rely s u ffi ci en t t o k eep a n t i s o c i a l i mp u l s e s i n c he c k
,
-
.

Th u s a t Sp a r t a th e L ycurge an s y s t em prove d i ne ffe ct i v e

, ,

ou ts i d e th e l i m i ts of i ts mo s t s t ri ngen t appl i ca t i on an d i ts
mo s t di re ct c on t rol I n t ho s e s m a ll s ta t es w h i ch w ere n o t
.
,

unl i ke enl a rge d fa m i l i e s lo ve of th e fat herl a n d no d o ub t

,

a c qu i re d p a s s i on a t e i n t en s i t y B u t i t w as i n s u ffi ci en t t o
.

re s t ra i n th e c i t i zen from t re a s on w he n ever a ny ex c ep ti on a l ,

t emp t a t i on w a s p ut i n h i s w ay A l i k e t a le i s t ol d by t h e
.

p a u ci t y of i n corrup t i ble j u dge s a nd by t ho s e ou t bre a ks of ,

p a rt i s a n fury w h i ch s hra n k from n o ex ce s s I n hone s ty .

a n d t r u t hfulne s s a bo ve a l l t h e H ellen i c n a t i on w as w oefu lly

, ,

l a cki ng .

S uch a s o ci e ty h a d mu ch t o g a i n from th e Orph i c

Py th a gore a n mo v emen t w ho s e fin a l t r i u mph w as d u e t o
,

t h e m i gh t y i nfluen c e of P l a t o The i n w a r d bre a ch a n d .

s ch i s m w i t h i n t h e s oul t h e ho s t i l i ty t o n a t ure a n d c o n
,

s eq u e n t ex t r a v a g a n c e s of a s c e t i c i s m a ll t he s e fru i t s of t h e ,
-

movemen t m ay be ca lle d e vi l s b ut certa i nly n o t u nm i xe d ,

ev i l s They l e d t o a d eepen i ng of th e emot i on a l l i fe

.

w h i ch gre a tly ex t en de d th e d om a i n of a rt a n d s pe cu l a t i on ,

a n d w h i ch i n c o u r s e of t i me prov e d e s pe ci a lly helpfu l by

, ,

s t reng t hen i ng th e s en s e of d u t y a n d re i nforci ng s o ci a l

mora l i t y (c f Vol I p 1 3 3 s qq) To a llow th e i n d i v i d u a l
. . . .
,

h i s fu lle s t a n d free s t d ev elopmen t an d ye t t o c urb ,

effectu a lly t ho s e i mpul s e s i n h i m w h i ch men ac e t h e w ell

be i ng of h i s fello ws — here w e h av e t w o i d e a l s w h i ch hum an
,

n at u re s eem s i n ca p a ble of re a l i z i ng s i m u l ta n eo u s ly When .

t h e one b u c k e t r i s e s from t h e w ell t h e o t her m u s t s i n k In ,

.

d e s c ri b i ng t h e I t a ly of th e Ren a i s s a n c e t h e home of R a ph a el ,
“
a n d M i c hel a n gelo as a d e n of mur d erer s a n d a pl a c e of
,
”
e v i l re s ort E rne s t Ren a n d oub t le s s ex a ggera te d b u t th e
, ,
 1 5

expre s s i o n i s n o t a l toge ther w i thou t h i s tor i ca l w a rra n t I t

.

i s for t h e l a t e he i rs of a n e vol u ti on o cc u py i n g t ho u s a n ds
o f ye a rs t o a tt emp t a re con c i l i a t i on by fus i ng i n to one
n e w a n d h a rmon i ou s w hole t h e mo s t pre c i ou s a mong t ho s e

elemen ts of c u l t ure w h i ch t he i r forerunners po s s e s s e d

s ep a r a t ely
.
 GR EEK TH I NKERS .

C H AP T E R I X .

PL A TO S’
P H /ED RU S .

“
1 . I N th e Sympo s i um th e d o ctri ne o f i de as o n ly a ppe a rs
for t h e purpo s e of i n tro d u ci ng th e i de a of th e be a ut i fu l a n d ,

s o i ll u s t r a t i n g t h e n a t ure of lo v e B ut i n t h e . P h aed ru s
t h i s do ct ri ne o ccu p i e s a fa r l a rger s p a c e i t here t a ke s u p
a n a lmo s t c en t ra l po s i t i on bo t h i n t h e t heory o f k no w le dge
,

a n d i n e t h i cs w h i le i t i s mo s t i n t i m a t ely c onne cte d w i t h

,

t e ach i ng upo n t h e d e s t i n i e s of t h e s oul Th i s a lone .

“ ”
w o u l d n o t pro ve t h at th e Ph ae d ru s w as w ri tt en a ft er
“
th e Sympo s i u m B ut t h e or der w h i ch w e h av e a dop t e d
.

i s t hereby ren dere d ne ce s s a ry a t a ny r a t e for t h e purpo s e s

,

of expos i ti on .

“
I f a n y one w i ll w ri t e a noble s tyle l e t h i m h a ve a ,
”
noble ch a racter The s e w or ds of Goe the m i gh t fitly s erve
.

as a mo tt o t o t h e pre s en t d i a log u e More ex act ly th e

.
,

p u rport of t h i s gre a t c re at i on w h i ch w i th a ll i ts w on d erful

,

w e a l th h a s n o t th e s l i gh t e s t l ack of un i ty m ay be t hu s ,

s t a t e d : W i t hou t a noble d i s po s i t i on a n d noble lo v e t here

can be no gen u i ne ph i lo s ophy w i t hou t gen u i ne ph i l o s ophy ,

no t ru e eloquen ce or a rt i s t i c us e of l a n gu age .

The s cenery of t h e di a logue i n w h i ch So c rates a n d th e

,

cu l t ure d P h a e d r u s a re t h e only i n t erlo c u t ors i s n o t n e w t o ,

th e re a d er (c f Vol I I p
. . H ere w e propo s e to g i ve th e
. .

bri efe s t po s s i ble a cc o u n t of i ts progre s s The s ta rt i ng po i n t.

-

i s a s peech h i ghly a d m i re d by Ph x d rus w h i ch he h as j u s t

, ,
“ ”
hea r d from Lys i a s th e mo s t em i nen t w ri ter of s peeche s
,

of th e day a n d w h i ch he repe ats to So cra t e s Th i s l i tt le

,
.

p i e ce of d ecl a m ati on a s w e h ave every re as on t o s uppo s e

, ,

i s a u t hen t i c a n d no mere fi c ti on
,
I t w oul d be a b s urd for
.

a n a u t hor t o a pply t o a ph a n tom of h i s o w n i n ven t i o n s u ch

 1 8 G REEK TH I N KE RS .

w h i ch reg a r ds i t as a d e s i re t o s a t i s fy s en s u a l nee d s i n
th e mo s t h a rmle s s po s s i ble w ay Pa s s i on i s a t o n ce
.

j u s t i fie d a n d ennoble d . For th i s purpo s e a myt h i s

employe d a m a gn i fi cen t c re a t i on w h i ch i s clo the d i n
, ,

l a ng u a ge o f t h e u t mo s t elevati on a n d bri ll i a n ce .

F i rs t how ever c ome s a n a s s ert i on of th e i m m o rta l i ty of

, ,

t h e s o u l s u pport e d by a rgumen t s w h i ch w e s h a ll c o n s i d er
,

l at er o n i n c on n ex i o n w i th o t hers of a d i fferen t k i n d The

,
.

n at u re o f t h e s oul i s i llu s t ra t e d by a figure i n w h i c h i t i s ,

c omp a re d by So c r a t e s t o a yo k e of hor s e s one a t hor o u gh ,

bre d t h e o t her a n i nferi or a n i m a l (t h e n oble a n d t h e i g n o ble

,

d e s i re s ) d r i v en by a c h a ri o t eer (Re a s on ) Nex t he d e s c r i be s

,
.
,

t h e l i fe of s oul s i n he av en h o w t hey t a k e p a rt i n t h e pro

,

c e s s i o n of t h e go d s e a c h s o u l a t tach i n g i t s elf t o a k i n d re d
,

“
di vi n i ty a n d h o w t hey d e s i re t o moun t t o t h e
,
s upr a

c ele s t i a l s p a c e of w h i ch n o poe t h a s y e t s u ng nor e ver

, ,

w i ll s i ng w ort h i ly . The n a t ure of i t ho we ver m ay be, ,

t hu s s e t for th . Re a l t ru th w h i ch i s c olourle s s formle s s

, ,

a n d i n t a n g i ble c a n be per ce i ve d only by t h e c h a r i o t eer of

,

t h e s oul . I n th e pro ce s s i on he behol d s J u s t i c e i ts elf ,

he behol ds Tempera n ce an d K now le d ge n o t th a t w h i ch ,

begi n s t o be n o t t h at w h i ch i s d i ff eren t i n d i ff eren t

,

m a n i fe s ta t i on s of w h a t w e n o w ca ll ex i s t en ce b ut th e ,

k now le d ge of t h at w h i c h h a s t rue a n d re a l ex i s t en c e .

Comple t e s u cce s s i n t h i s s u rvey i s only fo r t h e d i vi n e

s ou l s t h e w e a k er s o u l s s e e l i tt le i n t h e t hro n g of s t ru ggl i ng
hors e s ; t hey lo s e th e i r w i ng s a n d s i n k t o e a rt h b ut n o t ,

t i ll e a ch one h a s behel d s ome p a rt of t h a t w h i c h i s They .

a re n o t s en t t o i n h a b i t a n i m a l bo d i e s a t t he i r fir s t b i rt h ,

b ut t ho s e s o ul s w h i ch h ave s een th e mo s t go t o t h e m a ki ng
of a hu m a n be i ng one w h o w i ll be a fri en d of w i s do m or
,

be a uty i n cl i ne d t ow a r ds th e M us es or t o love t h e o thers

,

a r e d i s po s e d of a ccor d i ng t o a s ca le of mer i t w h i c h d e s c en d s,

from th e l aw fu l k i ng a n d c omm a n der t h e s ta te s m a n t h e

, ,

ruler of a hou s e or e s t a t e t h e phy s i ci an a n d th e gym n a s t

, ,

t h e poe t a n d i m i t a t i v e a rt i s t t h e s oo t h s a yer a n d t h e pri e s t

, ,

th e a rt i s a n a n d t h e h u s b a n d m a n d o w n t o t h e s oph i s t t h e
, ,

p o p u l a r o rat or a n d th e t yra n t .H e w h o le a d s j us t ly a ny
o n e o f t h e l i ve s here n a me d re c e i ve s a be t t er l o t ; he w h o
 L O VE , TH E MEDI A TOR . 1 9

l i ve s unj us t ly a w ors e No s oul l ive s t h e s a me l i fe tw i c e

, .

w i th i n t e n t h o u s a n d ye a rs t h e s o u l of h i m only e x c e p t c d
,

w h o h a s p u r s u e d ph i lo s ophy w i t h s i n cer i ty or w h o h as been ,

a lo v er of yo u t h s a n d of ph i l o s ophy t oge ther The s e i n .

,

c o u rs e of t i me ,
reg a i n t he i r w i ng s ; th e o thers a ft er t h e ,
”
c o mple t i on of t he i r firs t l i fe a re bro u gh t t o j u d gmen t
, ,

t h e re s ul t of w h i c h i s t h a t s ome a re s en t t o t h e pl a ce s of
p u n i s hmen t bene at h t h e e a rt h an d others a s cen d t o a
reg i on of he av en w here t hey le a d an ex i s t en ce c orre
s p o n d i n g t o t he i r mo de of l i fe o n e a rt h A ft er a t hou s a n d
.

ye a r s t hey come t o t h e cho i ce of t he i r s e co n d l i fe a t w h i ch ,

a h u m a n s o u l m ay be t ra n s ferre d t o an a n i m a l bo d y or be ,

re tra n s ferre d t o a hum a n bo dy a ft er a l i fe i n a n a n i m a l .

I n t h i s my t h t h e c h i ef me d i a tor be tw ee n t h e e a rt hly
l i fe a n d th e di v i ne i s love For j u s ti ce t empera n c e a n d
.
, ,

w i s dom a re w i t ho u t a v i s i ble c opy t h e s i gh t of w h i c h

,

“
w o u l d a s s ure d ly a w a k e i ne ff a ble t ra n s por ts i n u s B ut .

n o w be a u ty a lone h as t h i s l o t a s s i gne d t o i t t h a t i t s houl d ,

be a t o n c e mo s t br i gh t t o behol d a n d mo s t w ort hy of lov e .

The e ffl u x e s of be a u ty p o ur t hro u gh t h e eye s i n t o th e s oul

of th e behol d er w h i ch i s t he eby fille d w i t h w a rm t h a n d
,
r

rel i ev e d of th e r i g i d i ty w h i ch h a d k ep t i ts w i ngs from

grow i n g An d a g a i n t h e s t re a m of be a uty re t ur n s l i k e
.

a n e c ho from t h e eye s of t h e a d m i rer b a ck t o t h e fa i r one ,

mo i s t e n s th e roo ts o f h i s w i n g s a n d ca us e s t hem t o s hoo t

,

fo rt h The bel o v e d love s i n re t urn t ho u gh a t t h e firs t he

.

d oe s n o t kn ow w hom n o r h o w i t a l l befell
, (No fe a t u re i n .

th e d e s c r i p t i on i s w i t hou t i t s me a n i n g There i s del i bera t e

.

purpo s e i n th e men ti on of ri g i di ty a n d i ts rel a x a t i on i n th e

c a s e of t h e el d er w h i le i n t h a t of t h e you n ger o n ly gro wt h
,

a n d i t s promo t i on a re referre d t o ) The di ff ere n t gra d a t i o n s

.

o f t h e lov e bon d a re d el i ne a t e d w i t h gre a t fu lne s s a n d w e a l t h

-

o f i m a gery . Low es t of a l l s t a n ds t h e br uti s h c ravi n g fo r

u n n a t ura l ple a s ure un a tt en d e d by a n y re s pe ct or revere n c e
,

for t h e obj e ct of d e s i re The h i ghes t s ta ge a n d w i t h i t

.
,

s pee dy rele a s e from t h e e a r t hly pr i s on i n w h i ch t h e ex i le d

s o u l i s hel d a s a s hell fis h i n i t s s hell i s a tta i ne d by t ho s e

-
,

“
i n w hom th e be tt er p a rt of t h e s o u l i s vi ct or i o u s le a di ng ,
”
t hem t o a n o rd ere d l i fe a n d t o ph i lo s ophy The a cqu i s i ti on
.
20 G REE K TH I NKERS .

of w i ngs come s l at er for tho s e w h o le a d a c o a rs er l i fe full ,

”
of a mb i t i on a n d w i thou t ph i lo s ophy They oppo s e le s s
.

re s i s t a n ce t o th e p u ll of th e unru ly hors e s w h i ch bri ng t hem ,

t oge ther a t a n u n gu a r d e d momen t ; a ft erw a r ds th e s a me

t h i ng w i ll h a ppen a g a i n , b ut n o t often for they d o t h a t t o
,
”
w h i ch t he i r w hole s oul h a s n o t c on s en t e d B ut t hey t o o .
, ,

“ re p no l i t t le re w a r d fro m t h e lov e m a d ne s s t o t hem

;
-
a
“
a l s o i t i s gr a n t e d t o re c e i ve w i ng s t oge t her w hen th e t i me ,
”
c ome s t h a n k s t o t he i r lov e
,
.

.2 The s econ d p a rt of th e d i a logue i s as c lo s ely p ack e d

w i t h t hough t a s th e firs t i s w i t h i m a ge s an d p a s s a ge s of
h i ghly w rough t feel i ng P hae d ru s i n t i m a t e s h i s a ppro va l
'

.
,

a n d a t t h e s a me t i me expre s s e s a d oub t w he t her Ly s i a s

c o u l d pro d u c e a ny t h i ng a s goo d ; v ery l i k ely he w oul d

r ather ret i re from t h e con t e s t or e ven g iv e up a l toge ther

,

t h e w r i t i ng of s pee che s a pract i c e for w h i c h he h a s been

,

l a t ely repro a che d i n s cornful t ones by a publ i c ora t or .

Thu s th e w ay i s opene d for a d i s c u s s i on of th e que s t i on

U n d er w h at ci rcum s t a n ce s d oe s th e pract i c e of rhe t or i c or ,

a u t hor s h i p i n gener a l d e s erve pra i s e or bl a me ?

,
I n o ther
w or d s w e h av e a re con s i d er at i on of th e s a me que s t i on
,
”
w h i c h i n th e
,
Gorg i a s w a s s umm a ri ly di s po s e d of by a
,

p as s i on at ely ho s t i le v er di ct Th i s t i me th e w holes a le
.
,

c on d emn at i on of rhe t ori c i s n o t repe at e d Wh at t h e .

j u di ci ou s c r i t i c of t h e e a rl i er di a logue s ay s t o h i m s elf
to — day P l a t o s a i d t o h i m s elf i n t h e i n t erva l be tw een t h e
,

c ompo s i t i on of t h e t w o w or k s H e i s n o w fu lly aw a re t h a t
.

t h e a rt of c om m u n i ca t i ng t hough t i s t h e s a me w he ther i t ,

be u s e d by t h e or a tor or th e a u t hor t h e pri va t e ci ti zen

,

or t h e leg i s l at or w het her pro s e or v ers e be th e veh i cle

,

employe d As before th e ol der t e achers of rhet or i c a re

.
,

t re a t e d w i t h s cornful d epre ci at i o n E v en th e le s s i mport a n t

.

a mong t he m a re men t i one d by n a me b ut Gorg i a s t h e , ,

gre at e s t of t hem i s only gl a n c e d a t i n p as s i n g obvi ou s ly

, ,

be ca u s e a s pe c i a l w ork h as a lre a dy been d evo t e d t o h i m ,

s e ver a l refere n ce s t o w h i c h o cc ur i n t h e pre s e n t d i a logue .

B ut t ho s e m a s t ers of l a ngu a ge a n d t he i r w ork a re n o t n o w

d i s m i s s e d w i th a s i mple ce n s u re ; t hey a re only releg at e d
t o w h at P l at o c on ce i ve s t o be t he i r proper po s i ti on mu c h ,
 A RE VI S ED VE RD I C T ON R H E TO RI C
. 2 1

“
as th e e s men w ere d e a l t w i t h i n th e Meno
s ta t The .

rhe t ori ci a n s i n t he i r t urn a re gr a n t e d p a r ti a l reh ab i l i tat i o n

, , .

I t i s n o t a d m i tt e d t h a t t hey t a u gh t re a l rhe tor i c t hey o nly

provi d e d a t ra i n i n g prel i m i n a ry t o i t The a rt i t s elf i s .

pl ac e d on n e w fou n d a t i o n s Spe ci a l kn ow le dge i s n e ce s

.

s a ry e v e n for t h e m a n w h o w i s he s t o d e c e i v e e ff e ct i v ely
, ,

a n d n o t le s s s o fo r t h e m an w h o w o u l d gu a r d h i m s elf from

be i ng d ece i ve d I t i s by s i m i l a ri ti e s th a t w e a re d e ce i ve d
.

a n d m i s le d— a t ho u gh t w h i c h i s here d e v elope d w i t h a

s u gge s t i v e n e s s only fo u n d i n P l a t o s m a t ure s t w or k

’
The .

k no w le d ge of s i m i l a r i t i e s a n d d i ffere n c e s i s a g a i n con d i
t i o n e d by t h e k no w le d ge of t h e rel a t i on s be tw een ge n er a
an d s pe c i e s by t h e ca p a ci ty of a n aly z m g c on c ep ts of
, ,

re cogn i z i ng un i t y i n mul t i pl i ci ty of comb i n i ng t h e m a n y ,

i n t o one of bre a ki ng up c l as s e s i n t o t he i r s ub d i vi s i on s
, ,

w i t hou t i nj ur i ng a n y p o rt i o n of t hem i n t h e pro c e s s a ft er

t h e m a nner of a b a d coo k A n d i f a u t hors h i p d epen ds fo r
.

t h e o n e p a rt upon t h e di a le ct i c w h i ch i s t hu s d e s c r i be d
an d t hu s l a u de d as an ou t grow t h of th e v i s i on of t h e
i d e a s i t a l s o d epen ds on p s y chology
, Effe c t i vene s s i n .

s pee c h i s c o n d i t i o n e d by k now le d ge of t h e s o ul s of t ho s e

w hom th e s pe a ker a d d re s s e s Ag a i n t h e form of a s pee ch

.
,
'

mu s t re s emble t hat of a l i vi ng be i ng ; i t mu s t po s s e s s
org a n i c un i ty The t ho ughts an d th e s en t en ce s mu s t be
.

“
i n w a r d ly conne ct e d a n d n o t merely , po u re d o u t a t
”
r a n d om a s (a ccord i ng to So cra t es ) they a re i n th e s pee ch
,

of Lys i a s Th i s s pee ch i n d ee d a s P l at o a d ds n o t w i thou t

.
, , ,

a t ou ch of c ompl a c e n t s elf a ppro va l h a s bee n u t i t he i r

p
-
n ,

“
w a y by a fort un at e ch a n c e t o s erve a s a n i llu s t rati on of
,

t h e requ i remen ts j u s t fo rm u l a t e d .

A t t h i s po i n t th e d i a logue t a ke s an ex t ra or d i n a ry c ours e .

P l a t o n o w t urn s h i s b a c k on t h a t a rt of a u thor s h i p w h i c h he
h as s e t upon s u ch d eep fo u n d a t i on s a n d s upport e d by th e
t w o p i ll a rs of d i a le ct i c a n d p s y chology H i m s elf one of .

t h e gre at e s t a mong a u t hors i f n o t th e gre at e s t of a l l he , ,

mou n t s here t o a he i gh t from w h i ch he loo ks d ow n upo n

a ll a u t hor s h i p a n d a l l rhe t or i c recogn i zes a n d s e ts forth ,

a ll t he i r w e a kn e s s e s a n d d ra w b a ck s w i th i n c omp a r a ble
d ep t h of i n s i gh t Wri ti ng a s he m a ke s th e E gyp t i a n
.
,

VO L I I I
. . D
 G R EE K TH I NKE RS .

g o d A m mon repro ach Th e uth , th e i n ven tor

of i t w e a ken s ,

t h e memory F u rther t h e w ri tt en p a ge fl i e s a bo u t a n d
.
,

a d d re s s e s w i t ho u t d i s t i n ct i o n t h e prep a re d a n d th e u n
, ,

prep a re d th e i n t ell i gen t a n d t h e un i n tell i gen t a l i ke I t

, .

c a nno t a n s w er q u e s t i on s or s ol v e d o u b t s a n d i t i s d efe n c e ,

le s s a g a i n s t every a t t a c k Th u s th e i n s t ru cti on i mp a rt e d
.

by i t i s l i k e a hothou s e pl a n t w h i ch grow s u p ra p i d ly ,

b ut s t r i k e s no d eep roo ts S u c h i s th e h a r v e s t a n d n o t
.
,

fr ui t of re a l v a l u e w h i c h s pr i ng s from t h e s ee d s ca ttere d
,

by th e w r i t er s pen I n s tru ct i on s houl d be i n s c ri be d n o t

’
.
,

i n book s b u t on t h e S o u l
,
B u t t h i s i s a t as k beyon d
.

w r i t i ng s a n d t ho s e s pee che s i n w h i ch w or d s a re reele d o ff i n

rh a p s o di s t fa s h i on w i t hou t qu e s ti on a n d a n s w er w i t h no
, ,

purpo s e beyon d t h a t of pers u as i on They merely provi d e .

a i ds t o w a r d s t h e re collecti on of w h a t h a s a lre a dy been

c om mun i c a t e d by t h e l i v i ng u tt er a n c e of one w h o ca refully
,

c hoo s e s h i s a u di t or t a k e s a cc oun t of h i s s t a ge of prep a re d

,

nes s a n s w ers h i s obj ecti on s a n d t hu s pro d u ce s t ruly

, ,

u n a s s a i l able c on vi cti o n s O ther s pee ches a n d w ri t i ngs a re

.

“
mere s h a d o ws th e c ompo s i t i on of t hem i s a t t h e be s t a
“
noble p a s t i me a n d n o t a re a lly s eri o u s b u s i n e s s I t i s
, .

t h e So c r at i c c ro s s que s t i o n i ng t h a t i s here glor i fie d Se c o n d

-
.

i n r a n k t ho u gh a t a long i n t erva l — t hu s w e m ay re a d
,

betw een t h e l i ne s — come s t h e l i t era ry i m i ta t i on of ora l

t e ach i ng th e d i a l o g u e a s m a n i pul a t e d by P l a t o
, Th i s t o o .
, ,

m a k es n o s l i gh t d em a n d on th e i n t elle ct ua l co opera t i on of -

t h e re a d er a n d t o t h e ex t en t of w h a t i s po s s i ble re s t ra i n s
, , ,

h i m from t h e merely p a s s i v e or v erb a l re cep t i on of i n s tr uc

t i on . Th i s p a s s a ge h a s been rega rd e d n o t w i thou t j u s t i c e , ,

a s g i vi n g t h e k e y t o t h e ch i ef ch a ra ct er i s t i cs of t h e P l a t on i c

di a log u e s w h i ch S O oft e n le av e t h e fin a l re s ul t u np ro
,
”
n o u n ce d w h i c h w e a v e r i d d le s
,
o u t of co n t r a d i c t i o n s an d ,

s ca t t er h i n t s w h i ch ca n be perce i ve d a n d un d ers t oo d on ly
”
by t ho s e w h o re a lly s e a rc h for t hem s el ve s The di a logue .

c lo s e s w i t h a gree t i n g t o t h e ph i lo s oph i ca lly m i n d e d yo u ng

orator I s o cr a t e s a n d w i th a pra yer t o th e d i vi n i ti e s of th e

,

pl a c e i n w h i c h th e only boo n c rave d i s th e i n w a r d be a u ty

,

of th e s oul .

3 Th at w h i ch mo s t a rou s e s ou r a d m i r a t i on i n t h i s w or k
.
 WH A T MA KES A GR EA T A UTH O R . 2 3

i s t h e d ep th of th e
pers pe ct i ve w h i ch i t open s o ut to u s .

The ph i lo s opher or lover of w i s dom —an d th i s a t on c e

,

prou d a n d mo de s t t i t le i s c l a i me d for h i m s elf by P l a t o ,

s pe a k i ng by t h e mou t h of So c r a t e s at th e, c lo s e of t h e

w ork— i s a ble t o a s s i gn ev ery t h i ng t o i ts r i gh t pl ac e He .

d oe s n o t p a rt i c ul a rly va l u e th e i n s t rumen t of th e ora t or

a n d a u t hor b ut ne i t her d oe s he en t i rely d e s p i s e i t
, he d oe s
n o t lo a d i t w i t h a b u s e a n d obloq u y a s he h a d d o n e i n t h e
,
“ ”
Gorg i a s . B eh i n d th e m as t er of rhe t or i ca l a rt i fice s t here
n o w s t a n ds t h e d i a le ct i c i a n a n d p s y cholog i s t beh i n d w hom ,

a g a i n i s t h e m an fille d w i t h e n t h u s i as m d i s d a i nful of a l l
, ,

t h at i s i gnoble a i m i n g a t t h e h i ghe s t en d s
, P l a t o kn o w s
.

’
t h a t no c olle ct i on of w r i t ers t r i ck s or mere rou t i n e m a k e s
t h e gre a t a u t hor ; he k now s t h at t h e r i che s t d e velop men t
of i n t ell i gen ce a w i d e s u r vey of t h i n g s a n d a d eep i n s i gh t
, ,

i n t o t h e n at u re of t h e hum a n s oul a re a d di t i on a l requ i s i t e s

, ,

a n d t h at a l l t h i s a g a i n i s va l u ele s s u n le s s a s t ro n g per

s o n a l i ty
,
ra i s e d i n ev ery w ay a bove t h e com mon level ,

po s s e s s e s bo t h t h e me a n s o f s tyle an d a b i l i ty t o w i el d th o s e
w e i gh ty w e a pon s of t h e i n t elle ct . I t i s i n t h e expre s s i on
g i ven to t h i s kn ow le dge — as w e h av e a lre a dy h i n t e d at t h e
beg i nn i ng of th e c h a p t er — t h at t h e t r u e k ernel a n d i m
peri s h able va l u e of th e d i a logue con s i s ts Thu s con ce i ve d .
,

i ts v a l u e i s i n ca l c ul a ble even for h i m w h o no lo n ger

,

bel i eve s i n t h e ex i s t e n ce of me taphys i ca l en t i ti e s an d t o ,

w hom t h e ph i lo s oph i c lo ve of yo u t h s a ppe a rs a s a gro t e s q u e

g a rme n t i n w h i ch a n i de a l s en s e of be a u ty a n d a n i m a g i
n a t i ve e n t hu s i a s m w ere o n c e en clo s e d I n one re s pect o n ly
.

”
i s th e P h ae d ru s open t o th e c h a rge of i nj u s ti ce an d t h a t ,

i s i n i t s t re at men t of Ly s i a s . Wi t h a n u n erri ng eye Pl a t o

p i c ks o ut a rhetor i ca l exerc i s e w h i ch at on ce be a rs a fa mo u s
n a me o n i ts fro n t a n d exh i b i t s a ll th e d efe cts w h i ch he
,

w o u l d pro s c r i be — fr i vol i ty i n s t e a d of h i gh m i n de d n e s s s h a l ,

lo w ne s s i n s t ea d of d eep t ho ugh t i rreg ul a r t ho ugh n o t

,

p u rpo s ele s s jumbl i ng i n s te a d of or derly a rra ngemen t of

i d ea s
. To th e obj e cti on — h a d i t bee n u rge d a g a i n s t h i m
t h a t he w a s a pply i n g t o a p i e c e of men t a l gym n a s t i cs a
s t a n d a r d of j u d gmen t i n a ppropr i a t e t o s u c h pro d u ct i on s ,

P l a t o w oul d prob a bly h ave a n s w ere d t h a t i n t elle ct u a l a n d

 GR EEK TH I N KERS .

mora l h ab i ts s houl d n o t be c ul t i va t e d i n s port w h i ch m ay

d o h a rm i n e a rn e s t .

The fact rem a i n s n o t a l i tt le s i ngul a r t h at t h e ph i l o s o phe r

s houl d h a v e d eeme d i t d e s i r a ble t o p i llo ry t h e l i t t le pr a ct i c e

s pee ch of a gre a t m a s t er a n d w i t h i t t h e a u t hor h i m s elf The .

expl a n at i on i s prob a bly t o be foun d i n P l at o s a n t i p athy t o ’

Lys i as — a feel i ng w h i ch s pra ng from s evera l s ource s The .

ne a r ki n s m a n of C ri t i a s an d C h a rm i de s coul d h a r d ly be ex
e c t e d t o reg a r d w i th s ymp a t hy t h e energe t i c d emo c ra t w h o
p
d i s pl a ye d t h e u t mo s t z e a l i n t h e c on t e s t w i t h th o s e ol i g a rch s .

Nor w ere t h e pe cu l i a r a r ti s ti c ex cellen ce s of th e Lys i a n i c

o r a t ory of a k i n d t o w i n P l a t o s a ppro va l
’
Ly s i a s w a s a
.

v i r t u o s o w ho s e s k i ll l a y i n t h e s u b t le a n d t h e m i n u t e .

Gra n d eur p a tho s fervour a n d a l l t h at s avours of ele vati on

, , , ,

w ere fore i gn t o h i s n a t ure O n th e o ther h a n d he p o s

.
,

s e s s e d a n unr i va lle d fa cu l t y of a d a p t i ng t h e t one a n d s tyle

of a foren s i c s pee ch t o th e i d i o s yn c ras i e s of h i s c l i en t .

No w he a ppe a r s w e a r i ng a m as k of n a fve un cu l tu re d bon

‘

lz omz e i n t h e c h a ra ct er of a d e ce i ve d hu s b a n d belong i ng to
’

t h e lo w er m i d d le c l a s s n o w he pl ay s t h e p a rt of a nee dy o ld

pen s i oner w h o m a k e s a j e s t of h i s poverty w h i le ple a di ng for

a n i n c re a s e o f h i s me a gre a llo wa n c e from t h e S t a t e Th i s
.

a rt of c h a ra ct er d r aw i ng for w h i c h Ly s i a s w a s d e s erve d ly
-
,

fa mou s a mong th e a n ci en ts w a s by no mea n s t o P l a t o s

,
’

t aste . We a re n o t here d epen den t on i n feren ce The .

a u t hor of t h e Republ i c s pe ci fi ca lly pro s cr i be s th e fa cul ty

of a s s u m i ng a ny a n d ev ery form a t w i ll of repro du ci ng t h e
,

i gnoble a n d t h e t r i vi a l i n perfe ct i m i t a t i on s i n w h i ch co n
n e x i o n he expre s s ly b a n s t h e or a t or a s w ell a s t h e poe t .

“
Nor w a s h i s a n ti p a thy t ow a r ds a l l t h at i s b a n a u s i c a n d
i ll i ber a l gre a t er i n a ny epo ch of h i s l i fe t h a n i n t h a t w hen
“ ” ”
he w rot e t h e Sympo s i u m a n d Ph ae d ru s a n d i n t he s e ,

w or ks u nfu rle d t h e b a nner a t on c e of ex a l t e d p a s s i on a n d

of t ra n s cen den ta l ph i lo s ophy The g a t es of he aven a re
.

o pene d ,
a n d before t h e s plen d our w h i c h po u r s o u t from

t hem n o t o n ly t h e pe tty a rt of Ly s i a s p a le s b u t th e w hole ,

“
s pe c i e s of rhe t or i c w h i ch t h e a n c i en t s n a me d mea gre or
s le n d er . There rem a i n s a po s s i b i l i ty n o t w orthy of more
,

t h a n p a s s i ng men t i on t h a t pers on a l fr i ct i on m ay h av e
,
2 6 GREEK TH I NK ERS .

d e velopmen t of I s o c ra te s w h o w as h i s s e n i o r by ne a rly a
,

d e c a d e t o t a k e a n en t i rely n e w d i re ct i on
, To t h i s ex t en t .

th e p re d i ct i on c o n t a i n s a n expre s s i on of regre t it i s a
c o mpl i men t n o t w i t h o u t a t o u ch of con d e s c en s i on .

I n t r u t h I s o c r a t e s (4 3 6 —3 3 8) wa s a p a rt i c u l a rly typ i ca l
“
ex a mple of w h at h a s been ca lle d a gre a t m an w i t h l i m i
”
t a t i on s . Moreover h is l i m i tat i on s w ere bo un d up mo s t
,

i n t i m at ely w i t h h i s gre a t ne s s W i thou t m uc h w e a l th of

.

i de a s he w a s a n a r ti s t i n l a n g u a ge of t h e firs t r a n k
, He .

free d Gree k pro s e from t h e h a mpere d g a i t a n d me as ure d

s t i ffne s s of i t s e a rl i er repre s en ta t i v e s H e c re ate d t h e gre a t
.

s moo thly roll i ng peri o d— t h e mono t ono u s s ymme t ry of

w h i ch i t m u s t be a d m i tt e d h as a t t i me s a s o p o ri fic e ffe ct
, ,

u po n t h e re a d er No w of a l l o n e s i d e d t a len ts v i rt uos i ty
.
,
-
,

of s tyle i s perh ap s th e one w h i ch le a ds th e mo s t e a s i ly t o

t h e o ver a ppre c i a t i on of i ts po s s e s s or bo t h by h i m s elf a n d
-
,

o t hers H e w h o c an expre s s t hough ts w i th more t h a n

.

c om mon s ki ll a n d S h a pe t hem w i t h more t h a n c ommon

,

s moo t hne s s a n d d i gn i ty w i ll h a r d ly e s ca pe s h a r i ng w i t h t h e
,

gre a t publ i c th e d elu s i on t h a t he i s a w hole s a le pro d u c er of

t hough t s An d i f s u c h a n a r t i s t i n s tyle r i s e s i n h i s c a p aci ty
.
,

of ori g i n al t h i n k er h i gh eno ugh a bove t h e a vera ge level t o

,

i mpre s s b ut n o t h i gh enough t o s ho c k h i s c on t empora r i e s

, ,

h i s s u cce s s i s l i k ely t o be c omple t e a n d perm a nen t B ut th e .

s t ro n g feel i ng of s elf s a t i s fact i on t hu s a ro u s e d comb i ne d w i t h

-
,

a n o t w holly repre s s i ble c on s ci ou s ne s s of a n i n w a r d v o i d ,

mo ve s t h e s tyl i s t t o loo k w i t h a n eye of d i s fa vo u r on t ho s e

w h o equ a l h i m i n m as t e ry o ver s pee ch a n d fa r s urp a s s h i m ,

i n po w er of t ho u gh t S uch i n l a t er ye a rs w a s th e rel ati on

.
, ,

of I s o cr a t e s to P l a to The qu on d a m a dvo ca t e w h o h a d
.
,

a b a n d one d h i s o l d c a ll i ng a n d w i s he d i t t o be forgo t t en ,

h a d be c ome t h e he a d of a d i s t i ngu i s he d s chool of rhe t or i c .

I n t h i s po s i t i on he bel i e v e d h i m s elf t o h av e ren dere d s i gn a l

s er vi c e t o At hen s a n d t h e w hole of Gree c e n o t only a s t h e ,

e d u ca t or of numero u s s t at e s men a n d a u thors b ut a l s o — a ,

le s s w ell fo u n d e d c l a i m — b y h i s m a ny s i de d a cti vi ty a s a
- -

publ i ci s t O f P l a t o s gen i u s a n d i ts fa r re ach i n g i n fl u en c e

.
’
-

he h a d no con cep t i o n S a rc a s t i c phra s e s w ere b a n di e d abou t

.

be tw een th e tw o b ut i t i s more p a rti cul a rly i n th e w or ks

,
 ”
D A TE O F TH E P H z E D R US . 2 7

of I s o c ra t e s t h a t w e fin d unfr i en d ly a ll us i on s t o th e gre a ter

“
of t h e t w o r i va l s S o me t i me s , t r u e ph i lo s opher
. as he

i m a g i n e s h i m s elf t o be a n d fu lly c o n s ci ou s of h i s o wn
,

i mme di a t e s u cc e s s he loo ks d o wn from t h e he i gh t of h i s

,

s u per i or i t y on t h e i n v en t or of b a rren t heor i e s E l s e w here .

he ex t en ds t o t h e pri n ce s of th e c on ten t i o us a rt t h e s a me
con d e s c en d i ng p a t ron a ge as t o t h e m a t hem a t i c i a n s a n d
as t ronomer s ; he rel u c ta n t ly a d m i t s t h a t t he s e men wh o ,

keep you t h s t o t he i r s chool t a s ks longer t h a n o ther t e achers

-
,

d o c o n t ri b u t e a t le as t i n di re c t ly t ow a r d s t h e prep a r a t i o n of
, ,

t he i r p u p i l s for l i fe by s h a rpen i ng the i r w i ts a n d exer ci s i n g

,

t he i r facu l t i e s The b i tt ere s t expres s i on s o f h i s a n ti p a thy

.

w ere po s t er i or t o t h e d e a t h of P l a t o w ho s e Rep ubl i c a n d

,

“
L aw s w ere bra n de d by h i m a s s oph i s t i ca l humb u g .

.
4 The fin a l c ompl i me n t t o I s o c ra t e s d oe s n o t s ta n d
q u i t e a lone Long a go cert a i n i n s ta n ce s h ave bee n n o t i ce d
.

“ ”
of a lmo s t v erb a l a greemen t be tw ee n t h e P h aed r us a n d
I s o c ra t e s Spee c h a g a i n s t t h e Soph i s ts W i t h t h e m ajori ty
’
.

of s pe ci a l i s ts w e hol d t h at P l a to i s here t h e borro wer a n d

, ,

t h a t he d e s i re s t o S ho w h i s fr i e n d l i n e s s t o I s o c ra t e s by
t h i s rem i n i s ce n c e of h i s w r i t i ng s There i s a n o le s s s t ri ki ng
.

“
re s embl a n ce be tw een s evera l p a s s a ge s of t h e P h ae d ru s
a n d c ert a i n expre s s i on s of Al c i d a m a s a p u p i l of Gorg i as
, ,

“
i n h i s s pee c h a gai n st t h e Soph i s ts w here t h e s ubj e ct
,

i s th e pra i s e of i mprovi s a t i on a s a g a i n s t w r i tt en s pee c he s .

H ere a g a i n ch a n ce i s h a r dly t o be tho u gh t of a n d th i s

, , ,

t i me t h e borro w er i f t here i s one i s mo s t cert a i nly A l c i

, ,

da m as . I t i s mo s t prob a bly t o h i s a tt ac ks t h a t a reply i s

“ ”
m a d e i n t h e Pa negyri c of I s o crat e s The s e c i rc um .

s t a n ce s i f w e h av e repre s en t e d t hem c orre ct ly en a ble u s

, ,

t o c i rc um s c r i be t h e d a t e of o u r d i a log u e w i th i n fa i rly n a rro w

“ ”
bou n ds I t w o u l d follo w th a t t h e P h ae d ru s w a s w r i tten
.

a fe w ye a rs a ft er 3 90 a n d before 3 8 0 For t h e s pee ch o f

.

“ ”
I s o c ra te s a g a i n s t th e S o ph i s t s w a s c ompo s e d n o t lo n g
a ft er 3 0 a n d h i s P a n egyr i c i n 3 8 0
9 , .

A m u c h more d i ffi cu l t q u e s t i o n t o d e ci d e i s t h at w hether

“ ” “ ”
th e Ph a d r us pre c e de d or follow e d t h e Sympo s i um ,

a w or k w h i c h w as w r i t t en l a t er th a n 3 8 4 a n d w h i ch m a y ,

be r i gh tly i n ferre d from t h e c los e rel a t i ons h ip of i ts

,
 GRE EK TH I H K E RS .

c on ten ts t o be of a pprox i m a t ely t h e s a m e d at e

,
Th a t .

“ ”
th e Sympo s i u m i s t h e l at er of th e tw o i s a con clu s i on ,

re a di ly s ugge s te d by t h e gre a t er a dva n ce w h i ch w e fi n d i n

t h i s di a logue t o w a r d s t h e refin i ng a n d p u ri fy i ng of ero t i c
s en t i me n t The a rg u men t how ev er i s n o t c on vi n ci ng fo r
.
, , ,

t h e d i fferen c e m i gh t v e ry w ell h av e i ts c a u s e i n a ch a n g e '

o f moo d . B u t i t i s t h e follow i ng c o n s i d er ati on t h a t le a ds

u s en t i rely t o d i s t ru s t t h i s t ra d i t i o n a l re as on i ng : I n a
”
p as s a ge of t h e Sympo s i um w hi ch we h a ve a lre a dy
men t i one d P l at o loo ks up w i th a s ye t un ab a te d a d m i ra t i on
, ,

t o t h e gre a t poe ts a n d l aw g i v ers a H omer a n d a H e s i o d a

, ,
’
S olon a n d a Lycurg us to em ul a t e w hom i s t h e ph i lo s opher s
,

en de avour a n d to equa l w hom i s th e h i ghe s t go a l of h i s

,

“ ”
a mb i t i on Ne a r th e e n d of t h e P h ae d ru s on th e o ther
.
,

h a n d w here he d ec l a re s w a r upon a u t hors h i p i n genera l he

, ,

loo ks d o wn from h i s he i gh t of atta i nmen t upon t h e a u t hors

of poem s a n d of leg i s l a t i on s a mong w hom he expre s s ly
,

n a me s H omer a n d Solon H e t hu s n o t only remove s h i m

.

s elf t o a c o n s i d er a bly gre a t er d i s t a n c e from t h e c u rre n t

Gree k e s ti m at e —an e s t i m at e n o t fore i gn t o h i s o w n yout hfu l

,

w orks ; he n o t only d i s pl ay s a s t ronger feel i ng of s elf

a s s u r a n ce he a l s o g i v e s expres s i on t o a mo d e of t h i n ki ng
“
w h i c h i s e s s en ti a lly re ta i ne d i n h i s c h i ef w or k t h e Re ,
”
publ i c w here he b a n i s he s t h e poe t s a n d s t ri kes o ut en ti rely
,

n e w p a t h s i n leg i s l a t i o n .

S t i ll more s er i o us d i ffi cul t i es a w a i t us w hen w e s ee k t o

e s tabl i s h th e chronolog i ca l rel at i on s h i p of t h e P h ae d ru s
t o t h e di a logue w h i c h i s t o o cc upy u s nex t— t h e P h ae do .

Th at th e l as t n a me d i s th e l a t e r of th e t wo i s a con clu s i on
-

for w h i c h t here i s i n t ern a l evi den ce of a mo s t c onvi n ci ng

ki n d . I t i s n o t merely t h a t i n t h e P h ae d o t h e d o ct r i n e
of i de a s i s t re a t e d a s one w h i ch h a s a lre a dy been th e s ub
je ct of mu ch d i s c u s s i o n a n d h as long been fa m i l i a r a lmos t
, ,

t o t h e po i n t of be com i ng a c om monpl a c e t o t h e w i d e c i rc le ,

of re a d ers t o w h i ch th e w or k i s a d d re s s e d M ore t h a n t h i s .
,

t h e d emon s t ra t i on s w h i c h m a k e u p t h e w hole c on t en t of
t h e d i a log u e re s t t hro ugho u t o n t h a t d o ct ri ne I n th e .

”
P h ae d ru s on th e o ther h a n d t h e m a i n fe a t u re of P l a t o s
’

, ,

s y s t em i s i n t ro d u c e d a lmo s t s hyly
, a s t hough i t w ere a
,
 TH E P H E D R US AND TH E P Hfi D O .

“
perfe ct no vel ty or ne arly s o w i t h t h e w ords
, , For on e ,

re a lly ough t t o ven t u re to s pe a k th e t ru th e s pe ci a lly i n ,

”
s pe a ki n g a bou t t ru t h s .

B ut t h e pri or i ty of d a t e t hu s i n di ca t e d for th e P h ae d ru s
i s c on t r a d i ct e d by t h e c ri t er i a d er i ve d from l a ngu a ge a n d
s tyle . A r i d d le i s pre s en t e d t o us t h e fin a l s ol ut i on of
,

w h i ch h as n o t ye t been o b t a i n e d . S t i ll to reno u n c e o n
, ,

th i s a ccoun t a l l fa i th i n th e l i n gu i s t i c c ri t eri a i s more t h a n

, ,

a n y s en s i ble i n v e s t i g a t or w o u l d e a s i ly c on s en t t o d o The .

a greemen t of t he s e c r i t er i a w i t h t ho s e a r i s i ng o u t of t h e

s u bje c t m a tter
-
i s a l l b u t comple te i n re s pe ct bot h of
,

th e purely S oc r a t i c d i a log u e s a n d of th e numerou s w orks

’
of Pl at o s o l d a ge . The t heo ry of gravi tati on w as n o t
a b a n d one d be c a u s e i n t h e firs t i n s t a n c e i t expl a i ne d only t h e

m a i n fa cts of th e pl a ne ta ry mo ti on s a n d di d n o t a ccoun t
,

for a ll t h e pert urb a ti on s S i m i l a rly t h e pres en t problem

.
,

w ou l d a ppe a r t o be p a rt ly one of pert urb a ti on s here to o , ,

i t may w ell be t h a t th e d i re ct a ct i on of th e d om i n a n t ca u s e s
i s m as ke d a n d mo d i fie d by s ub s id i a ry i nfluen ce s Who .

w oul d e v er expe ct i n th e ca s e of a ny w r i t i ngs w h a t ever

, ,

t h a t th e oper a t i on of a rr a ng i ng t hem chronolog i ca lly by t h e ,

’
t e s t of th e a u t hor s s t yl i s t i c d e velopmen t w oul d y i el d a ,

perfe ct ly d efin i t e a n d c on s i s t en t res ul t th a t t h e s um w oul d

w or k o ut w i t hou t rem a i n d er ? There a re t wo po ss i b i l i ti e s
w h i c h s houl d n o t be lo s t s i gh t of i n s u ch c as e s A w or k .

m ay be lo n g broo de d over i n th e m i n d a n d ye t re c e ive i t s

,

c lo th i ng of l a ngu a ge s ome t i me a ft er a no t her w or k mu ch

l a ter i n c on c ep t i on S e con dly a w ork w h i ch i s th e e a rl i er

.
,

of two i n compo s i ti on an d publ i ca t i on may es pe ci a lly i f i ts ,

recep ti on h as been p a rt i c ul a rly favoura ble h ave been ,

s ubj e cte d by t h e a u t hor t o a pro c e s s of re vi s i on a n d m a y ,

reac h po s teri ty only i n i ts l a ter g a rb Th a t preci s ely t h i s

.

“ ”
l a tt er w as th e fa t e of t h e Ph a d r u s i s a vi e w th e
prob ab i l i ty of w h i ch th e pre s en t a u thor h as a lre a dy m a i n
t a i n e d el s e w here.
 C H AP TE R X .

TH E P H /E DO , AND P L ATo s P R
’
OO FS OF I M M O RTA L I TY .

I . I N th e Sympo s i um th e d o ct ri n e of i d e as fin ds o n ly a
l i m i te d a ppl i ca t i on i n th e P h ae d ru s i t h as en t ere d i n t o
rel a ti o n s w i t h p s ychology th e t heory of k now le dge a n d
, ,
“ ”
e th i cs ; i n t h e P h ae do i t c omple t ely dom i n at e s P l at o s
'

t hough t . Here t o o w e meet for th e firs t t i me th e t e chn i ca l

, ,

t erm (5 3 0 9 ) by w h i c h t he s e s upern a t u r a l en t i t i e s a re t o be
hen cefort h d es i gn at e d they n o w i n c l u d e n o t only c on cep ts
of va l u es e t h i ca l a n d ms t h e ti c b u t u n i vers a l s of eve ry
, ,

c h a r act er an d r a n k l a s tly s om e a tt en t i on i s n o w g i ven t o

,

th e r el a ti ons of th e i d e a s t o e a c h o t her t he i r c omp a t i b i l i t i e s

,

a n d i n comp at i b i l i t i e s a s w ell a s t o t h e
,
mo d e i n w h i ch
i n d i vi d u a l t h i n g s p a rt i ci p at e i n t hem W i th a l l t h i s t h e
.

ci r c um s t a n c e w ell a gree s t h a t t h e d o ct r i ne of i d e a s i s here

s po k en of a s one w h i ch h as a lre a d y been mu c h d eb a t e d ,

a n d w h i c h i s t r i t e a n d fa m i l i a r t o t h e i n t erlo cu t or s — t here

I n a w or d P l at o s m i n d h a s
’
fore a l s o t o th e re a ders .
,

become t horo u ghly i mb u e d w i t h t h e d o ct ri ne of i de a s w h i ch ,

n o w i f w e m a y u s e t h e expre s s i on n o t on ly fill s t h e m a i n
, ,

a rt er i e s of h i s ph i lo s oph i c a l s y s t em b ut h a s pene t r a t e d i n t o
,

i ts fine s t cap i ll a r i e s .

Accor di ngly t h e expo s i t i on of t h i s d o ct ri ne i s n o w free d

,

from th e l as t rem n a n t of myt h i ca l d i s g u i s e i t l i e s pl a i n a n d

n a k e d before us As long a s w e confine o u rs el ve s t o th e
.

“ ”
Sympos i um a n d t h e Ph ae dru s i t rem a i n s po s s i ble i f , ,

w e a re p u t t o i t t o expl a i n th e s u b s t a n t i a l ex i s t en c e of t h e
,

i d e as a s a mere fig u re of s pee ch ; w hen w e c ome t o t h e

Ph ae d o , a ll s u c h expe d i en ts or eva s i on s be come i n
a d m i s s i ble The fu t u re l i fe of t h e s oul i s m a d e a n i nferen c e
.

from i ts pre vi ou s ex i s t en c e a n d t h i s ag a i n i s i nferre d from

,
 A DI S C US S I ON O N I MM OR TA L I TY .
3 1

t h a t vi s i o n of th e
r hetype s w h i c h w as vou ch s a fe d t o i t i n
a c

s uc h pre vi o u s ex i s t en c e Th i s bri ng s us t o th e t ru e k ernel

.

o f t h e d i a l o g u e — a m i gh t y s t ru ct u re l avi s hly a dorn e d w i t h ,

a l l t h e re s o u r c e s of a rt t h e form of w h i ch ex c i t e s o u r
,

h i ghe s t a d m i ra t i on i n s p i t e of t h e o bje cti on s t o w h i ch i ts

a rgumen t a t i ve c on t en t g i ve s o ccas i on .

The d i a log u e of w h i ch th e s cene i s l a i d i n th e pri s on

,

of So c ra t e s i s en c lo s e d a s i n a fra me by a s u b s i di a ry
, , ,

d i a logue w h i ch o ccup i e s t h e beg i nn i ng t h e m i d d le a n d t h e

, , ,

e n d of t h e w or k At Ph l i u s i n t h e P elopon ne s e a remo t e
.
,

a n d l i t t le v i s i t e d t o w n
-
E ch e c ra t e s req u e s t s P h ae d o t h e
, ,

love d di s ci ple of So c ra t e s (c f Vo l I I p to give h i m an. . . .

’
a c co u n t of t h e m as t er s l a s t ho u r s a n d of t h e co n v er s a t i o n ,

w h i ch acc or d i ng t o repor t he t hen hel d w i t h h i s pup i l s

, ,
.

P l at o i s n a me d a s n o t h avi ng been pre s en t a mo n g th e

l a tter— a c le a r h i n t t h a t t h e n a rra t i v e l ays no c l a i m t o
h i s tori ca l a cc ura cy i n every p a r ti c u l a r From e a rly morn i n g .

t i ll c lo s e upon s un s e t t h e momen t w hen he d ra i n s t h e c up

,

of hemlo ck S oc r a t e s di s cours e s w i t h th e c omp a ny of fri en ds

,

a ro u n d h i m d i s pl a y i n g a s he d oe s s o t h e u t mo s t ca lm a n d
,

c ompo s u re t h e mo s t u n t rouble d co n fid e nce — t h a t t emper

, ,

i n s hor t w h i c h h as m a d e t h e
,
Ph aad o a book O f e di fica
t i on for m a n ki n d I t i s pre ci s ely t h i s cheerfu l n e s s i n t h e
.

fa ce of d e ath a n d of s ep a ra t i on from fr i en ds a n d k i n w h i ch
move s t h e d i s ci ple s to p a i ne d s u rpr i s e They a s k So c r a te s .

to j u s t i fy h i s d eme a nour I n re s po n s e he en t er s u pon a

.
,

s er i e s of d i s qu i s i t i on s i n w h i ch t h e w hole of l i fe i s r e p r e
,

s en t e d as a prep a r a t i on for d e a t h c orpore a l ex i s t en c e a s a n ,

i mpri s onmen t of t h e s o u l a l l t h e d e s i re s o f t h e bo dy as s o
,

m a ny h i n dra n c e s to p u re k now le dge a n d ye a rn i ng for d e a t h ,

as a s t a t e of m i n d bo t h n a t ur a l a n d be com i n g t o t h e w i s e

m an .

The d i a logue t hu s cen t re s i n th e q u e s t i on a s to t h e c o n

t i n u e d ex i s t en c e of t h e s o u l a ft er s ep a r a t i on from t h e bo dy .

The t as k of proof i s o n e w h i ch P l a t o i s fa r from t a k i ng

l i ght ly S i mm i a s an d Cebe s t w o yo u ng Theb an s w h o h a d
. ,

formerly been pup i l s of t h e Pyt h a gore a n Ph i lol a u s a re ca s t ,

for th e o ppo s i t i on a n d t hey pl a y t he i r p a rt w i th s u c h per

,

s ist en t t horoughne s s w i t h s u c h a mple,

re s our c e s of i ngen i ou s
 GR EEK TH I NKE R S .

a nd pe n et ra t i ng c r i t i ci s m t h at S oc ra t e s i s c o mpelle d t o
,

as c en d from w e a ker proofs t o s t ronger a n d from t he s e a g a i n ,

t o t h e s t ronge s t of a l l t ho s e w h i ch P l a t o h i m s elf d eem s

,

i rre s i s t i ble The s e a rg u men ts p r o a n d con th e ex a m i n a t i on

.
,

a n d i llu s t r a t i on of t hem w i ll o ccu py u s l a t er

, B u t i t m ay .

be ob s erve d a t on ce t h a t th e a l tern a t e expo s i ti on of t hem ,

t h e u n w e a ri e d energy w i t h w h i c h t h e t ourn a men t of

d emo n s t ra t i on s i s fough t t o a fin i s h fu lfil s a d ouble purpo s e
,
.

The con clu s i on s fin a lly re a che d a re o ffere d a s th e fru i t of a

c onfl i ct of op i n i on s w h i c h t h e c on t e s t a n t s h a v e w a ge d w i t h

o u t fe a r or fa vour unre s t ra i ne d e v en by th e w i s h t o s p a re
,

t h e feel i ng s of th e m as t er s o s oon t o be t ak en fro m t hem .

Con clu s i on s s o a rri ve d a t a ppe a r i n v e s t e d w i th t h e h i ghe s t

po s s i b l e d egree of obj ecti ve c ert a i n ty I n t h e s e co n d pl a ce
.
,

P l a t o repre s en t s So c r a t e s as len di ng a re a dy e a r t o a l l
po s s i ble obj e ct i on s a g a i n s t a do ct ri ne w h i ch a t th e momen t
mu s t l i e ne a re s t h i s he a rt a s even pre s s i ng h i s fri en ds t o
,

u rge t he i r d oub ts w i thou t c on ce a lmen t as de cl a ri ng i m ,

”
pl a cabl e w a r upon a ll m i s ology t h a t i s h at re d of di s
, ,

c ours e , o r be tt er ,d i s t as t e for t h e c r i t i ca l ex a m i n a t i on of
bel i efs . P l a t o c oul d n o t h av e p a i d more m a gn i fi cen t
hom a ge t o t h e t rue ph i lo s oph i c s p i ri t or r a i s e d a nobler ,

monumen t t o t h e belove d m a s ter w hom he t hu s d ep i cts .

M a ny re a ders of t h e P h ae do m ay be i n c l i ne d t o t h i nk t h e
proofs of i mmorta l i ty un con vi n ci n g M a ny of u s may be .

repelle d by th e a s ce ti c a loofne s s from l i fe w h i ch i s i ts fun da

men t a l n o t e B ut no enemy of i n tellect u a l ob s cura n ti s m
.
,

no one w h o i s fille d w i t h t h e genu i ne s p i r i t of t ru th s ee ki ng -

,

ca n he a r t h i s go s pel of t h e u nl i m i t e d l i ber ty of t hough t

w i thou t bo w i ng t h e k nee i n re veren c e .

“ ”
2. The P h ae d o i s thu s firs t a n d foremo s t a n ex
pre s s i on of fe a rle s s an d t i rele s s s t r i vi ng for th e a tta i n men t
of re as one d c on vi ct i on s B ut th e emo ti on s a n d t h e i m ag i n a
.

t i on a re by no me a n s s en t emp ty a w a y When t h e firs t .

t wo proofs h av e bee n d e a l t w i t h a n d a n e n d m a d e of th e
,

rel i g i ou s a n d e th i ca l exhort at i on s conne ct e d w i t h t hem a ,

s olemn s i len c e en s u e s a n d So c r a t e s h i m s elf s i n k s i n t o mu t e

,

rever i e At t h i s cu lm i n at i ng po i n t of th e d i alogue w e s eem

.

t o he a r P l a t o s he a r t be a t i ng w i t h a n un w on t e d t hrob
’
He .
 GRE E K TH I N KE R S .

i n e vi t ably follow t h a t s ta t e of m i n d a n d th e re s u l t i ng ,

emb i tt ermen t Th u s t h e di s cu s s i o n flo w s o n w i th a con t i n u a l

.

va r i e t y o f gr a c efu l t u r n s a n d profo u n d t ho u g h t s t i ll a t l a s t ,

“
o u t of t h e c onfl i ct of a rg u me n t s a s from t h e e d di e s
,

a n d s urge o f t h e E u r i p u s t here emerge s t h e l as t a n d

,

s t ronge s t proof t h a t w i t h w h i c h P l a t o i s s a t i s fie d
, .

A fi rm fou n da ti o n h avi ng been fo u n d for t h e bel i ef t h a t

t h e s o u l i s i n de s t ru ct i ble i nfere n ce s a re d r a w n rel at i n g t o
,

th e c a re of i t d u r i ng l i fe For i f d e a th w ere t h e e n d of a ll
.
,
”
i t w o u l d i n dee d be a w i n d fa ll for t h e w i ck e d w h o w o u l d ,

be ri d of t he i r s oul an d t he i r w i c ke d ne s s a lo n g w i th the i r
bo dy B ut t h e s o u l i s i mmort a l a n d t a ke s w i th i t t o H a de s
.
,

“ ”
i ts e d u ca t i on a n d n u t ri men t on w h i ch i ts w e a l or w o e,

d epen ds . The a ccou n t of t h e w orl d below i s prefac e d by

a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e e a r t h a s a s phere freely s u s pe n d e d i n

s p a c e t h i s P y t h a gore a n d o ct r i ne w a s firs t promulg a t e d by

(
Pa rmen id e s cf Vol I p . a n d t h i s s t a t e of s u s pen s i on
. . .

i s expl a i ne d by a t heory d ue t o A n a x i m a n d er a s ca u s e d ,

by th e equ i l i br i u m of t h e e a rt h a n d t h e homogene i ty o f
t h e he av en s (cf Vol I p . . The d w ell i n g s of men a re
. .

n o t a s c om mo n ly s u pp o s e d on t h e s urfa c e of t h e e a r t h b u t
, , ,

i n d epre s s i o n s w here t h e w at er s g a t her t oge t her w here t h e

, ,

a i r i s le s s c le a r a n d p u re w here t h e v ery ro k s a re corrup t e d

, c
“
a n d c orro d e d . We dw ell roun d t h e M e d i t erra ne a n l i k e
frog s rou n d a m a rs h a n d m a n y o t hers dw ell el s ew here i n
,

m a ny s i m i l a r pl ace s B ut t h e e a r th i t s elf l i e s p u re i n
.

”
t h e p u re he av en w h i c h i s c om mo n ly c a lle d t h e e ther
,
The .

i ll u s i on w e exper i en c e i s c omp a re d t o t h a t of i m a g i n a ry
be i ng s dw ell i ng a t t h e bo tt om of t h e s e a a n d t h i n k i n g th e ,

se a he a v en be ca u s e t hey s e e t h e s un an d o ther cele s ti a l

bo d i e s t hro u gh i t I f w e co u l d grow w i ng s an d r i s e t o t h e
.

“
boun da ry of th e gro s s er a i r t he n l i k e fi s hes w h i ch le a p , ,
”
from t h e w at er w e s houl d s e e o u r port i on of th e e a rt h a s
, ,

w ell a s t h e t rue he av en th e t r u e l i gh t a n d t h e t r u e e a rt h
, ,
.

An d t h a t w h i ch th e s e a bo tt om w i t h i t s fi s s ure s a n d s a n d a n d
-
,

i nfi n i t e s l i me i s c omp a re d w i t h t h e e a rt h a n d i t s lov el i ne s s
, , ,

s u c h i s t h e w orl d w e k now c omp a re d w i t h t h a t u pper p a r t .

There a ll c olours a re fa r more b ri ll i a n t a ll pl a n ts more ,

gl o r i o us a n d t h e mo un ta i n s a re compo s e d of pre ci ou s s tone s

,
.
 “ ”
TH E P H E DO AS A WO RK O F AR T .
3 5

Th i s i m a g i n a t i ve p i ct u re t o w h i ch P l a t o h i m s elf a s s i gn s
,

only t h e va l ue of a c o nj e cture prob a bly m a d e a s t ro n ger ,

i mpre s s i on on h i s firs t re a d ers t h a n o n u s w h o a r e t o s o me ,

ex t en t rem i n d e d of th e t a le s of th e Tho us a n d a n d O n e
N i ght s I t i s a n o utcome of P l a t o s t h i rs t fo r be a u ty w h i ch
.
’

, ,

i n t h i s w ork s o rem o t e from a l l p as s i on a n d s e n s u a l i t y c o u l d ,

o nly fin d s a t i s fact i o n i n t h e exe c u t i on of a br i ll i a n t p i ct ure

o f t h e w orl d .S u ch a p i ct u re t o o fo rm s an e ffe cti ve fo i l t o

, ,

th e t error s o f T a rt a r u s w h i ch a re here d e s c ri be d s hor t ly

,

b u t w i t h gre a t vi gour Wi t h t h e pen a l t i e s of th e e vi l d o ers

.
-

i s c on t r a s t e d t h e re w a r d of th e goo d w h o p a s s from th e ,

low er w orl d t o t h e e a rt h a n d fin a lly a tta i n a p u rely i n cor

,

p o re a l ex i s t en c e Th. i s l a t t er i s s pe n t by t hem i n d w ell i n g

pl a ce s t h e d e s cri p t i o n of w h i ch i s n o t a t temp t e d The .

d i a log u e clo s e s w i t h t h e equ a lly s i mple a n d n oble acco u n t of

S oc ra te s l as t momen ts w i t h w h i c h t h e e d u cat e d w orl d i s
’

fa m i l i a r (c f Vol I I p
. . . .

.
3 The fir s t ob s erv a t i on w e h av e t o m a k e rel ate s to t h e
”
emo t i on a l e ffe ct i venes s of t h e t do Th i s w oul d h ave
.

bee n gre ater i f th e confi d en ce d i s pl aye d by So cra t es i n th e

a t t a i n men t of fut ure ble s s e d ne s s h a d bee n s omew h at le s s .

At a ny ra t e w e a re more d eeply mov e d by th e equ a lly

,

“
c heerful c o u r a ge i n fa c e of d e a t h d ep i ct e d i n th e Apology ,

w here So cr at e s k n o w s no t h i n g of a n y s u ch hope a n d i s e ven ,

un w i ll i ng t o d e c i d e t h e que s ti on w he ther a d re a mle s s s leep

a w a i t s h i m t o be follow e d by n o w a ki n g or a re s i d en c e i n th e
, ,

re a lm of s h a d ow s B ut t h e val u e of th e Ph aed o a s a ph i lo
.

s oph i c w or k of a rt i s i n comp a r ab le I n dee d i t m ay be s a i d

.
,
’
t o be a r th e i mpre s s of a ll P l a t o s ex c ellen ce s i n i t w e fin d
un i te d a l l th a t a d orn s h i s o t her w r i t i ng s w i th none of t h e ,

ex c re s cen ces by w h i ch s ome of them a re d i s fig u re d The .

di a log u e m a r ks a s t a ge of a dj u s t men t i n P l a t o s d e ve l o p
’

men t . The a cu t e d i a le cti ci a n a n d t h e i m a g i n a t i ve poe t ,

t h e fervi d vo t a ry of free i n t elle ct u a l i nqu i ry a n d t h e e n t h u ,

s i a s t glo w i ng w i t h i n t en s e rel i g i ou s emot i on — a l l t he s e ,

h a ra c t e rs a ppe a r s i d e by s i d e a n d none fin ds room a t t h e

g ,

expen s e of a n o t her ; t he i r v o i ce s comb i n e i n a h a rm o ny

w h i c h i s m a rre d by n o fa l s e n o te n o t e v en t h a t of h a rs h n e s s
,

a n d i nj us t i ce .The t do i s free from m a n i fe s ta t i on s of

3 6 GR EE K TH I NKE RS .

t h a t P l at on i c h at e w h i ch t hough le s s celebrat e d th a n Pl a
,

t on i c lov e i s h a r d ly le s s i mport a n t
,
Su ch a n equ i l i bri um of .

qu a l i t i e s a n d pow ers o ccu rs b ut on c e or tw i ce i n th e ca reer

of even th e mo s t h i ghly g i ft e d Nor wa s i t perm a nen t w i t h .

”
P l at o . When he w rot e th e P h ae d o he s t i ll cher i s he d a
firm bel i ef t h a t th e u t mo s t a cu t ene s s a n d bol d nes s i n a rg u
men t c oul d only s t rengt hen an d n o t s h a ke h i s e t h i c a l a n d, ,

rel i g i ou s c on vi ct i on s A ti m e c a me w hen he perce i ve d h i s

.

”
error Th at s p i ri t of doub t w h i ch i n t h e t
. d o di d n o , ,

more t h a n d i g d eep t h e fo un da t i o n s for a m i ghty e di fi c e o f

t ho u gh t w as d e s t i ne d i n i t s l at er a cti vi ty to u n d erm i ne t h e
, , ,

s t a b i l i t y of th e w hole fa br i c The s cep t i ca l u tt er an ce s o f

.

th e Pa rmen i d e s a re follow e d i n th e Soph i s t a n d th e ,

”
S tat es m a n by a tt emp ts at rev i s i on a n d a d a p t at i o n
, .

Fi n a lly P l a t o re s cu e s h i s d e a re s t po s s es s i on s from t h e
,

s t orm s of d i a le ct i c w h i ch l att er he a b a n don s t oge t her

,

“ ”
w i t h t oler a t i on a n d free dom of t ho u gh t ; t h e m i s ology
” “
pro s cri be d i n th e P h ae d o i s en throne d i n th e L aw s ,

a n d So c r a t e s th e embo d i men t of c ro s s que s t i on i ng d i s

,
-
,

a ppe a r s from th e s ta ge .

Su ch a n epo ch of re con ci l i ati on a n d h a rmon i ou s a dj u s t

men t n at ura lly o cc urs m i dw ay i n t h e c ours e of a t h i n k er s ’

d e velopmen t We h ave j u s t h a d o ccas i on t o n o t i c e h o w fa r

.

”
th e P h ae d o i s remove d from t h e L aw s th e t erm i n a l ,
’
po i n t of P l at o s ph i lo s oph i c a cti vi ty B ut i t i s a l s o s ep arat e d .

from h i s s ta rt i ng po i n t t h at i s from th e
-
P ro t a goras
, ,

group by a c on s i d era ble i n t erva l of t i me I t c on t a i n s

,
.

unm i s ta k able re t ro s pecti ve referen ce s t o th e M eno w h i c h

a r e un i v er s a lly re cogn i ze d A n d i t m ay be reg a r de d a s
.

e s t abl i s he d t h at th e M eno pre s uppo s es th e P rot a gora s

f Vol I I p The s a me re s ul t m a y a l s o be ob t a i ne d
( c . . . .

by d i rect c omp a ri s on Th at p ru den t i a l t heory of e t h i cs

.

w h i ch i s expoun d e d t hough n o t w i t hou t re s erva t i on i n t h e

, ,
” ”
clo s i ng port i on of t h e P ro ta gora s re curs i n th e Ph ae d o , ,

b u t t h e v i r t ue t o w h i ch i t le a d s i s here pronoun c e d a
s h a d o w y i m a ge of t h e t ru e vi rt ue w h i ch re s ts on i n w a r d
”
p u ri fi ca t i on i t i s a s l a vi s h d i s po s i t i on of m i n d a ch as ti ty ,

born of i n ch as ti ty a coura ge s pr i ng i ng from c o w a r d i c e

,
.

P l at o n o w reg a r ds s u ch vi rt u e s a s a mere s ub s ti t u t e w h i c h ,
 R EL A TI ON TO EA RL I ER A N D L A TE R WOR KS .
3 7

m ay s u i t th e gre at m a s s b ut i s un worthy of th e w i s e Th i s
,
.

vi olen t t one w i ll be s oft ene d a g a i n i n c o u r s e of t i me The .

ex curs i on s of t h e pen d ulum t o r i ght an d left w i ll be follo w e d

by a h a l t m i dw ay i n t h e L aw s th e mor al i ty w h i ch
re s ts on H e don i s m i s a ccor d e d a n hono u rable i f s ub ,

ord i n a t e po s i t i o n by t h e s i de o f th at w h i ch h as a n i d e a l i s t i c
, ,

b as i s (c f Vol I I p
. . We may O b s er ve i n p a s s i ng t h at
. .
, .

“ “ ”
th e E u th yp h ro m u s t a l s o h ave pre ce de d t h e Phae d o ,

for i n th e l a tt er ex a ct ly a s i n t h e Republ i c p i ety i s n o t

, ,

numbere d a mong th e ch i ef vi rtue s — a fe a t ure w h i ch i s

d oubly s t ri ki ng i n vi e w of t h e pre dom i n a n t ly rel i g i ou s t one
of th e d i alogue a n d ca nnot pos s i bly be d ue t o c h a n ce
,

( c f
. Vol I.I p . .The po s t eri or l i m i t of da t e i s d e t erm i ne d
by t ho s e p a s s a ge s i n th e s i x t h a n d s even t h books of th e
Republ i c i n w h i ch w e ca n h a r d ly avo i d s ee i ng an ex a mple
’
of s elf corre cti o n on Pl at o s p a rt The referen ce i s to th e
-
.

”
pri n ci ple of m e tho d s e t forth i n t h e Ph aed o a ccor di ng t o ,

w h i ch w e r i s e from one hypo t he s i s t o a no t her more co m

prehen s i ve th a n th e firs t a n d i n th e cas e of e ach hypot he s i s
, , ,

ex a m i ne i ts c on s equen ce s a s to the i r a greemen t or d i s agree

“ ”
men t The a bo ve men t i one d boo ks of t h e Rep ubl i c on
.
-
,

th e c on t r a ry w a rn u s n o t t o re s t s a t i s fie d w i t h hypo the s e s
, .

b ut r at her t o us e t hem a s i n s t r u men ts as fin g e r pos t s me a n t ,

-

t o i n d i cat e t o u s t h e w ay t o w a r d s h i gher pri n ci ple s w h i c h a re

no longer hypo the t i ca l .

H o w c omple t ely th e O rph i c Py t h agore a n mo d e of -

t ho u gh t h a d t a ken po s s e s s i o n of P l a t o w hen he w ro t e th e
”
Ph x do i s c le a rly s how n e ven by our s hort s ke tch of t h e
, ,
”
d i a logue The pool of s l i me of th e O rp h i cs i s expre s s ly
.

men t i one d ; so i s th e Py t h agore a n t ra n s feren c e of hu m a n

s o u l s t o bru t e bo d i e s a n d t h a t i n a ccor da n ce w i th th e
,

i n w a r d rel a t i o n s h i p of t h e s oul s t o t h e d i ff eren t a n i m a l

s pe ci e s s o t h a t for ex a mple robber s a n d t yra n t s be c ome
, , ,

w ol ve s h aw ks a n d v u l t u re s w i t h more t ra n s form a t i o n s of
, , ,
”
a s i m i l a r or d er ( c omp a re our a cc o u n t of t h e Ph ae d ru s ,

p
“
The a tt i tu d e a dopt e d i n t h e P h ae do t ow a rds t h e
qu e s ti o n of t h e s oul i s a l t oge ther pe cu l i a r I n o n e of .

t h e pro o fs o f i mm o rt a l i ty t h e s o u l i s t erme d a n a b s o lu t ely

V O L I II
. . E
3 8 G REEK TH I N KERS .

si mple s ub s ta n ce a n d i s i d en ti fie d w i th th e pr i n ci ple of
,
”
k now le dge . There re s u l ts a c on t ras t w i th th e Ph a dr us ,

“ ” “
a s w ell a s w i t h th e Republ i c a n d th e Ti ma us a l l o f ”
,

w h i ch know t h e s oul a s t ri p a rt i t e O ne i s t emp t e d o n t h i s

.
,

a cco u n t ,t o a s s ume an e a rl i er ph as e o f t h e P l a t on i c
“
p s ychology a n d t o a s s i gn t o th e
,
t e do a po s i t i on

ne a rer i n th i s re s pe ct t o t h e p u rely So c ra t i c d i a log u e s a n d

t h e i n t elle ct u a l i s m repre s en t e d by t hem B ut t o d e velop .

t h i s t ho u gh t fully i s t o rej e ct i t True So c ra ti s m k n o w s

.

n o t h i ng of th e b a d w i ll b ut only errors of th e un d ers ta n d

,

i ng . E very o n e w i ll s t h e goo d ; th e m a ny w h o do n o t
a tt a i n i t a re h i n d ere d by n o t h i ng b ut l a ck o f k no w le d ge .

” “
I t i s qu i t e o t her wi s e i n t h e P h ae do H ere th e i rr at i o n a l.

p a rt s of th e s o u l t o u s e Ari s to t le s expre s s i on a re s o fa r
”
,
’

from be i ng i gnore d t h at th e l i fe of th e w i s e ma n r a t her

,

a ppe a r s a s a perpe t u a l confl i ct w i t h d e s i re s born of t h e ,

bo dy w h i ch s t a i n t h e s oul a n d s e d u ce i t t o w rong d o i ng
,
-
.

H o w t hen w e a s k coul d P l a to ye t pro n oun ce t h e s oul a

, , ,

s i mple e n t i t y h avi n g pure re as on for i t s e s s en ce ? We

,

m ay a n s w er t h i s que s ti on s omew h at a s follo w s P l at o h a s .

fa llen i n t o a very n at u ra l erro r one by w h i ch popul a r ,

phra s eology i s l a rgely a ff ecte d H e reg a r ds t ho s e fu n ct i on s

.

o f th e s o u l w h i ch a r e ob v i ou s ly con d i t i one d by t h e bo dy a s
“ ”
be i n g re a lly a ffe cti on s of t h e bo dy a n d he s o d e s c ri be s ,

t hem .E ven s u ch act i ve emo t i on s a s a nger or a mb i t i on a r e

here v i ew e d i n th at l i gh t P l a t o w i ll a llow no th i ng t o be of
.

t h e n a t ure of s oul ex c ep t w h at he d eem s i mmort a l a n d

, ,

i mmort a l i ty for h i m bel o ng s only t o t h e r a t i on a l pr i n ci ple

, ,

i n m an w h i c h i s i n t en de d t o be a r ru le i n h i m
, The m a i n .

i d e a re c urs w i t h gre a t er cl e a m e s s of con cepti on i n th e

, ,
”
Rep ubl i c an d i n i ts c on t i n u ati on th e T i m aeu s w h i ch
, , ,

d i s t i ngu i s he s be tw een t hree s oul s — th e i n t elle ct u a l re s i d i ng ,

i n t h e he a d a n d t h e low er s o u l s of p a s s i on a n d d e s i re
, ,

s e at e d i n th e bre a s t a n d t h e belly w h i le i m mort a l i ty i s ,

c on c e d e d only t o th e fir s t a n d mo s t ex cellen t of t hem .

Thu s i n s p i t e of t h e a pp a ren t con t ra di ct i on t h e Ph a do

, ,
” “ ”
s t a n d s ne a rer t o th e Rep ubl i c a n d T i m ae u s i n re s pe c t ,

“
of th e que s t i on of i m morta l i ty th an i t d oe s t o t h e P hae ,
”
d r us , w h i ch by i t s i m a ge o f t h e ch a ri o t eer a n d th e t w o
,
TH E RA TI ON A L A N D O TH ER P A R TS O F TH E S O UL .
39

hors e s ac kn o w le dge s th e t ri p a r ti t e n a t ure of th e s oul i n i t s

,

pren at a l ex i s ten ce a s w ell a s i n d i rect ly i n i ts fut u re l i fe, , ,

a n d d oe s n o t a s c r i be i mmo rta l i ty s olely t o t h e r at i on a l

elemen t .

H o w then a re w e t o i n t erpre t th e fact th a t i n t h e

, ,

d e s cr i p t i o n of th e un d er w orl d w h i c h form s th e c lo s i n g
-
,

port i o n o f t h e Ph a d o s o u l s a ppe a r w h i ch by t h e m a g n i
,

t u d e of t he i r t ra n s gre s s i on s by a cc umul a t e d m u r d ers by

, ,
”
repe a te d a n d gri e vo u s s ac ri lege h av e be come i n cu ra bly ,

c orr u p t a n d h a ve t herefore been b a n i s he d t o T a rt a ru s fo r

,

a l l e t ern i ty ? C an i t re a lly be t h a t P l a t o i s here t h i n ki ng

merely of a n i n t elle ct w h i ch h as bee n s h att ere d bey o n d
rep a i r by a s eri e s of m i s d ee ds a n d by t h e bo di ly d e s i re s
w h i ch l e d t o t hem Th i s i s n o t v ery prob able t hough i t i s ,

no t a l t oge ther i mpo s s i ble B ut w h at a re w e t o s ay of t hos e

.

o t her s oul s a l s o d eeply corr u p t ye t n o t i rreme di a bly s o

, ,

w h i ch a re s u bj e ct e d t o p u r i fy i ng pun i s hme n t s w h i ch lo n g ,

for rele as e w h i ch c ry for hel p a n d i mplore t h e p a r don of

,

t ho s e a g a i n s t w hom t hey h a ve s i nne d ? M u ch i n th i s

d e s cr i p t i on m ay be mere my t h i ca l embell i s hmen t b ut t h e ,

s oul s repre s en t e d a s s u ff er i ng t ormen t s from w h i c h t hey

flee ca nno t fro m th e n at u re of th e ca s e h ave been reg a rd e d

, ,

by Pl at o a s be i ng s en do w e d only w i th t hough t ; he mu s t
h ave a s cri be d feel i ng a n d a ct i on t o t hem a s w ell We a re .

j u s ti fie d t herefore i n a s s erti ng t h at w h i le P l ato doe s i n d ee d

, ,

t e ach i n genera l t erm s t h e ex c lu s i ve i mmort a l i ty of t h e

, ,

s i ngle n a tu re d r a t i on a l s oul he d ep a r t s from t h i s d o ct r i n e

-
,

i n t h e d e t a i l s of h i s expo s i t i on o verpow ere d by t h e a n thro

p o m o rp h i c i n s t i n ct w h i ch c r a v e s for t he s e be i ng s a l s o t h e
,

fu ll att ri bu t es o f pers on a l i ty he en d ow s an d compl i ca te s th e

,

i n t elle ct u a l pri n ci ple w i t h elemen ts of emo t i o n a n d d e s i re .

P erh a p s i f que s ti one d on t h e po i n t he w o u l d h ave repl i e d

, ,

t h at t ho s e s o u l s s t i ll h a d a remn a n t of c orpore a l i ty c l i n g i ng
t o t hem ; j u s t a s he re a lly a s s ert s i n re s pe ct of t h e s oul s ,

w h i c h w a n der gho s t l i k e a bo u t gr a v ey a r ds t h at t hey a re

,
-
, ,

n o t s uffi c i en t ly d e tache d from m a t er i a l i ty by w h i ch t hey ,

a re perme a te d a n d t hu s ,
h avi ng s t i ll s ome s h a re i n v i s i
,

b i l i ty h a ve been s ee n by men
,
I n t h at c a s e t ho s e as ye t
.
,

i n comple t ely pur i fie d s oul s of t h e un d er w orl d w oul d t ho u gh -

,
 G RE E K TH I NKERS .

in a le s s d egree th a n th e s o u l s up o n e a rt h be a r s ome ,

re s embl a n ce t o t h e s e a g o d Gl a u cu s (t o qu o t e a fine s i m i le
-

from t h e Rep ubl i c p a rts of w hos e bo dy w ere bro ken

o ff or w orn o ff a n d t h e d efe c t s uppl i e d by i n c ru s t at i on s of
,

s hellfi s h s t one s a n d s e a w ee d
, , .

“
4 The proofs of i m mo rt a l i ty o ff ere d i n t h e
. Pha d
a re t hree i n n umber a s H erm a n n B on i t z h a s s ho w n i n a
,

m a s t erly a n a ly s i s of t h e w ork a n d a l l a re b a s e d on t h e ,

d o ct r i n e of i d e a s H ere ho w ever w e h ave to n o t e a n i m

.
, ,

p o rta n t di ff eren ce The tw o firs t proofs w h i ch a re s en t a s

.
, ,

i t w ere t o be a r th e brun t of th e a ttack borrow t he i r

, ,

prem i s s e s only i n p a rt from th e d oc t ri ne of i de as For th e .

res t P l a t o s u pports t hem d el i berat ely a n d con s ci ou s ly by

, , ,

pr i n ci ple s belong i ng t o h i s pre d e ce s s ors t h e n a tu re ph i lo ,

-

s opher s . For t h i s re a s on t ho s e proofs a re n o t reg a r d e d by

h i m a s u n co n d i t i on a lly v a l i d a n d for t h e s a me re as on t h e
,

t h i r d a rg u men t co n c e i v e d by h i m a s po s s e s s i ng i rre s i s t i ble

,

c ogen cy i s m a d e t o follo w t h e fir s t t w o a t a con s i d era ble

,

i n t erva l a n d c le a rly s ep a ra t e d from them P l at o s m a n n er

’
.

of e ffe ct i n g t h i s s ep a rati on i s h i ghly a rt i s t i c a n d i n gen i ou s .

The b a rr i er of d i vi s i o n i s n o t forme d s olely by th e con t rovers y

o n th e obj e c t i on s r a i s e d by S i m m i a s a n d Cebe s The re a l .

’
t ra n s i t i on i s s uppl i e d by a n a ccou n t of So c ra t es i n t elle ctu a l
d ev elopmen t t h e a i m a n d obj e ct of w h i ch i s t o j u s t i fy h i s
,

a b a n d on men t of n a t ure s t u dy for t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n of co n

-

c e p ts ,
a n d t hu s t o i n d i ca t e t h a t t h e t h i r d proof d epen d s

ex c l us i vely on th e l a tt er w i thou t o w i ng a n yt h i ng t o phys i ca l

,

s pe c ul at i on The t urn i ng po i n t i n th i s me n ta l h i s tory i s

.
-

pl a c e d a t th e t i me w hen So c ra t e s fir s t m a d e th e a cqu a i n t
a cn e of th e A n a x a gore a n d o c t r i ne of m i n d — a d o c t r i ne w h i ch

a t firs t i n s p i re d h i m w i t h en t hu s i a s m b u t s oon left h i m d i s ,

i llu s i one d be ca u s e t h e s a ge of C l a z o m e n ae t ho u gh pl aci ng

, ,

i n t h e forefron t t h e r a t i on a l pr i n ci ple t h a t prom i s e d s o

m u ch m a d e only a n i n a d equ at e us e of i t i n h i s expl a n a t i on s
, .

H e t o o h a d been ch i efly a t p a i n s t o di s co ver phy s i ca l or

, ,

me ch a n i ca l n o t fin a l ca u s e s (cf Vo l I p
, . . . .

The m a i n q u es ti on for So cra te s i s n o t th e a gen cy

, ,

t hro u gh w h i c h a n yt h i n g h appen s b u t th e re as on w h y i t ,

h a ppen s th e t rue ca u s e of e veryt h i n g i s purpo s e d i rect e d ,

 GR E EK TH I N KE R S .

s ub s ta n ce s I f th e cours e of n a t ure follow e d only o n e

.

d i re c t i o n i t w o u l d le a d i n t h e e n d t o a n e t ern a l s a mene s s
,

a n d s ta gn a t i on t h e u n i v ers e w oul d s i n k i n t o a s leep of

E n dym i on The a rg u men t rem i n ds us of t h e mo dern
.

d o ct r i n e of en t ropy w h i c h t e a che s th e fin a l ex t i n ct i on of a l l
,

s en s i ble mo t i on by i ts c on v ers i on i n t o mole cu l a r mo t i on i n

t h e form of he a t — a pro c e s s w h i ch c a nno t be c omple t ely

rev ers e d One m i gh t i n d ee d be i n cl i ne d t o s uppo s e t h a t
.
, ,

t h e c i r cu l at i on of m a tt er w a s s u ffi c i e n t t o pre ven t s u ch a
“ ”
l a mene s s of n a t u re i n re s pe ct of th e org a n i c a n d t h e
i n org a n i c w orl d w h i le t h e a l t ern a t i n g con d i ti on s of th e s o ul
, ,

n o w p a rt e d from t h e bo dy n o w re a t t a che d t o i t pre s en t n o

, ,

a cc ur a t e c oun t erp a r t t o t h e a bo ve men t i one d pro c e s s e s of

-

c h a nge . B ut t ho u gh t h e a n a logy m ay be i nex act a n d t h e

re as on i ng b a s e d on i t i n con cl u s i ve th e fa ct rem a i n s t h a t ,

t h i s a rg u men t a ppe a l s i n i ts fi rs t p a rt t o re a l fe atu re s of t h e

, ,

or der of n a tu re a n d t h at i t i s only t h e s e con d prem i s s

,

w h i c h i s borro w e d from th e s pe ci fi ca lly P l at on i c theory of

k now le dge .

The s e con d proof h as th e follo w i ng form : All d e ca y

i s a d i s s olu t i on of t h e c ompo s i t e ; a ll t h a t i s s i mple on ,

t h e co n t ra ry i s i n d i s s oluble a n d t herefore i mperi s h a ble ;

, ,

t h e i d e a s w h i ch h av e t he i r ex i s t en ce i n t hem s el v e s a re
, ,

a b s ol u t ely s i mple t h e k now i ng s u bj e ct a n d t h e obje ct of

k n ow le d ge a re e s s e n t i a lly s i m i l a r t o e ach o t her (a d o ct ri ne
t a ugh t by E mpe d o c le s an d o t hers ) ; t herefore th e s oul ,

w h i c h kn ow s th e i d e as i s a l s o s i mple— t h a t i s t o s ay
, ,

i n d i s s oluble a n d l i ke w i s e i mperi s h a ble The rel a t i on s t o .

t h e d o ct ri ne s of t h e n a t ure ph i lo s ophers ex t en d fu rther

-

t h a n w e h av e here i n di ca t e d For th e propo s i t i on th a t a ll

.

per i s h i n g i s di s s ol ut i on or di vi s i o n of th e c ompou n de d w a s
, ,

a s s ert e d a s t h e re a d er w i ll remember by A n a x a gor as a n d

, ,

E mpe d o cle s a n d by t hem emph a ti ca lly c o n t ra s t e d w i t h t h e

,

pop u l a r vi ew th a t t h i ng s re a lly per i s h (cf Vol I pp 2 1 0 . . . .

,

w h i le t h e d en i a l of a l l t r u e gene s i s a n d a n n i h i l a t i o n
w a s a c ommon d o ct r i ne of t h e phy s i ci s t s i n genera l P l a to .

h i m s elf a s w e h av e a lre a dy rem a r ke d w as n o t pers everi n gly

, ,
’
c o n s i s t e n t on t h e s oul s s i mpl i ci ty S u ch s i mpl i ci ty w as h a rd
.

t o h a rmon i ze w i th p s y cholog i ca l fa c ts a n d th e di ffi cu l ty ,
 TH E S O UL A H AR MONY OF TH E B OD Y ? 43

is now here more m a n i fes t t h a n i n t h a t p as s age of th e

“ ”
Rep u bl i c i n w h i ch th e t hreefol d di vi s i on of t h e s oul i s
m a i n ta i ne d i n re s pe ct of i ts l i fe on e a rth w h i le l i n ke d w i t h
t h e bo dy a n d d en i e d i n re s pe ct of i ts i n depen den t ex i s t en c e
, .

S ti ll th e do ct ri ne of s i mpl i ci ty w o n t h e upper h a n d l at er
,

on a n d i ts pre d om i n a n ce h as l a s t e d d own t o our day I t

, .

i s only i n re cen t t i me s t h at i t h as been s eri ou s ly i mp u gne d ,

“ ”
a n d th at ca s e s of d ouble con s ci o us ne s s a n d ki n d re d
phenomen a h av e been i n vo k e d a g a i n s t th e s uppo s e d u n
co mpoun d e d n a t ure of t h e s oul .

B efore P l a t o d evelop s h i s t h i r d an d i n h i s o w n , ,

vi e w , con c l u s i v e a rgumen t he pre s en ts u s w i t h a di s

,

c us s i o n en di ng i n a refut at i on of a ri va l t heory— one

, ,

w h i ch w a s a ft erw a r ds c h a mp i one d by P er i p a t e t i cs s u ch as
A ri s to x e n us a n d D i cae a rch us a n d w h i c h w as po s s i bly d ue
,

t o P h i lol a u s Accor di ng t o t h i s t heory t h e s o u l i s a

.
,

h a rmony of th e bo dy or a s i t i s expre s s e d el s e w here of

, , ,

t h e four elemen t s compo s i n g t h e bo d y The co mp a ri s on

.

here s h ad o w e d fort h be tw een th e s o u l a n d th e c on cor da n t

s oun ds el i ci te d from a mu s i ca l i n s t rumen t a ppea rs t o
re s t on th e follow i ng c on s i d era t i on s : As th e i mm at eri a l
h a rmon i es t ak e t he i r r i s e from th e m a teri a l s t ri ng s of
th e lyre s o th e oper at i on s of t h e s oul h av e t he i r or i g i n
,

i n th e bo di ly org a n s I n e i ther ca s e t h e i n v i s i ble a n d

.

i n t a n g i ble procee ds from t h e v i s i ble a n d t a ng i ble t h e fine ,

from th e co a rs e th e h i ghly va l u a ble from th e c omp a ra t i vely

,

va l u ele s s Wi t h equ a l r i gh t t h e p s ych i ca l elemen t i n m a n

.

m i gh t be comp a re d t o th e d el i gh t ful fra gra n ce w a ft e d from

a n un comely pl a n t The pri n ci p a l purpo s e w h i ch th e a n a logy
.

s erv e d w as d o u b t le s s t h a t of bre a k i ng d o w n t h e a s s ump t i on

t h at p s y ch i ca l pro ce s s e s a re o f h i gher t h a n merely c orpore a l

or i g i n a n d th e es s en t i a l p a rt of th e d o ctri ne w a s c le a rly
,

t h e t he s i s t h at t h e w orki ng s of th e s o u l a re th e e ff e cts of
bo di ly ca u s es ; th at no s pe ci a l en t i ty nee d be a s s ume d
a s t h e v eh i cle a n d genera t or of t ho s e oper a t i on s It is .
,

i n a w ord w h a t i s u s u a lly ca lle d th e m a t eri a l i s t i c t heory

,

of t h e s oul ex cep t t h at i t i s free from t h e confu s i on of

,

though t w h i c h reg a r d s t h e p s ych i ca l fu n ct i on s as t hem

s el ve s corpore a l a nd no t merely as a pro d u ct of th e
,
 GRE E K TH I N KERS .

co rpore a l I t i s thu s n o t t h e he a rt of th e t heory b ut only

.
,

i ts ou tw a r d ve s t ure w h i c h i s t o u c he d by P l a t o s c h i ef
’

obj e cti on n a mely t h a t v i rt ue i s a co n cor d or h a rmony of

, ,
’
t h e s o u l s fu n c ti on s a n d w oul d t herefo re be by t h e t heo ry
, ,
“ ”
i n que s t i o n a ,
h a rmony of h a rmony w h i ch i s a b s ur d l
,
.

The m a t eri a l i s t i c v i ew d oes n o t lo s e i ts r i gh t t o ex i s t en ce

t i ll w e c ome t o a h i gher s t a ge of t ho u gh t one for w h i ch ,

t h e Cyre n a i c s chool prep a re d th e w a y b ut on w h i ch no ,

a n c i en t t h i n k er e v er fully en t ere d Th a t w h i ch re a lly pu t s

.

m a t eri a l i s m o u t of c o u r t i s th e co n s i d era t i on t h a t w e k now

a b s olu t ely no t h i ng of a n
y m a t t er w h i ch ex i s t s i n a n d for
i ts elf ; o u r a n a ly s i s of fa cts ca n no t ca rry u s fur ther or
d eeper t h a n t o t h e phenomen a of c o n s ci o u s ne s s .

The t h i r d a rg u me n t re s t s on th e pr i n ci ple of con t ra

d i cti on c on t r a di ct ory oppo s i t e s ex c lu d e e a ch o t her .

Appl i e d i n t h e w orl d of i d e a s t h i s i s as m u ch a s t o s a y
,

t h a t a n i d e a ca n no t t ak e up i n t o i ts elf t h e i d e a of i ts
co n t r a ry . I n d i re ct c o n t r a d i ct i on i s t re a t e d s i m i l a rly The .

i n di v i d u a l t h i ng w h i c h h a s p a rt i n a n i d e a (th a t i s a t h i ng ,

of w h i ch t h e i d e a i s a n e s s en ti a l a tt ri bu t e) i s d e cl a re d
i n ca p a ble of re c e i vi ng i n t o i t s elf e i t her t h e con t r a ry i d e a or
a t h i n g w h i c h p a r t i c i p a t e s i n t h e c on t r a ry i d e a I n s uch a .

ca s e th e c ho i c e l i e s be t w een t w o po s s i b i l i t i e s : t h e t h i n g w i ll

c e a s e t o be w h a t i t w a s w i ll per i s h a s s u ch
, o t her wi s e i t
w i ll t urn a s i d e a n d e s ca pe unh a rme d I f for ex a mple fire
.
, , ,

w h i ch p a r ti c i p a t e s i n t h e i d e a of he a t i s bro u gh t n e a r t o ,

s no w w h i c h p a rt i c i p a t e s i n t h e i d e a of c ol d
, t hen e i t her , ,

t h e fi re w i ll d e s t roy t h e s no w or t h e s no w t h e fire
,
With .

t h e s o u l P l a t o a rg u e s i t i s o t her w i s e
, ,
The s oul h a s p a r t
.

i n t h e i d e a of l i fe ; th e oppo s i t e of l i fe i s d e a t h th e s oul i s
t herefore a l i en t o d e a t h ; i f t he n a n n i h i l a t i on i s br o u gh t
'
, ,

n e a r t h e s oul a s i t i s t o s no w by fire or t o fire by s no w t h e

, ,

re s u l t i s n o t t h at t h e s o u l per i s he s b ut th a t i t w i th d raw s
,

u n i nj ure d ; i t i s i n d e s t r u ct i ble .

5 The i rony of fa t e h a s or d a i ne d t h a t t h e proof pri ze d

.

mo s t h i ghly by i ts a u t hor s ho u l d be t h e one i n w h i ch a n

i mp a r t i a l c r i t i c fi n ds t h e gre a t e s t w e a k ne s s e s The a ppl i ca .

t i on m a d e of th e pr i n ci ple O f c o n t r a d i ct i on t o t h e w orl d of
i d e a s belongs t o t h e my t hology of c on c ep t s The i llu s t r at i on .
 TH E TH I R D P R O O F .
45

of fire a n d s now i s by no me a n s a h a ppy one H ea t .

a n d c ol d a re n o t a b s ol u t e b u t rel a t i v e d e t erm i n a t i on s
,
.

I n d ee d t h e s n ow forme d from w a t er a s a mo dern phy s i c i s t

, ,

m i gh t o b j e ct i s h o t i n comp a ri s on w i t h t h e s no w of ca rbon i c
,

a c i d w h i ch i s p rep a re d i n our l abor at or i e s Nor ca n i t be .

reg a r de d a s i rrevo ca bly e s tabl i s he d w h a t i s t h e ess e n ti a l

a t t r i b u t e of a c on c re t e t h i ng As reg a rds t h e c on cl u d i ng
.

port i on of t h e a rgumen t th e cho i ce l i e s be tw een tw o i n t er

,

p re t a t i o n s w h i ch a re equ a lly fa ta l t o i t s va l i di ty E i t her .

,

on th e on e h an d t h e s oul a s th e pri n ci ple of l i fe i s rega r de d

, , ,

from th e firs t a s i mmo rt a l ; i n w h i ch ca s e th e que s t i on i s

e va de d a n d t h e a rg u men t re d uce d to a p e t z tz o
' '

w h i le a ppe a ri ng t o a dva n c e i t merely c h ange s i ts l i n g u i s t i c

,

d re s s . O r el s e i f w e a dop t th e n o t i mprob able Vi ew of a

,
”
re c e n t i n t e rpre t er P l a t o i s gu i l ty of a fa ll acy
, H e s t a r ts .

from t h e a s s u mp t i on t h a t t h e s o u l be i ng t h e veh i cle of l i fe , ,

”
ex clu d es d e a th th e oppo s i t e of l i fe
,
From t h i s how ever .
, ,

t h e o n ly di re ct a n d leg i t i m a t e i n feren ce i s t h a t t h e s o u l
“
i n s o fa r a s a n d a s long a s i t ex i s t s ca n only be a l i ve
, ,
”
a n d ne v er d e a d B ut P l a t o i lleg i t i m at ely i nfers t h e i m
.

mort a l i ty o f t h e s o u l i n th e s e n s e of i n de s t ru ct i b i l i ty
, .

Cr i t i ci s m a p a rt i t i s w or t hy of rem a r k th at i n t h e s ec on d
,

a rg u men t t h e s o u l s i gn i fie s th e pr i n ci ple of k no w le dge b u t ,

i n th e t h i r d t h e pr i n c i ple of l i fe Th us th e l as t proof of
.

i mmort a l i ty as w a s perce i ve d long a go h as a n ex t en s i ve

, ,

r a n ge of a ppl i cat i on for i t i n cl u de s n o t hum a n s o u l s a lone ,

nor even th e s oul s of a n i m a l s b ut a l s o th e vi t a l energy of,

pl a n ts to w h i c h th e a n ci en ts g ave l i ke w i s e th e n a me of
s oul . The c omprehen s i v e n at u re of t h e proof i s n o t
”
expl i ci t ly no t i ce d i n th e P h ae do b ut th e T i m aeu s co n ,

t a i n s t h e d o ct r i ne t h a t t here i s only a l i m i t e d number of

s oul s a n d t h at t he s e s erv e t o a n i m a t e a n d i nform s u cc e s
, ,

s i ve l org a n i m s of t h e mo s t d i v er s e ki n ds
y, s .

P l a t o s ome t i me s reg a r d e d th e s oul n o t only as th e ,

pri n c i ple of l i fe b ut a l s o a s th e pri n ci ple of a l l mo ti on a n d

, ,

he then ce d e d u ce d i ts i mmorta l i ty I n th i s he follo w e d i n .

t h e foo ts t ep s of A l c m aeon (c f Vol I p 1 5 1 s oy) . The . . .

, .

s a me i d e a i s t o be fo u n d i n t h e Ph a d rus a n d i t re c u r s ,

”
i n a p a s s a ge o f th e La w s The s o u l i s rega r de d as t h e
.
46 GR EE K TH I NKERS .

“
s o u rc e a n d s pri ng of a ll movemen t a s th e only s elf ,
”
mo vi n g t h i ng w here a s e v eryt h i ng el s e re ce i ve s i t s mo t i on
,

from w i t hou t B ut t h a t w h i ch h a s th e s o u rce of i ts mo t i on

.

i n i ts elf P l a t o c on t en ds ca n n e i ther beg i n nor c e a s e t o

, ,
”
ex i s t I n t h i s proof wh i ch i s con t a i ne d i n th e Ph a d rus
.
, ,

w e a l s o no t e th e fi rs t c le a r m a n i fe s t at i on of P l at o s co m
’

p e te bre ach w i t h th e hylozo i s m (a s cri p ti on of l i fe t o m att er)

l
of th e o l d n at u re ph i lo s ophers h i s d egr a dat i on of m at t er t o
-
,

a low er pl a ne (c f Vol I p . . . .

As t h e d o ct ri ne of i d e a s i s n o t men t i one d i n t h e L aw s ,

i t i s n a t u ra l t o s u ppo s e th a t th e a ge d P l a t o h a d ce as e d t o
be s a t i s fie d w i t h th e d emo n s t ra t i on w holly bu i l t on th a t ,

“
d o ct ri ne w h i ch he h a d g i v en i n t h e
, P h ae d o I n th e .

”
P h ae d ru s on t h e o ther h a n d w here th e d o ct r i ne of i d e a s
, ,

i s a c omp a ra t i v e no v el t y an d th e pre ach i n g of i t a bol d

(
v en t ure c f p 2 8 . . he h
, a d n o t y e t t r a v elle d s o fa r a s t o

m a k e i t t h e foun da t i on of h i s mo s t cheri s he d rel i g i o u s co n

v i c t i o ns. One s ta ge of th e j o u rney from t h e Ph ae d o t o
“ ”
th e L aw s i s m a r k e d by a proof no ti ce d i n th e t en t h
boo k of th e Republ i c w h i ch a l s o evi den t ly fa i le d t o
,

s a t i s fy P l a t o perm a n en t ly E very t h i ng — t h i s i s t h e g i s t of
.

th e a rg u men t —i s d e s t roye d by b a d ne s s bo t h of i t s elf a n d ,

of o ther t h i ngs n o t by w h a t i s goo d or i n d i ff eren t ; b ut

,

t h e s oul s u rvi v e s i t s o w n d eepe s t c orrup t i on ; no o n e d i e s

of i nj us ti c e t hough t h i s i s th e gre a t e s t m a l a dy of t h e s o u l
,

h o w t hen ca n ex t er n a l ca u s e s of d e s t r u cti on h a ve an y pow er

, ,

o ver i t For t h i s re a s on i t mu s t be reg a r de d a s a b s olu tely

i mper i s h a ble I t i s h a r d ly ne ce s s a ry t o po i n t o u t t h at th e
.

”
w or ds goo dn e s s a n d b a dn e s s a re here employe d p a rt ly
i n t h e mor a l s e n s e p a rt ly i n t h e s en s e of fi t ne s s a n d u n
,

fitn e s s for th e b a t t le of ex i s t en ce We s h a ll be bro u gh t.

b ack t o th e s ubj e ct w hen w e come t o con s i der t h e po s i ti on

“ ”
o ccu p i e d i n P l a t o s s ys tem by th e i de a of t h e goo d
’
.

”
We t a ke our le ave of th e P h ae do B ut fir s t w e mu s t .

c a ll a t t en t i on t o a re a l d i s c o v ery—one proof a g a i n s t a l l

c on t r a di c ti on — w h i c h a ppe a rs w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s of t h i s
d i a logue . P l at o i s s pe a k i ng of th e re colle ct i on w h i ch th e
s o u l h a s of t h e i mpre s s i on s re c e i v e d by i t d ur i ng i t s pre

ex i s ten ce a n d he t a k e s o ccas i on to formul a t e for th e firs t

,
 TH E LA WS O F A S S O CI A TI ON .
47

t i me and to el uc i da t e w i th un s u rp as s a ble c le a rne s s th e tw o

fu n da men t a l l aw s govern i ng th e a s s oc i a t i on of i d e as th e -

l aw o f s i m i l a r i ty a n d t h e l aw of c on t i gu i ty S i m i l a r i m age s
.
,

a n d i m a ge s w h i c h h a v e been perc e i v e d s i d e by s i d e or i n

i mme di at e s u cc e s s i o n t en d t o repro du ce e a c h o ther i n t h e

,

m i n d Our re colle ct i on s of a lyre m a y be a rou s e d e i ther

.

by i ts o w n p a i n t e d s embl a n ce or by th e per s on of th e
mu s i ci a n w h o pl aye d u pon i t The s ervi ce t h us ren d ere d
.

by P l a to ca n be j u s t ly a ppre ci ate d only by t ho s e wh o

k now th e fu ll ex t en t of th e help w h i ch t h e p s yc h o logy of
a s s oc i a t i on h a s g i v en t o w a r d s t h e u nr a v ell i ng o f th e mo s t

d i ffi cul t problem s i n men t a l s c i en c e i n t h e t heory of mora l s

,

a s w ell a s i n t h e t heo ry of k no w le d ge . The a rch i t e ct of

m a ny a t ho ugh t fa br i c n o t d e s t i ne d to e n du re h a s here
-

erect e d two m i gh ty g at e t o w ers a t th e en t r a n c e of t h e

-

Temple of Tru th .
48 GR EE K TH I N KE RS .

C H AP T ER XI .

PL A TO ’
S
“
RE P U B L I C .

1 G U I D E D by th e progre s s of th e do ct r i n e of i d e as , w e h a ve
.

follo w e d P l a t o t o t h e meri d i a n he i gh t of h i s pro d uct i vi ty .

H ere t here a w a i ts us h i s mo s t po w erfu l c re a t i on th e ,

”
Republ i c . B u t be fore w e en t er upon t h e s t u dy of i t a ,

fe w s ub s i di a ry w or ks mu s t be m en t i one d w h i ch c ert a i nly

”
d i d n o t follo w th e Republ i c tho ugh one or t wo of t hem,

m ay n o t b e e a rl i er in d a t e t h a n t h e firs t o ut of th e t e n
b oo ks of t h e longer w ork I t w a s perh a p s i n a n i n t erva l
.

of t h a t long a n d t e d i ou s l i t era ry l abour t h at th e P h ae do

s a w t h e l i gh t — a po s s i b i l i t y t o w h i ch w e s h a ll h a v e o cca .

s i on t o re cu r O n e of t he s e s ub s i di a ry w orks th e
.
,

E ut h y d e m u s w e only m en t i on n o w i n or d er t o re s erv e
,

t h e d i s c u s s i on of i t w h i ch c a n h a r d ly be s ep a r a t e d from
,

t h a t of t h e The ae t e t u s for a l a ter ch a p t er B ut t here a re

, .

t w o o t her s c uri ou s ly c on t r a s t e d w i t h e ac h o t her w h i ch

, ,

i n vi t e our a tt en t i on for t h e momen t t h e — “

M e ne x e n us
”
and th e Cr i to .

The Me ne x exh i b i ts a s tra ngely d i s cor da n t ch a

e n us

r a ct e r
. I n i t P l at o a s h i s m a n ner i s (s e e Vol I I p
, . . .

d e s i re s a t on ce t o r i di cule a n d t o ou tb i d t h e rhe t or i ci a n s ,

B u t t h e t heme w h i ch he c hoo s e s for th i s purpo s e th e ,

glori fi cat i on of Athen s h a r d ly a d m i tte d of a purely bur

,

l e s q u e mo d e of t re a t men t a n d t h e m ock er foun d h i m s elf

,

a t t i me s o v erpo w ere d by h i s s ubj e ct a n d c a rr i e d a w a y i n t o

genu i ne emo t i on I t i s e a s i er t o bl a m e t h a n t o d o
.

bett er L e t h i m t ry for on c e t o equ a l th e rhe tor i c i a n s he

d e s p i s e s ; — phra s e s s u ch a s t he s e m ay w ell h av e been
”
he a r d more th a n on c e by th e a u thor of th e Gorg i a s a n d ,

i n t hem po s s i bly w e m ay s e e th e i mpul s e o u t of w h i ch

, ,
50 GRE E K TH I N KE RS .

a g a i n s t th e s u s p i c i on of s ymp a thy w i th re volu ti on M u ch .

a s w e regre t a n d c on d emn t h e i mperfe ct i on s an d th e per

v e r s i t i e s of o u r n a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i on s w e h av e n o t t h e
,

remo t e s t d e s i re t o o ver t urn t h e con s t i t u t i on by v i olen c e

a n d s u b s t i t u t e o u r o w n i d e a l s a t a s t ro k e — s u ch i s t h e

m e s s a ge w e re a d be tw een t h e l i ne s of t h e d i a logue t h e ,

c on t e n t s O f w h i ch m a y be s u mm a r i z e d a s foll o w s .

C r i to a n o l d a n d t r i e d fri en d of So c ra t e s h as m a d e
, ,
’
e very prep a ra t i on for h i s m a s ter s fl i gh t ; n o w t h a t t h e
re t urn of t h e Del i a n s h i p i s i m m i nent (c f Vol I I p . . . .

he i s re a dy to s e t ev ery th i ng i n mo t i on for th e re s cue B u t .

So c rat e s refus e s h i s co opera t i on an d s u ppor ts h i s refu s a l

-
,

by a n a rgumen t w h i ch s t a n ds i n gl a ri ng con t r a d i ct i on to
“
t h e d efi a n t a u d ac i t i e s of t h e A pology H e beg i n s by
.

rem i n d i ng C r i t o of th e pri n c i ple s w h i ch th e di s cu s s i on s

t hey h av e h a d t oge ther h av e d on e s o mu ch t o c onfirm
t h a t l i fe w i t h a c orrup t e d s oul i s a s l i tt le d e s i r a ble a s l i fe
w i th a corrup t e d bo dy t h a t no t h i n g c orrup ts t h e s oul l i k e
i nj u s t i ce t h a t th e foun d a ti on of a l l j u s t i c e i s obe di e n ce t o
t h e l a w s ; t h a t e very one w h o d i s obey s th e ex i s t i ng l aw s ,

w he t her he t h i n ks t hem s a lu t a ry or n o t i s c on t r i b u t i ng ,

h i s s h a re t o th e d e s t ru c ti on of th e com mun i ty No t con t en t .

w i th t h i s d i a le ct i c proof So c r a t e s br i ng s th e At hen i a n l a w s
,

t hem s el v e s on t h e s t a ge a n d a llo w s t hem t o d el i v er a

,

po werfu l a n d rhe tori ca lly e ff e ct i ve a dd re s s The m a i n .

t hough t i n i t i s t h at e v ery c i t i z en by rem a i n i ng a m ember

,

of th e co mmon bo dy a n d n o t le avi ng h i s c o u n t ry a s he i s ,

perfe c tly a t l i ber ty t o d o h a s en t ere d i n to a t ac i t con t ra ct

, ,

w h i ch no c i rcu m s t a n ce s ca n j u s t i fy h i m i n v i ol a t i ng .

“
The mo s t rem a rka ble fe at ure of th e C ri to i s th e
e t h i ca l refin emen t d i s pl a ye d i n i t — a refin emen t w h i ch goe s
fa r beyon d t h at of th e Gorg i a s a n d fin ds a p a ra llel only
,

“ ”
i n t h e e a rl i er boo k s of t h e Republ i c A l l d o i ng of
.

i nj u ry e ven t o a n en emy a l l re t a l i at i on e v en of i nj u s t i c e
, , , ,

i s proh i b i t e d a n d a s tr i k i ng c on t r a s t i s t h u s pre s en t e d n o t
, ,

o n ly to th e t e a ch i ng of th e X e n ophon t e a n So c ra t e s b ut ,

“ ”
a l s o t o th e Gorg i a s w here u t ter a n ce i s g i ven to a wi s h
,

t h at t h e u nj u s t enemy m ay b e pre s erv e d from c ure by

i mpun i ty an d i f po s s i ble m ay rem a i n a n i mmort a l v i ll a i n
, , ,
 ”
TH E CRI TO .
51

(cf . Vol .I I p . . The t r a d i t i on a l vi e w t h at th e Cri t o ,

“
i s c lo s ely rel a t e d chronolog i ca lly t o t h e A pology i s i n ,

c on t r a di ct i on w i t h t h e d i fferen t repre s en ta t i on s g i v en i n
t h e t w o w ork s of t h e w orl d belo w F a i th i n fut ure re w a r d s
.

”
a n d pun i s hmen ts i s n o t s o en t i rely a l i en t o t h e C r i to a s
“
Apology
”
i t i s to th e L a s tly t h e rel a t i vely l a t e da t e
.
,

of th e d i a logue a s h a s been re cen t ly po i n t e d o ut i s a tte s te d

, ,

by t h e fa ct of i ts n o t be i ng pre s uppo s e d i n th e i n t ro
“ ”
d uct i on to th e t do The p u rpos e of th e C ri to i s
.
,

perh a p s mo s t e a s i ly i n tell i g i ble i f w e s uppo s e i t t o h ave

,

“
a ppe a re d a t a t i me w hen s e v er a l boo k s of t h e Republ i c
w ere a lre a d y compo s e d a n d perh a p s e v en p ubl i s he d
, It is .

“
a s i f P l a t o s a i d t o h i s coun t rymen You k no w t h a t I h a ve
,

d e v i s e d a n d s u bm i tt e d t o t h e publ i c j u dgmen t c er t a i n
s oc i a l a n d pol i t i ca l i n no va t i on s s u ch as w oul d re volu t i on i ze
,

th e pre s en t or d er of t h i ng s B u t do n o t t herefore s u pp o s e
.

t h a t I a n d my pup i l s are plo tt i ng t h e v i olen t o vert hro w of

n at i on a l i n s t it u t i o n s We s e t a gre at va lue o n fi d el i ty t o
.

t h e l aw s no le s s th a n our m a s t er di d w hen he a ppe a re d

‘
,
’
before th e j u dges t hough i t w a s i n h i s po w er no t t o a ppe a r
, ,

a n d a g a i n w hen he s u b m i tt e d t o th e pen a l ty of d e a t h y o u

d e c ree d a g a i n s t h i m though i f h e h a d w i s he d t o eva d e i t

, , ,

t here w a s no th i ng to pre ven t h i s pur ch a s i ng l i ber ty a n d

l i fe by a n i lleg a l fl i gh t .

. 2 The compo s i t i on of th e Republ i c h a s d ur i ng th e ,

l a s t fe w de ca d e s been m a d e th e s ubj e ct of conj e cture s

,

w h i c h w e s e e t h e le s s o cc a s i on t o d i s cu s s fully a s w e feel ,

boun d to re je ct them i n toto Cr i t i cs h ave cre d i t e d t hem.

’
s el v e s w i t h s uc h profo u n d i n s i gh t i n t o P l at o s l i t era ry
me tho ds a s t o i m ag i ne t hey h a d di s co vere d th e t ru e or der
i n w h i ch th e b o ok s of th e
“
Rep u bl i c w ere w r i t ten — a n
”

ord er di ffer i ng from t h a t i n w h i ch they a ppe a r— a n d to

repre s en t t h e w ork a s a c onglomera t e of d i s p a ra t e fr a g
“ ”
men ts No w th e Rep ubl i c i s no po s thumou s w ork ;
.
,

t here c a n be no d oub t t h a t i t w a s p u bl i s he d by P l a t o a s a
w hole . The s equen c e of i ts p a rt s a s w e h a ve i t i s th a t , ,

w h i ch w as fin a lly s e t t le d upon by one of th e gre at e s t

of a rt i s t s i n s tyle ; a n d i t w o ul d be t r uly w on d erfu l i f w e
c o u l d go beh i n d t h at s equen c e a n d fin d e vi den ce s o f
 5 2 G REE K TH I N KE RS .

a no ther more pr i m i t i ve di s t r i bu ti on
and The a u da ci ty .
,

n o t to s a pre s u mp t i on o f t h e a t temp t t o d o s o i s he i gh t
y ,

ene d by a n a d m i s s i on w h i ch th e c r i ti cs i n qu e s t i on w ere
c ompelle d t o m a k e The i r hypot he s e s co u l d no t b e m a i n
.

t a i n e d ere ct w i t hou t t h e s upport of a u x i l i a ry hypo t he s e s .

They w ere obl i ge d t o a s s ume t h at before t h e publ i cat i o n

of h i s w ork P l a t o s e t a bou t m a k i ng a l t erat i on s i n i t for th e
p u rpo s e of fu s i ng t h e di s cord a n t elemen t s an d obl i t era t i ng
t h e t r a c e s of t h e or i g i n a l a rr a ngemen t I n fact th e more
.
,

“
d eeply t h e s t ru ct ure of th e Republ i c w a s s tu di e d th e ,

more i mper a t i v e bec a m e th e nee d of h a vi ng c on s t a n t

rec our s e to t h i s s ub s i di a ry a s s ump ti on Th u s th e fa br i c .

of hypo the s i s th e foun d at i on s of w h i ch w ere i n s e cure from

,

th e beg i nn i ng b ec a me more an d more u n s t a ble

, There .

a re i n s t a n ce s w here P l a t o c l a mp s t oge t her ne i ghbour i ng

port i on s of h i s w ork a s w i th i ron b a n ds by a n t i ci p a t ory ,

s t at emen t by re t ro s pe ct i v e referen c e by c on t i nue d d e

, ,

v e l o p m e n t of t h e s a me i m age H ere ho w ever w e a re

.
, ,

i n v i t e d t o bel i e v e t h a t w h a t n o w c ome s s e con d on c e c a me

firs t a n d t h at th e c on t ra ry a ppe a ra n c e h a s bee n pro duce d
,
’
by P l a t o s s u b s equen t a d d i ti on s a n d mo di ficat i on s E nough .
,

w e t h i n k h a s been s a id t o c on v i n c e th e re a d er t h a t w h i le
,

s u c h c ompl i ca t e d m a n i pul a t i on s a r e i n t hem s el ve s po s s i ble ,

c ert i tu d e or a n y n e a r a ppro a c h t o c ert i t u d e i n t h e d e t e c ti o n

, ,

of t hem i s o u t of th e que s ti on .

Th a t w h i ch th e m i nu t e i n ve s ti g at i on of th e Republ i c
h as re a lly brough t t o l i gh t i s a p a r t from a fe w memory s l i p s
,
-

of th e a u thor no th i ng more t h a n w h at one m i gh t h ave t a k en

,

for gra n t e d n a mely t h at th e w ri t i ng of s o comprehen s i ve a

, ,

w or k one t eem i ng w i th s o gre a t a v a r i e ty of m a tt er mu s t

, ,

h av e o ccu p i e d a v ery con s i dera ble t i me a n d t h at d uri ng t h e

,

i n t erv a l t h e re s t le s s m i n d of P l a t o w a s n o t c on t en t t o s t a n d
s ti ll .

O ne rem ar k here i n a n t i ci p at i on L i ke e very j u di ci ou s

.

w r i t er w h o s ee k s t o c on vi n c e r at her t h a n t o d a zzle t h e ,
”
a u t hor of t h e Republ i c t ook s eri ou s c ou n s el w i t h h i m s elf
a s t o h o w w hen , a n d i n w h a t or d er he s ho u l d t re a t t h e
,

p o i n ts o n w h i ch th e gre at e s t oppo s i ti on a n d mo s t d e t er
m i n e d re s i s ta n ce wa s t o be expe ct e d on th e p a rt of h i s
 TH E C OMP OS I TI ON OF TH E
“
R EP UB L I C .
53

re a ders The e conomy of pa ra d ox w h i ch he t hu s ob s er ve s

.

m ay be re du ce d t o t hree m a i n pr i n c i ple s Fi rs tly h e .

,

re s erve s th e t horny qu e s t i on s for a rel a t i v ely a dva n ce d

s t a ge of th e i nqu i ry a t w h i c h t h e re a d er s m i n d a n d he a r t
’
,

h ave been a lre a dy ca p t ure d a n d w o n o ver S e con d ly he .

,

a llo w s t h e re a d er t i me t o o ver come one d i ffi c u l t y before he

pre s en ts h i m w i th a no ther a n d he i s at p a i n s t o i n t errup t

, ,

by l i tera ry a rt i fice s th e di re ct s equen ce of t h e c orre s pon di ng

,

d i s cu s s i on s Th i r d ly h e t re a ts the s e mo s t d i ffi cu l t a n d
.
,

mo s t d el i cat e p a rts of h i s s ubj e ct i n a s cen di ng order of

d i ffi cu l ty or repellen cy M oreov er h e n o t only a dop ts t h i s
.
,

pro ce d ure he a nno u n c e s h i s a dop ti o n of i t i n un m i s ta k able

t erm s . Th i s i s a n ob s erva t i on t o w h i ch w e s h all re cu r a t
a s u i t a ble pl a c e a n d i t w i ll prov e w e hope o n e of ou r
, , ,

s t ronge s t w e a pon s i n t h e figh t a g a i n s t th e t heory of

re a rra ngeme n t .

“
The Republ i c belong s t o th e fa m i ly of report e d
d i a logue s The di s cu s s i on i s con t i nue d t o th e leng t h of a
.
,

good s i ze d octavo volume by pract i ca lly t h e s a me per s on s

-
,

t hroughou t a n d So c r a t e s repro d u ce s t h e long c olloquy i n

,

one c on t i nu o u s n a rrat i v e On e m ay perh a p s feel s ome .

, ,

s urpr i s e t h a t a gre a t l i t era ry a rt i s t s houl d h av e s e t s o l i t tle

s t ore by t h e i llu s i on of re a l i t y as t o a d m i t s o gro s s a n

i mprob a b i l i ty i n t o h i s fi ct i on There mu s t be s ome d efin i t e

.

re a s on for th e i n congru i ty th e c ompo s i ti on of th e w ork

i s i n a ll o ther re s pe cts go vern e d by th e mos t purpo s efu l
, ,

ca l c ul a t i on a n d w e c a n no t a s i n m a ny s i m i l a r i n s t a n c e s i n
, ,

th e w orks of P l ato s o l d a g e l ay th e re s pon s i b i l i ty on a

’

grow i ng i n di ff eren ce to ex t ern a l form We a re i n cl i ne d t o .

a s s ume t h a t P l a t o w i s he d t h i s h i s pr i n ci p a l w ork t o be t h e
, ,

ac k no w le dge d pre s en t men t of h i s fun d a men t a l d o ct r i ne s a s

a conne ct e d w hole a n d t h a t he w a s t herefore un w i ll i ng t o

,

d i s pen s e w i t h un i ty i n t h e fra me w or k of i t I f i n th e .
,

e n d he re c ogn i ze d th e ne c e s s i ty of re s ervi ng a port i on of

,

h i s s ys t em for s pe c i a l t re a t men t a n d of exp a n d i ng th e ,

Rep ubl ic i n to a t r i logy or e v en — a s w as h i s i n t e n t i on

”
,

for a t i me — i n t o a t e t ra logy th i s mu s t be s e t d o w n a s a n ,

a ft er t ho u gh t w h i ch d i d n o t a r i s e i n h i s m i n d t i ll a co n s i d er
-

a bly l a t er d a t e .

V O L I II . .
54 GR EEK TH I NKERS .

3 . The p i c t ure w h i c h mee t s u s a t t h e t hre s hol d of t h e

gre a t w ork i s one to w a rm th e he a rt So c ra te s acco m .

,
’

p a n i e d by P l a to s bro t her Gl au con i s on h i s w ay home ,

from th e P i rae u s w here he h a s been a tten d i ng a rel i g i ou s

,

fe s t i v a l H e i s perce i v e d from a fa r by Po l e m a rch u s (th e

.

ph i lo s oph i ca lly m i n d e d bro ther of t h e unph i lo s oph i c a l

-

o r a t or Ly s i a s ) w h o a t on c e s en d s a s l a v e
, i n pur s u i t of
h i m a n d by pl ayful t hre a t s of for c e c ompel s h i m t o re t ra ce
,

h i s s t ep s H e c on d ucts h i m t o th e ho s p i t a ble ho us e of h i s
.

fa t her Ceph a l u s The l a tt er a l s o greet s So c r ate s w i th th e

.

mo s t wi n n i ng c or di a l i ty I t i s a long ti m e s i n ce th e fri en d s
.

l a s t me t The a dva n ce d a ge of th e ho st s uppl i e s m a t er i a l

.

for th e open i ng por t i on of t h e d i alogue Ceph al u s rejo i ce s .

t o h a v e e s ca pe d from t h e s t ormy p a s s i on s of you t h ; he

rejo i ce s t oo i n h i s po s s e s s i on of a mple me a n s ch i efly
, , ,

bec a u s e he h as t hereby been pre s erv e d from m a ny a

t em p t a t i on t o i nj u s t i c e H e fin d s h i s t rue h app i ne s s i n
.

th e c on s c i ou s ne s s of l i felong i n t egr i ty Thu s th e ke y not e .

-

of th e w hole w ork i s s t ru ck The n atve i n s t i n ct of th e .

w or t hy o l d m a n gr as p s a t on c e t h e s olu t i on w h i ch t h e
d i a logue i s d e s t i ne d to purs ue by d e vi o u s p ath s a n d w i d e
c i rc u i t s. As s oon a s th e di s cu s s i on on t h e n a t ure of j u s t i c e
a s s ume s t h e t rue d i a le ct i c a l ch a r a c t er Ceph a lu s d i s a ppe a r s
,

from t h e numero u s a u di tory c a lle d aw ay by a rel i g i ou s ,

d u t y a n d Po l e m ar ch u s h i s s o n a n d he i r i nher i ts a s i s
, ,
’
j e s t i ngly rem a rk e d h i s father s s h a re i n t h e d eb at e
, .

“
The i nqu i ry beg i n s ex actly a s i n th e L ache s th e ,
” ”
Ch a rm i d e s th e,
E u th yp h ro S ta rt i ng from w h at i s
.

c ru d e s t a n d mo s t ex t ern a l i t e v er s t r i ve s t o w a r d s i n cre a s e d
,

refinemen t a n d more i n t i m at e c omprehen s i on I s j u s t i c e .

t o be i d en t i fie d w i t h s t r a i gh t forw a rd ne s s i n c on d u ct a n d ,

t h e re s t or at i o n of t h a t w h i c h h a s been borro w e d fro m

a n o t her ? Cert a i nly n o t ; th e w e a pon for ex a mple w h i ch , ,

h a s been borrow e d from a m a n i n so un d he a l th mu s t n o t

be re s t ore d to h i m w hen he i s a ffl i ct e d w i th m a n i a For .

t h i s re a s on a s ay i ng of t h e poe t S i mon i d e s w h o d eeme d ,

“ ”
j u s t i ce to con s i s t i n t h e p aymen t of deb ts i s re i n terpre t e d ,

t o me a n t h a t a d eb t i s t h a t w h i ch i s d u e — goo d t o fr i e n ds
a n d e vi l t o enem i e s .
 WH A T IS 7 11 5 TI CE 55

Here th e d i scu s s i on le ave s th e s t ra i gh t p a th to re turn to ,

i t pre s en t ly The obj e cti on n o w r a i s e d i n vol ve s a s t ra nge

.

c onfu s i on — one t h a t w i ll O ft en re c u r — be t w een ch a r a ct er

a n d c a p a ci t y The phys i c i a n a n d th e c oo k m u s t b e a dd e d
.

t o t ho s e w h o ren d er w h at i s d u e — t h e me d i ci ne foo d a n d , ,

d r i n k w h i ch i s th e cl ue of t h e bo dy w he ther i n he a l t h or
,

i n di s e a s e The s e men t hen h ave th e po wer of benefi t i ng

.
, ,

t he i r fr i en d s a n d i njuri ng t he i r enem i e s ; a n d s o h a s th e
p i lot i n th e c a s e of a voya ge at s e a I t a ppe a rs t herefore .
, ,

t h at j us t i c e s o un ders t oo d ra n k s a ft er s pe ci a l s k i ll i n n e a rly
, ,

e very d ep a rt men t of l i fe for i t i s profi ta ble n o t w he n t h i ng s ,

a re t o be u s e d b u t a t mo s t w hen t hey a r e t o l i e i d le
, I t is .

of s erv i c e s o long a s a s h i el d or a lyre n ee ds not h i ng b u t

s a fe cu s t o d y b u t i f e i t her of t he s e m u s t be u s e d t h e s ol d i er s
’
, ,
’
or th e m u s i ci a n s a rt i s requ i re d Nor i s t h i s th e w ors t th at
.

c a n be s a i d of s u c h a j u s t i c e Th a t of wh i c h a ny m a n i s
.

t h e be s t k eeper i s a l s o t h at as m a ny ex a mple s s ho w of, ,

w h i c h he i s t h e be s t t ak er J u s ti c e then w h i ch i s a mo s t
.
, ,

e ffectu a l pre s erver of gol d an d goo ds t u rn s o ut to b e a n a r t ,

of s t e a l i ng an d overre ach i ng .

B ut t o be s u re — here P l a t o re t urn s from h i s pl ayful

,

d i gre s s i on t o th e s er i ou s c on s i d er a t i on of h i s s ubj e ct— t h e

obje ct a i me d at w he ther i n k eep i ng or t a k i ng mu s t a l w ay s
, ,

be t h at of benefi t i ng fr i en ds or i nj u r i ng enem i e s Th i s .

l i m i t at i on i s n o w ex a m i ne d c lo s ely Whom do w e c on s i der .

fri en ds ? Tho s e o n ly w h o appe a r t o us to be goo d The .

revers e hol ds of enem i e s B ut i s n o t t h e a ppe a r a n c e

.
,

bot h of goo d ne s s a n d b a d ne s s oft en d e cep ti ve ? An d d oe s,

i t n o t follo w from our rule t h a t t h e j u s t m a n w i ll oft en

d e s i re t o i nj u re t h e goo d a n d benefi t th e b a d ? B u t t h i s
c a nno t po s s i bly be j u s t ; t h e m a x i m mu s t be re vi s e d a n d ,

w i ll n o w r un : I t i s j u s t t o i nj ure t h e b a d t h a t i s unj u s t , ,

m a n a n d t o benefi t th e goo d or j u s t m a n no m a tt er w he ther

, , ,

fr i en ds or en em i e s .

B ut th e i n qu i rer s a re n o t ye t s a t i s fie d The defin i t i on .

j u s t a rri ve d a t i s a s s a i le d w i t h t h e help of a pri n ci ple w h i c h

”
w e h av e a lre a d y m e t w i t h i n th e C r i to t h e pri n c i ple , .

n a mely t h a t th e ju s t m a n m u s t i nj u re no one n o t e v en
, ,

a n enemy no t e v en a b a d enemy
,
For by i nj u ry a ll be i n g s
.
5 6 GR EEK TH I NKE RS .

a re m a d e w ors e men n o le s s th a n hors e s or d og s E a ch

, .
,

t o o i s m a d e w or s e i n i t s o w n pe c ul i a r v i rt u e or ex cellen c e
, ,

s u ch a s j us t i c e i s for men (Here “

w i thou t d o u b t there i s
.
, ,

i n t ro d u c e d a c onfu s i on be tw een t o i nj ure i n t h e s en s e

of m aki ng un s ervi c e able an d i n th at of c a u s i ng p a i n or
,

unh a pp i ne s s ) The p a ra dox i ca l ch a ra ct er of t h i s re s ul t

.

a n d i t s c on t r a d i ct i on of w h a t poe t s a n d s a ge s h av e h i ther t o
’
t a ugh t a re fully pre s en t t o P l a t o s m i n d
, .

4 H e i s t herefore a nx i o u s t o t ry c on c lu s i on s w i t h th e
.

preva i l i ng vi e w T a ki ng full a dva n tage of h i s l i berty a s

.

a rt is t he employ s an un s ymp athe ti c pers on a l i ty wh o s e

, ,

en t ry upo n th e s c ene i s m a rke d by vi olen t a brup t ne s s t o ,

embo dy popul a r op i n i on Th ra sym ach us of Ch a l ce don .

,

t h e rhe t or i c i a n w h o h a s a lre a d y s e ver a l t i me s en d e avoure d

,

t o i n t erfere i n th e di s cu s s i on a n d h as been re s t r a i ne d w i th,

d i ffic ul ty by th e o t her s pre s en t n o w ava i l s h i m s elf of a ,

p au s e i n th e d i a logu e H e ca n no longer c on ta i n h i m s elf

.
,

“ ”
a nd ,
l i k e a w i l d be a s t on th e s pr i ng le a p s u pon So c ra t e s ,

“
a n d P o l e m a r ch us I n c on t ra s t w i th t h e ch i l di s h i de a l i s m
.

of So c rate s w h i ch n a u s e a t e s h i m he come s forwa r d i n th e

, ,

c h a r a c t er of a ca s e h a r d ene d re a l i s t
-
P re s s e d t o form u l a t e .

a d efin i t i o n of h i s o w n h e d e cl a re s t h a t t h e ju s t i s no t h i ng
,
“
el s e th a n th e i n t ere s t of th e s t ronger me a n i ng by th e ,

s t ronger th e s u preme a u t hor i ty i n th e S ta t e w he t her th e ,

go vernmen t be mon a rch i ca l a r i s to cr a t i c or d emo c ra t i c W e , , .

,

c a nno t h ere forbe a r rem a r k i ng t h a t t h i s d efin i t i on a s long ,

a s w e c onfine ours el v e s t o po s i ti v e l aw h a rmon i ze s ex ,

ce l l e n t l y w i t h th e fa ct s a n d s t i ll more w i t h t h e t h eor i e s
,

on w h i ch i n a n ci en t an d mo dern t i me s repre s en t a ti ve
govern men t a n d i t s a n ci en t equ i va len t d i re ct govern men t
, ,

by th e people h av e been s u ppor t e d Word s qu i t e s i m i l a r

, .

t o t ho s e of Th ra sym ach u s a r e u s e d by a n a u thor a lmo s t

c on t empor a ry w i t h h i m w h o s e t a gre a t va lue on fi d el i ty
,

t o t h e l aw s a n d on t h e r u le of t h e people H e s pe a ks of .

”
th e l a w s w h i ch benefi t th e m a ny a n d br a n ds t h e u s urper ,

“
a s th e m an w h o o verthrow s r i gh t a n d th e l a w w h i ch i s
An d m uch t h e s a me l a ngu a ge
”
t h e c ommon i n t ere s t of a l l .

i s u s e d t o d ay by t ho s e a d voca t e s of un i vers a l s u ff r a ge w h o
-

m a i n ta i n t h at th i s i n s t i t u t i on i s th e only on e c a p a ble of
 58 GR E E K TH I N KE R S .

Th ra s y m a ch u s referen ce of a s hepherd w h o by
’
t o th e a rt ,

no me a n s s ee k s th e w elfa re of h i s flo ck a s h i s u l ti m a t e e n d ,

i s very m u ch t o th e purpo s e I t s ho w s a t th e le a s t t h a t
.
, ,

“ ”
i n th e c on cep t of a r t , or pr act i ce gov ern e d by rule s n o ,

e t h i c a l elemen t w h a t e v er i s con t a i ne d a n d t h a t i f t h e ,

o pp o s i t e v i e w s eem e d t o follo w from th e c on s i d er a t i on of

a fe w a r t s t h e exerc i s e of w h i c h benefi t s t he i r obj e ct th e

, ,

c on c l u s i on w a s s urrep t i t i o us ly i mpor t e d i n t o t h e prem i s s e s .

Th i s of c ours e i s n o t P l a t o s op i n i on ; i t i s pre ci s ely a t

, ,
’

t h i s po i n t t h at he repre s en t s t h e v ehemen c e of th e
rhetor i ci a n a s d egenera t i ng i n t o b ru t a l i ty an d pu ts one or ,

t w o re a lly o ffen s i v e expre s s i on s i n h i s mo u t h As t h e .

s hepher d explo i t s h i s s heep s a y s Th r a s y m a ch u s

,
s o th e ,

ruler explo i ts th e r u le d for h i s o wn a dva n ta ge here i n l i e s

h i s h a pp i ne s s a n d th e h i ghe s t d egree of i t i s a tt a i n e d by
,

t h e t yra n t or u s u rper w h o a ppropr i a t e s n o t p i e c eme a l b ut

, ,

a t a blo w , th e po s s e s s i on s of o t her s pri va t e a s w ell a s

,

p ubl i c s e c u l a r a s w ell a s s ac re d wh o rob s h i s s ubj ect s of

, ,

t he i r free d om a long w i t h t he i r propert y a n d w h o by th e , ,

v ery t horoughne s s w i th w h i ch he goe s t o w or k s e c ure s ,

h i m s elf a g a i n s t t h e s corn a n d i nfa my w h i ch o ver t ak e

plun d erers on a s m a ller s ca le i s he n o t ra ther l a u d e d a n d
c ongr a t u l a t e d a t hom e a s w ell a s a bro a d ?
,
Th ra sym ach us
w i s he s to w i th d r aw a fter a d m i n i s t er i ng t h i s douch e t o t h e
o ther s pe a k ers ; b ut t hey d e t a i n h i m a n d c ompel h i m t o
c on t i n u e t h e d i s c u s s i on
. .

At t h i s po i n t w e feel c on s t ra i ne d t o as k— H o w mu c h
i n t h i s d e s c r i p t i on of t h e m a n a n d h i s t e ach i ng i s h i s t or i ca l
t ru t h a n d h o w m u ch fi ct i on The s ca n ty rem n a n ts of h i s
wr i t i ng s pro ve u s ele s s for th e d e c i s i on of t h i s que s t i on .

We h av e n o gu i da n ce beyon d genera l prob a b i l i t i e s I n a .

p i ctu re d ra w n by s o gre at a m a s t er of ch a ra ct eri z a ti on i t i s

n o t t o be d o u b t e d t h a t m a ny a fe a t ure h a s been t a k en from

l i fe The rhe t ori ci a n of Ch al c e don wh o ren dere d u nco m

.
,

mon s ervi ce to th e progre s s of h i s a rt ca nno t h ave been ,

’
a mo d el of mee k ne s s a n d p a t i en ce I f he h a d P l a to s
.
,

c a r i ca t u re w o u l d h av e m i s s e d fire a l t oge t her P o s s i bly h e.

m a y h a ve pro po u n de d s ome w here or o ther t h a t d efin i t i on

of j u s ti ce or l a w here a tt ri bu t e d to h i m though n o t e ven ,
 P ERS ON A L I TY O F TH R AS YM A CH US .
59

th e t i t le s of h i s w orks w h i ch w ere e i ther a ddre s s e s to th e

,

people or t re at i s e s on rhe t ori c g i ve u s a n y h a n d le for ,

c onj e ct ure . I t mu s t o n th e o ther h a n d be reg a r de d a s

, ,

i mpo s s i ble t h at a m an wh o follo w e d t h e c a ll i ng of a n

ora tor i n a demo c ra t i ca lly ord ere d c ommon w e a l t h a n d w h o ,

d epen de d on th e fa vour of p u bl i c op i n i on s ho u l d e v er h av e ,

s po k e n i n s u ch a t one a bou t t yra nny or th e o v er thro w of th e

rule of l a w I t i s n o t c le a r wh y P l a t o s ho u l d h a ve p a i n t e d
.

h i m i n s u c h repul s i v e c olours For w h i le he i n di c at es a t

.

one po i n t t h a t w h a t he c h a rge s a g a i n s t h i m i s ra ther a

w r a ngl i ng a n d d i s p u t at i ou s c h a r a ct er t h a n re a l b a d ne s s ,

t here a re o t her p a s s a ge s w here he d oe s n o t s hr i n k from

u s i n g s u ch expre s s i on s a s Do you t h i n k m e m a d en o ugh
,
”
t o t ry t o s h av e a l i on or che a t Th ra s y m ach u s ? An d
a ga i n,
“
Then I s a w s ome th i ng q u i t e n e w— Th ra s ym ach u s
blu s h i ng . The c a u s e s of t h i s b i ttern e s s a re a s e cre t w e
c a nno t pene t r a t e The ch i ef po i nt i s t h i s : P l at o nee de d
.

a fo i l for t h e d o c t r i n e enoun c e d by S oc ra t e s a n d t ho u gh t ,

h i m s elf at l i berty t o p ut forwa r d th e rhe t or i ci a n i n que s t i on

t o c omb a t th e m a i n t he s i s of th e
“
Republ i c —J u s ti c e
”

m a ke s t h e ju s t m a n h appy .

For P l a t o i s no w c omple tely u n d er t h e s pell of t h i s

t he s i s w h i c h i s th e or i g i n a l a n d fu n d a men ta l d oc tr i ne of
,

S oc r at e s (cf Vol I I p 7 1 s ag) The eu daemo n i s t i c b a s i s of

. . . .
, .

mora l s i s for h i m s o c er ta i nly th e ri gh t one t h e d e ci s i v e ,

que s t i on i s s o c ert a i nly t h at a s t o t h e co i n c i d en c e of vi r tu e

a n d h a pp i ne s s th a t i t ne v er oc c ur s to h i m t o s uppo s e t h a t a n y
,

one c oul d d i s pu te th i s t he s i s a n d ye t prefer t h e j u s t t o th e

unj us t l i fe Wi t h a n unm i s ta ka ble b a ckw a rd referen ce to
.

”
th e Gorg i as he re s i s ts t h e t emp ta t i on to m a k e u s e of s uch
,

a d m i s s i on s a s t h a t j u s t i c e i s nobler t hough n o t more u s efu l

, ,

th a n i ts oppo s i t e i n or der t o d r a w i nfere n c e s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e

,

of th e e a rl i er d i a log u e (c f Vol I I pp 3 3 2 a n d 3 4 5
. . . .
The ,

o bje ct i on d r a w n from t h e a rt of t h e s hepher d i s a s s i gne d t o

Th ras ym a ch us merely i n or d er t o be refut e d a n d t h a t by ,

me a n s of th e s a me d i s ti nct i on w h i ch h as been d r aw n
“ ” ”
bet ween th e t rue phy s i c i a n a n d th e m an of bu s i ne s s .

The s hepherd to o i n s o fa r a s he i s a s hepher d w i ll only

, , ,

a i m a t th e w elfa re of h i s flo ck The s a m e i t i s c on ten de d

.
, ,
60 GR E E K TH I N KE RS .

hol ds of every k i n d of ru le or gov ern m en t w i thou t ex c ep t i o n .

For m en n ever un der ta k e t he s e d u ti e s — s u ch i s t h e a rg u

men t a d d uce d i n proof— unle s s t hey a re to be remuner at e d ,

t h u s c le a rly s ho w i ng t h a t r u le i n i t s elf i s p rofi t a ble n o t t o

, ,

t h e rulers b u t t o t h e rule d
,
I n e v ery d ep a r t men t th e
.

i n d i vi d u a l a r t w h i c h i s w h a t i t i s by re a s on of i t s s pe c i fi c
,

perform a n c e i s di s t i ngu i s he d from th e a rt o f p ay w h i ch i s

, ,

th e common a cc omp a n i men t of a l l t h e a rt s .

No w i n th e s phere of pol i t i ca l a ct i vi ty t here a re tw o

, ,

“ ”
k i n ds of re wa r d mon ey a n d hono u r a n d be s i de s t he s e
, ,

t here i s a pen a l t y t h e fe a r of w h i c h i n d u c e s m en t o a c cep t

,

po s i t i on s of a u thori ty I t i s t h i s l as t mot i ve a l o ne—s u ch i s

.

t h e s ome w h a t s urpr i s i ng a s s er t i on m a d e a t t h i s po i n t
“
w h i ch m a k e s th e be s t men w i ll i ng to rule th e p u n i s h
m en t of refu s a l i s t o be gov ern e d by t he i r i nferi ors P ubl i c .

s p i r i t i s here left o u t of t h e re ck on i ng a n d s o i s t h e c r a v i ng ,

t o exerc i s e a n i nborn g i ft w h i le th e t w o ki n ds of re w a r d
“ ”
j u s t men t i one d a r e ex clu d e d a s be i ng d i s gr a ceful a n d ,
”
t herefore u n w ort hy of th e be s t w h o are free from ava r i c e
,

a n d a mb i t i on Th i s v a lu at i on of a mb i t i on i s i n s t ri ki ng
.

c on t r a s t w i t h t h e c om mon Gree k feel i ng w h i ch i s r e p re ,

s en t e d by A r i s t o t le a mong o t her s w hen h e c a ll s th e d e s i re

, ,

of honour t h e fun d a men ta l mo t i ve of pol i ti ca l l i fe ; i t a l s o

c on t ra d i c t s t h e u tt er a n c e s a lre a d y k no w n t o t h e re a d er of
, ,

P l a t o h i m s elf i n t h e Sympo s i um (c f Vol I I p B

. ut . . .

t h e le s s j u s ti fie d th e gener a l i z at i on t h e more d eeply i t a llo w s

,

u s t o pene t r a t e i n t o P l a t o s m i n d
’
To b e rule d by th e
.

“
t h a t i s by th e d em a gogue s of d e ca d en t At hen s
”
w or s e , , ,

w a s e v i d en t ly fel t by h i m a s a g a ll i ng hum i l i a t i on a n d th e ,

overflow i ng b i tt erne s s of h i s he a r t left i ts m a rk on h i s

t heory .

I n th e c l o s i ng s e ct i on of th e boo k th e d i s c u s s i on mo ve s
i n mu c h th e s a me d i re c t i on a s h i ther t o An a d m i s s i on i s .

w rung from Th r a s y m a ch u s t h a t th e goo d m a n i s w i s e th at ,

j u s t i ce i s a k i n d of w i s dom As s u ch i t i s s tat e d t o b e a
.

fa cu l ty a c a p a c i t y for perform a n c e On s u ch foun d at i on s

, .

th e a s s er t i on i s b a s e d t h a t ju s t i c e i s t h e ne c e s s a ry c on d i t i on
of v i goro us a cti on i n i n t ern ati on a l rel at i on s a s i n hom e
,

a ffa i r s i n pr i va t e l i fe a n d l a s t ly i n th e i n d i v i d u a l s oul
'

.
, , , ,
 A RE TH E 7 0S T H A P P Y ? 6 1

An a ppe a l to ex per i en c e goe s h a n d i n h a n d w i th th e - -

d i a le ct i c .No S ta t e a n d no a rmy no b a n d of robbers e ven

, ,

o r g a ng of t h i e v e s c a n e n t i rely d i s pen s e w i th j u s t i c e i n i t s
,

u n j us t proc ee d i ng s w i tho ut da m age to i ts i n t ern a l coheren ce .

S o gre at i s th e d i s org a n i z i ng e ff ect of th e a b s en c e of ju s t i c e

from th e rel a t i on s of pri va t e pers on s a s w ell a s of p u bl i c ,

bo di e s ev en t hough n o more t h a n two men are con cerne d

, .

I n dee d t h e d i s cor d a n d mu t i ny pro du ce d by i nj u s t i c e a r e

,

i n t h e e n d fat a l s o i t i s urge d t o th e e ffi ci en cy of e v en t h e
, ,

i n d i vi d u a l w h o fa ll s o ut w i th a n d be c ome s h a t eful t o
, ,

h i m s elf no le s s th a n to th e j u s t a n d th e go ds
, The .

d emon s t r at i o n re ache s i t s c ulm i n a ti ng po i n t i n th e co m

p a ri s on of j u s t i c e a s a n ex c ellen ce of th e s oul t o th e
fa cul ti e s of he a r i ng a n d s i gh t as ex cellen c e s of th e e a r
a n d eye .

.
5 At t h i s po i n t th e re a der m ay pos s i bly fin d h i m s elf
s ome wh a t t a k en a b ac k a n d i n c l i ne d to t h i n k t h a t t h e a rgu
,

men t h as l i gh tly le a pe d o ver m a ny a ch as m t h a t i t h as ,

n egle ct e d th e d i s ti n cti on b etw een ch ar a ct er a n d k now le dge

as w ell a s th a t be t w een t h e requ i remen t s of t h e genera l
w e a l a n d tho s e of pr i va t e i n tere s t s or a t le as t t h a t t h e
,

c onnex i on here a s s ert e d t o ex i s t be t ween them nee d s to be

s u pport e d on mu c h d eeper fo u n da t i on s I f s o he i s n o t.
,
’
s t ray i ng t oo fa r from P l a t o s p a t h The l atter proc ee ds t o
.

c omp a re t h e p a rt i c i p a n t s i n t h e d i a log u e t o glu tton s w h o

c a nno t forbe a r t a s ti ng e a c h d i s h a s s oon as i t i s brough t

t o t a ble w i thou t w a i t i ng t o d o j u s t i c e t o w h at h a s gone

,

before The n at ure of j u s ti ce s ay s So c ra te s h as n o t ye t

.
, ,

been a s c ert a i ne d n ot t i ll t h a t h a s been d one w i ll i t be t i me

to d e du c e t h e c on s equen c e s a t w h i ch t hey h ave been t oo
pre c i p i t ately gras p i ng I n o ther w ords th e di a logue h as s o
.
,

fa r been only a prel u de a s i t i s c a lle d a t th e beg i nn i ng

”
,

of th e s e con d boo k i n ten d e d p a rt ly for practi c e i n d i a le cti c

, ,

p a rt ly a s prep a ra ti on for th e re s ul ts to be ob ta i ne d l a t er .

The n at ure of the s e i s i n di ca t e d beforeh a n d a n d by th e ,

a ll u r i ng pro s pe ct hel d o u t t h e d e s i re i s a w a k ene d a n d s t i m u

l a t e d for t h e s a fe ac qu i s i t i on a nd th e i rrefra g a ble e s tabl i s h

men t of t hem .

Nor d oe s th i s d e s i re rem a i n long un s at i s fie d There .

62 GR EEK TH I NKE RS .

follo ws a p a s s a ge w h i ch; i n i ts ac u tene s s i ts c le a rn e s s i ts , ,

gen u i n ely s c i en t i fi c s p i ri t i s t ruly m a rvellou s

, Pl ato s .
’

bro thers Gl a ucon a n d Ade i m an tus c ome for wa rd full of

, , ,

fervour a n d e a rne st ne s s a nx i ou s t o s ta t e th e que s ti on i n i ts

,

pure s t pos s i ble form a n d t o free th e k ernel of i t from e very

envelop i ng hu s k The m a nner i n w h i ch t hey rej e c t an d
.

fru s t ra t e i n a dva n ce a l l s u perfi ci a l s ol ut i on s rem i n ds u s

”
t o s ome ex t en t of t h e p a rt pl a ye d i n t h e P h ae d o by
S i mm i a s a n d Cebe s I n s p i t e of t h e prom i s e c on t a i ne d
.

i n t h e c lo s i ng port i on of th e firs t boo k i t i s n o t th e ,

d efin i t i on of j u s t i c e b u t i ts po w er t o m ak e t h e j u s t m a n
,

h a ppy w h i ch firs t eng a ge s t he i r a t ten t i on The mo d e i n

, .

w h i ch t hey a ppro ac h t h e s ubj e ct rem i n d s u s of th e mo d ern

r i g i d ly experi men t a l me tho d of re s e a r ch B ut t h i s pro .

c e d u re i s n o t here a ppl i e d t o wa r d s th e s ol vi ng of t h e
e th i c a l problem — w h i ch w oul d be folly— b ut merely t o i ts
ex a ct formul a t i o n Tw o i n s ta n ce s a r e to be c on s t ruct e d
.

i n th e m i n d d i ff er i ng i n n o re s pe c t w h at e ver ex c ep t t h e
, ,

pre s en c e or a b s en ce of th e fact or (here j u s t i c e ) w ho s e e ff e cts

a re t o be ex a m i ne d . For t h i s purpo s e th e perfe ctly j u s t
“
m an i s fir s t of a l l c on t ra s t e d w i t h th e perfe ct ly u nj u s t
m an . J u s t i c e an d i nj us t i c e a re t hen s t ri ppe d of a l l
t he i r u s u a l a cc omp a n i men ts (goo d a n d b a d repu t a t i on ,

re w a r ds a n d pu n i s hmen t s a n d s o forth ) i n d ee d th e i n c i
, , ,

d en c e of t he s e i s c omple t ely t r a n s po s e d Tw o di a me t r i .

c a lly oppo s i t e c a s e s a re t h u s brough t t oge t her for c omp a r i s on .

I n t h e one (A) ju s t i c e i s pre s en t b u t a l l i ts a cce s s or i e s a b s en t

,
.

'

I n t h e o ther (B) a ll th e a cce s s or i e s o f j u st i ce a re pre s en t ,

b u t j u s t i c e i t s elf i s a b s en t I n or der t o help th e i m ag i n a t i on

.

i n re a l i z i ng t h i s hypo t he s i s t h e r i ng of Gyge s w h i ch m a d e
, ,

i t s w e a rer i n v i s i ble i s pre s s e d i n t o s ervi ce

, We a re to .

c on c e i v e t h e unj u s t m a n a s a ble by s ome s u ch me a n s t o

, ,

perpe trat e w h a t e ver w rong he choo s e s a n d ye t s uffer no ,

pen a l ty nor e ven a n y lo s s of honour or repu t e H e i s t o .

t re a d t h e p a th of i nj u s t i c e w i thou t h i n d r a n c e t o i ts fa rt he s t ,

l i m i t a n d be b le s s e d a ll th e w h i le w i t h a bun da n c e of
,

w orl dly goo ds . I n c on t r a s t t o h i m w e a r e t o s e t h i s

c o mplem en t a ry oppo s i t e t h e j u s t m a n w h o d eri ve s no
, ,

profi t or pre ce den c e from h i s v i rtuou s a cts wh o i s r a ther ,

 TH E M E TH OD O F D I FFER EN CE I N E TH I GS . 63

fo r th e w hole of h i s l i fe m i sj u dge d pers e cu t e d m a l tre a t e d

, , , ,

t orme n t e d t o t h e u tt ermo s t I f a n d only i f i t m a y be

.
, ,

s ho w n t h a t , e ven on s u ch a s uppo s i t i on t h e ju s t m an i s ,

h a pp i er t h a n t h e u nj us t w i ll th e brot hers c on s en t t o
,
’
reg a rd S ocr a t e s t hes i s a s pro v e n .

’
The pl ac e of Gyge s r i ng or th e helme t of P l u to ,

men t i one d by P l at o el s ew here i s t ak en i n or di n a ry l i fe , ,

t hey go on t o s ay by s u cc e s s ful hyp o c r i s y by t h e

, fox ,
” “ ”
l i k e t ri cks a n d d evi c e s of d i s s embl i ng re s pe cta b i l i ty .

“
Appe a r a n c e m ay be s ub s t i t u t e d for re a l i ty An d w i t h .

a ppe a r a n c e t h e m aj or i ty of men a r e v ery w ell c on t en t .

The i r a i m i s to g a rner i n a l l th e a dva n t a ge s w h i ch th e

a ppe a ra n c e o f j u s t i c e br i ng s a n d t o p a y fo r t hem t h e
,

le a s t po s s i ble pr i c e Nor n ee d th e t hre a t e n e d re t ri bu ti on

.

o f t h e go ds i n s p i re a n
y fe a r w here t here i s fa i t h i n t h e
a t on i ng po w er of holy w or k s a n d t h e m a x i m pre va i l s
, ,

S t e a l b ut offer s ac ri fice of th y s t e a l i ng s
, .

B ut th e obj e ct n o w i n v i e w i s n o t t o pr a i s e a ppe a ra n c e ,

“ ”
nor ye t op i n i on s a bo ut j u s t i c e a n d th e re w a r ds of i t ,

b u t ra t her t o a s c er t a i n a n d d emon s t r a t e i t s o w n i n t r i n s i c
po w er a n d e ffi c a cy Nor i s i t eno ugh t o s ay merely t h a t
.

i t i s a goo d a n d t h e oppo s i t e of e vi l ; i t i s requ i re d t o

“
d i s c o v er w h a t e ff e ct e a ch of th e t w o pro du c e s e v en w hen ,
”
un k no w n t o go ds a n d men i n fire s oul of i t s po s s e s s or, .

To t h i s t ho u ght w h i ch he repe a t s w i th th e gre a te s t

,

emph a s i s P l a t o g i ve s expres s i on i n a m a n ner w h i ch re ca ll s

, ,

perh ap s n o t by a cci d en t a n u ttera n c e of H i ppo cra t e s (cf

,
.

Vol I p
. . .

We n o w come t o th a t t u rn i ng po i n t a t w h i ch th e -

d i a logue p a s s e s o v er t o t h e s t u dy of s oc i e t y from t h a t of
t h e i n di vi d u a l .H ere t o o t h a t c on cep t i on of th e S ta t e a s
, ,

a n org a n i s m , w h i ch h a s n o w b e come a c ommonpl a c e ,

a ppe a r s for th e fir s t t i m e So cra t e s profe s s e s h i s i n ab i l i ty

.

t o fin d a di re ct s olu t i on of t h e problem a s pre s en t e d t o

h im . I t c an only be re ache d by a c i rcu i t o u s ro u t e .

Suppo s i ng our s i gh t n o t s t rong eno ugh t o re a d a p i e c e of

s m a ll w r i t i ng a t a gre a t d i s t a n c e w e s ho u l d h a i l i t a s a ,

h a ppy ch a n c e i f th e s a me m a tt er w ere to be fo u n d el s e
w here w r i t t en i n l a rger c h a r a cter s a n d o ccupy i ng a gre a t er
64 G RE EK TH I N KERS .

s p a ce . The w ork w h i ch ju s t i ce pe rform s i n vi rtu e of i t s ,

o wn e s s en ti a l n at ure i n t h e i n d i vi d u a l s oul w i ll be s t
, ,

a ppe a r i f w e s ee k firs t for t h e s a me qu a l i ty w here i t i s

d i s pl a ye d on a m a gn i fie d s ca le I t w i ll a ppe a r mo s t .

“
c le a rly of a ll i f w e en d e a v our t o d i s c ern t h e beg i nn i ng s
of j u s t i c e a n d i nj u s t i ce i n th e beg i nn i ng s of th e c ommon
”
w e a l th . Thu s th e w ay i s opene d for th e g e neti c s t u dy of
t h e S tat e .

’
6 I f no p a rt of Pl a t o s w r i t i ng s h a d been pre s erve d
.

ex cep t th e hypo the ti ca l s k e tch w h i ch n o w follo w s of th e , ,

or i g i n of a S t a t e t h e m a t eri a l i s t i c c on cep ti on of h i s t ory

,

m i gh t w ell h ave cl a i m e d t h e gre a t i de a l i s t for a n a dheren t .

H e d er i ve s th e S t a t e en t i rely from e c onom i c ne c e s s i t i e s .

“ ”
To beg i n w i t h t here a re th e m a n i fol d w a n t s of th e
,

i n d i vi d u a l w h o i s un a ble by h i m s elf t o pro vi d e h i s foo d

, ,

c lo th i ng hou s i ng a n d s o on w hen c e a ri s e s th e nee d for

, , ,

co oper a t i on a n d t h e d i v i s i on of l a bour
-
Then w e s e e th e .

c i r cle of pro d u c er s gr a d u a lly w i d en i ng a s i n di re ct requ i re ,

men t s a re a dde d t o t h e d i re ct an d n e w operati on s be com e ,

ne c e s s a ry for the i r s a t i s fa cti on Thu s th e hu s b a n d m a n .

,

for ex a mple h as nee d of a plough a n d th e m aker of

, ,

plo u gh s mu s t l a bou r t o s upply h i s nee d B u t n o t ev en th e .

c ommun i ty i s a Self c on t a i ne d e c onom i c u n i t ; i t ca n no t

-

en t i rely d i s pen s e w i t h fore i gn pro d u cts ; th e i mport s t h u s

ren d ere d ne ce s s a ry mu s t b e p a i d for by a c orres pon di ng
export a ti on w h i ch i s i mpos s i ble w i tho u t a pro du cti on of
,

c om mo di t i e s i n ex c e s s of th e hom e c on s ump ti on The .

n ee d of t ra ders w hole s a le a n d re t a i l to act a s i n te rm e

, ,

di a r i e s i s n o t forgo tt en nor t h at of th e employmen t o f

, ,

h i re d l a bour .

A ft er an i dyll i c d e s c ri p t i on of t h i s a s ye t s i mple
c om mon w e a l t h — i n w h i ch th e j u s t i c e a n d i nj u s t i c e s ough t

for a re to b e foun d i n t he i r firs t beg i nn i ngs — there follo ws

a n a c c oun t of th e c h a nge s w rough t by i n cre a s i ng luxury .

“
As bre a d i s s upplemen t e d by rel i s h s o i n e v ery d ep a r t
”
,

men t t h e refine d enjoymen t of l i fe i s a dd e d t o th e s a t i s

fa ct i on o f n a t u ra l w a n ts The c i ty s oon s w a rm s w i th th e
.

m i n i s ters of luxury — w i th m ak ers of a rt i s ti c furn i t ure

a n d c o s t ly a dornmen ts w i t h p a i n t er s rh a p s o di s t s actor s
, , , ,
66 GR E E K TH I N K E RS .

h i m, so we m ay nre a s o n a bly s uppo s e a s a furt her

not u ,

s ta ge i n t h e proc e s s of n a t u r a l d e v elopmen t An d t h e .

gre at er th e progre s s t h e h i gher t h e perfe ct i on a tt a i ne d by

,

S t at e an d s o c i e ty th e s ooner he expe cts j us t i c e t o a ppe a r

, ,

d i s t i n ct i n a ll i t s fe a t u re s i n th e c om mon w e a l t h s o
,

or d ere d a n d s i m i l a rly i nj u s ti c e i n th e O ppo s i t e type H e

, .

t ell s u s s o m u c h h i m s elf a t t h e beg i nn i ng of th e four th

boo k .

No doub t i t was i mpo s s i ble to a tt a i n perfe ct s moo t h

ne s s a n d c on t i nu i ty i n th e compo s i t i on of a w ork w ho s e
purpo s e a p a rt from i ts numerou s s ub s i di a ry s ubj e ct s
, ,

w as t o w el d t oge ther i n t o a s i ngle w hole t hree m a i n

t heme s w ho s e i n t er n a l c o n nex i on w a s b ut s l i gh t — mor a l
ph i lo s ophy pol i t i ca l ph i lo s ophy a n d th e ph i lo s ophy of
, ,

h i s tory . I n s p i t e of t h e pro d i g i ou s l i t er a ry a rt w h i c h
P l a to bro u gh t t o be a r on h i s t a s k— a n a r t w h i c h i s
prob a bly w i thou t p a r a llel i n th e w hole of pro s e l i t era ture ,

a n d w a s c er t a i nly t o o gre at t o be un ders t oo d a n d a p

e c i t d by a l l h i s i n t erpre t er s — s om e h a r s hne s s e s of
p r a e

t r a n s i t i on w ere n o t en t i rely t o be a v o i d e d e s pe c i a lly a t ,

t h e j u n c ti on of th e t w o l a s t n a m e d t hem e s -
P l a t o t here
.

pro c ee ds wi th e ven gre a ter bol dne s s th a n here ; i n m aki ng

t h e re t urn journ ey from t h e i d e a l t o th e re a l h e repre s en t s ,

a l l o t her form s of S t a t e a s a r i s i ng from t h e corr u p t i on of

h i s o w n mo d el c om mon w e a l th ! B ut t h i s i s n o t t i ll t h e
beg i nn i ng of th e e i gh th boo k ; at pre s en t w e a re s ti ll i n
t h e s e con d a t th e open i ng of th e d i s c u s s i on upon th e r i gh t
,

e d u ca t i on of th e upper or w a rr i or c l as s .

I t h i e t i on a n ex t r a or d i n a ry d ep t h i s re a che d
7. n s s c .

I t i s i n d ee d a pe cul i a ri ty of th e w ork t h at th e progre s s of

, ,

th e d eb a t e i s c on t i nu a lly s upply i ng P l at o w i th a n oc ca s i on
t o t re a t a lmo s t exh a u s t i vely s om e gre at d ep a rt men t of
, ,

t hough t At th e t hre s hol d of e d u cat i on come s th e n a r

.

r a t i on O f my t h s The my t h i ca l s t ory of t h e go ds i s
.

t herefore s ubj e ct e d t o a t horough go i ng ex a m i n a t i on

-
,

a n d t h e pro c e s s of c r i t i c i s m begun by X enoph a ne s a n d

,

c on t i n u e d by E u r i p i d e s w h i c h w a s m a i nly d i re ct e d a g a i n s t
,

t h e p o pul a r no t i on s embo d i e d i n t h e Hom er i c poem s

( c f Vol
. I I
. p . 1 3 a n d Vol
. I p . i s c on t i nue d w i t h
. .
 M Y TH O L O G Y A ND TH E O L O G Y . 67

i n ci s i v e effe ct Nor doe s he merely p ru ne a w a y t ho s e

.

ex c re s cen ce s of myt h w h i ch a re c on demne d by h i s o w n

or t h e genera l s t a n d a rd of mor a l i ty ; he i n t ro du ce s fa r
re a ch i ng mo di fic a t i on s i n t o genu i nely t heolog i c a l d oct ri ne s .

“
The De i ty i s u n con di t i on a lly goo d a n d for t h at v ery ,

“
re a s on i s n o t th e ca u s e of e very t h i ng e vi l s pr i ngs from
o t her s ourc e s p a rt i c ul a rly from th e fa ul ts of men for w h i c h
,

t hey a re t hem s el ve s t o bl a me (c f Vol I I p . Th i s i s one

. . .

of th e fun da men t a l pr i n ci ple s here i n s i s t e d upon A s econ d .

,

w h i c h i s pro cl a i me d w i t h eq u a l e a rne s t ne s s a ppe a r s t o be ,

d i re ct e d a g a i n s t a n t hropomorph i s m i n gener a l : t h e go ds
a r e no j u ggler s ; t hey d o n o t m a n i fe s t t hem s el v e s i n a

v a r i e ty of form s For t here i s no pow er s u peri or to the i r

.
,

o w n w h i c h c o u l d c ompel t hem t o s u c h perform a n ce s ; a n d

,

j us t a s l i tt le c a n be i n g s to w ho s e n a t ure a ll m a nner of
,

ly i ng a n d d e ce i t i s fore i gn d o s u ch t h i ng s of the i r o w n
,

mo t i o n .

The ch ap t er on rel i g i on — for s o w e m ay t erm t he s e

d i s c u s s i on s w h i c h a re c lo s ely k n i t t oge t her a n d s h a rply
,

d i v i d e d by t h e a u t hor from w h a t pre c e d e s a n d w h a t

follo w s — th e ch a p t er on rel i g i o n c on t a i n s t w o more po i n ts
of gre at i mport a n c e All d e s c r i p t i on s of t h e s uppo s e d
.

t errors of t h e un d er w orl d i n dee d a ll expre s s i o n s l i kely

-
,

t o br i ng t hem t o m i n d a r e proh i b i t e d on a ccoun t of t he i r

,

enerva t i ng effe ct t he i r h o s t i l i ty t o m a nl i ne s s of ch a ra ct er
, .

Th e proh i b i t i on moreov er i s s o emph a t i c a n d s o u n

, ,

c on d i t i on a l t h a t w e s eem t o h av e l i gh t e d upo n a s t a ge
,
“ ”
i n P l at o s d e v elopmen t a t w h i c h t h e P h ae d o a t le as t
’
, ,

h a s been left fa r beh i n d (cf p I n a ny c as e th e

. .
,

m i n d of P l a t o un derw en t s e vera l c h a nge s i n t h i s re s pe ct

”
t hu s i n t h e l a s t boo k of t h e
,
Republ i c he d w ell s a t ,

exh au s t i v e leng th on t ho s e v ery t errors L as t ly he co m .

,

b a ts w i t h gre a t e a rne s t ne s s th e bel i ef s ugge s t e d by th e ,

poe t s t h at th e s o n s of t h e go ds or heroe s s too d on a l o w

, , ,

mora l lev el .

Aft er th e m atter of th e s t ori e s c ome s t he i r form In .

t h e firs t pl ac e a d i s t i n ct i on i s d ra w n be t w een t h e t r u ly
,

n a rr a t i v e a n d t h e i m i t a t i v e or d r a m a t i c mo d e o f t re a t
, ,

men t ; a n d t h e s e con d w h i c h i s n o t l i m i te d t o th e d r a m a
,
 GREEK TH I NKERS .

i n th e n a rro w er s en s e of th e w ord b u t a l s o ch a ract er i ze s ,

t h e H omer i c E po s i s d e c i s i v ely rej e ct e d

, Tw o re a s on s .

a re g i ven one gener a l th e o ther of a more s pe ci al ord er

, , .

F i rs tly a l l th e memb ers of s o ci e ty a r e t o be brough t up to

,

t h e s t rfc t e s t d i vi s i on of l a bo u r
“
O u r S ta t e w e a r e t ol d
.
, ,

“
h a s no nee d of d ouble s t i ll le s s of mul t i form m en E ac h
’

, .

mu s t follow onl y one bu s i ne s s : th e fa rmer m u s t b e a

fa rmer only an d n o t a j u d ge a t th e s a me t i me th e s ol d i er
,

mu s t b e a s ol di er a n d n o t a l s o a m erch a n t
, B ut th e .

type of c h a ra c t er t hu s a i me d a t h a rmon i ze s i l l w i th th e
c a p a c i ty of a s s um i ng a l l m a n ner of form s ; a n d t herefor e

even th e gre a t e st m as t er of t h i s a rt i s t o be bo w e d o ut of
th e i d e a l S tate I n th e s e con d pl a c e how e v er t h a t w h i ch i s
.
, ,

i m i t at e d le a ve s s ome t i nge of i t s elf u pon t h e i m i ta t or ; a n d

i t i s of i mport a n c e t o a v o i d a l l t h a t m i gh t d i m i n i s h nob i l i ty
of s o u l i n th e ru l i ng c l as s al l t h at m i gh t d egra d e t hem t o
,

a m e a n a n d v u lg a r le v el A s i m i l a r s p i r i t a n i m a t e s th e
.

pre s cr i p ti on s w h i ch n o w follo w rel a t i n g to lyri c poe try t o

, , ,

rhythm melo dy a n d mu s i c i n gen er a l Al l of t he s e i t i s

, , .
,

c l a i me d exerc i s e a mo s t en d ur i ng i nfluen c e on th e gro wt h

,

of ch a ra ct er ; for al l t h a t a m a n d oe s a ll th at he he a rs an d ,

s ee s, d o w n t o th e s h a pe of hou s ehol d furn i t ure pro d u ce s ,

a n e ffe ct upon h i m for goo d or b a d a n d mu s t t herefore be ,

enrolle d i n th e s ervi ce of mor a l i ty All t h at t en ds t ow a r d s .

e ffem i n a cy i s b a n i s he d from mu s i c i n d ee d a l l th e re s t le s s , ,

a n d p a s s i on a t e elemen t s i n i t a n d for t h i s re a s on t h e v ery

fabr i ca ti on of c ert a i n i n st ru men ts s u ch a s t h e flu t e i s , ,

proh i b i t e d .

Aft er mu s i c c ome s gymn a s t i c th e s e con d m a i n elemen t ,

i n Gree k e du cat i on The ex clu s i v e pra ct i c e of i t w e a r e

.
,

t ol d i n e ff e ct i s bru t a l i z i n g j u s t a s t h a t of m u s i c i s
, ,

enervati ng As t h i s l at t er n a me i s u s e d here i n i ts w i d e s t
.

s en s e ,
t o d e s i gn at e th e w hole of th e mu s i ca l a rt s s o ,

“ ”
gym n a s t i c c ompr i s e s a ll t h a t rel at e s to th e ca re of th e
bo dy i n clu di ng th e w hole of d i e t et i cs e v en th e a r t of
,

he a l i ng h as s i gn i fi ca n t s i d e l i gh ts throw n u pon i t w h i ch
-
,

w i ll o cc upy u s l a t er Th a t s obri e ty a n d mo d erat i on a re

.

pre a che d t h a t th e k eep i ng of me a s u re i s requ i re d i n

,

re s pe ct of bo d i ly exerc i s e s a s w ell a s o ther t h i ngs i s only ,

 A FR O VI S I ONAL S O L U TI ON . 69

w h at w e m i gh t expect Th i s bra n ch of e du cat i on equ a lly

.
,

w i t h th e ot her i s t re a t e d a s ex t en d i ng t hrough a l l th e
,

s t a ge s of l i fe a n d bo t h a re ca refully gu a rd e d a g a i n s t e v ery
,
’
i nnova t i on O f th e genera l regul a ti on of th e gu a rdi a n s
.

l i v e s w e le a rn here only th e fun d a men ta l fe ature s ; they

a re t o po s s e ss no pr i va t e proper t y s o fa r a s t h i s c a n ,

po s s i bly be a vo i de d t hey a re i n no re s pe ct t o l i v e s ep a ra t e
l i ve s ; al l a re t o t h i n k of e ach o ther a s bro ther s— a n e n d
'

w h i ch i s t o be prom o t e d by u s eful l i e s a bou t th e d i fferen t

o r i g i n of t h e d i fferen t c l a s s e s i n t h e S t a t e Gol d a n d s i l ver .

-
s o t h e a u t hor t e i i s a re t o te h
a c — a re m i ngle d w i t h th e

bo di e s of tho s e ca lle d t o rule a n d of t h e wa rri ors (n o w

“
t erme d helper s i n gener a l ; i ron a n d c opper w i t h t ho s e
of hu s b a n d men a n d me ch an i cs P ro v i s i on ho w e ver i s
.
, ,

m a de a g a i n s t a c as t e l i k e s ep a rat i on of c l a s s e s ; for ex
-

c e p t i o n a l a b i l i ty o r i n ca p a ci t y i s t o en ta i l a r i s e to a
'

'

h i gher or a d e s cen t t o a low er c l as s B ut a s t o h o w .

t h e a u t hor i t i e s are t o be a ppo i n t e d— h o w t ho s e w h o s h a ll

rule th e d e s t i n i e s of th e S t at e a re t o be s ele c t e d from th e
genera l bo dy of g ua r di a n s — o n a l l t h i s w e re c e i ve a t t h i s
,

s t a ge of t h e w or k only i n d i c a t i on s w h i ch rel a t e ex c lu s i v ely

,

t o t h e e t h i ca l s i d e of t h e s ubj e ct Tho s e a r e to go vern .

wh o a re d i s t i ngu i s he d by th e h i ghe s t d egree of p u bl i c

s p i ri t , w h o d i s pl a y t h e gre at e s t po w er of re s i s ta n c e t o
e very s pe ci e s of t emp tat i on Th at th e problem i s hereby
.

“ ”
s ol v e d only i n th e rough i s w h at P l at o h i m s elf t ell s u s
, ,

i n a p a s s a ge of th e t h i r d boo k ; a n d a t th e s a me t i me h e
hol ds o ut c le a rly enough a pro s pect of a more accurat e
, ,

t re at men t l at er on .

.8 Th i s a n d more t h a n t h i s th e t hough t ful re a der w oul d

, ,

h ave a lre a dy s a i d for h i m s el f For th e reg u l a ti on of .

propert y i s by i ts n a t ure mo s t i n ti m at ely bou n d up w i th

t h e regul at i on of th e fa m i ly a n d y e t th e d e s cri p t i o n of
,
“
th e l a tt er t h e rule s go v er n i ng
, th e po s s e s s i on of w omen ,
”
m a rri a ge an d t h e pro c re a t i on of ch i l d ren a re expres s ly
, ,

re s erv e d i n t h e fo u rt h boo k for s u b s equ en t d i s cu s s i on B ut .

th e d e ci s i ve proof t h a t t h e d el i ne a t i on of th e i d e a l S t at e
w h i ch c lo s e s w i t h t h i s boo k w a s ne v er i n t en d e d by P l a t o
a s a re a l c o n c lu s i on t hough m a ny em i nen t s chol a rs h av e
,

VOL I I I. . C
70 G R EE K TH I N KERS .

been of t h e c on t ra ry op i n i on — th e d e ci s i v e proof i s a s
follow s : I n t/z e w kol e of t/z i s s e cti on (a s a l s o i n th a t p a r t
of th e fifth bo o k w h i ch s e vera l c r i t i cs a l s o a s s i gn t o t h i s
“
s t r a t um tfie r e i s n ot a s i ng l e w or d on tlz e s u bj ect of
i n te l l ec t ua l cu l tu r e . P r a ct i c e a n d h a b i tu a t i o n n o t k no w ,
"
le dge , s u c h a r e t h e d e s i gn a t i on s w h i c h a re re t ro s pe c t i v ely
-

a ppl i e d t o t h e me a n s of e d u c a t i o n here p a s s e d i n re v i e w .

I t m ay be s e t d ow n a s a b s ol u t ely i mpo s s ible t h a t t h e

former d i s ci ple of So cra t e s t h e t h i n ker wh o i n s o m a n y
,

w or k s h a s a s s er t e d a n d d emon s t r a t e d t h e u n c on d i ti o n a l
pr i m acy of k now le dge s houl d e ver h a ve en t i rely forgo t te n
,

ph i lo s ophy s c i en c e i n t elle ct Nor d i d he i n fa ct forge t

, , .
, ,

t hem . I n t h e co u r s e of t he s e books h e a llu d e s more t h a n

on c e t o ph i lo s ophy a n d t h e ph i lo s oph i c t emper i n dee d he ,

n a me s th e l a tt er a s i n d i s pen s a ble for th e gu a r d i a n s B u t .

on t h e e d uca ti on of th e i n t elle ct he le t s fa ll n o t a s yll a ble .

An d w i t h t h i s he w a s t o re s t c on t en t — t h e ph i lo s opher w h o
k new be tt er t h a n a n y one el s e a n d w h o h i m s elf a ffi rme d
,

i n th e Repu bl i c th a t only h e a tt a i n s t o th e po s s e s s i on
,

of w i s d om w h o h as e a rne d i t S i n c e ho w ev er th e , ,

s ele ct i on of men t o d i re ct t h e S ta t e and ,

i n d ee d t h e , ,

d i ff erent i at i on of t h e u pper c l a s s i n ge n er a l i s m a d e t o ,

d epen d on t he i r gra d e s of s ci en t i fi c t r a i n i ng a n d t h e
progre s s a cc ompl i s he d by t hem a ll t h i s coul d only a ppea r
, ,

a t t h i s e a rly s t a ge of t h e w or k i n d i m o u t l i ne s
,
.

We h av e t re a t e d th e po i n t at s ome lengt h be c a u s e i t i s
of i mport a n c e t o un d er s t a n d th e s t ruct ure of th i s gre at
wo rk a n d t o pro t e c t th e r i gh t c omprehen s i o n of i t a g a i n s t
,

errors w h i ch a re eq u a lly d a ngerou s a n d w i d e s pre a d P l a t o .

w en t a bo u t h i s t a s k w i t h th e mo s t c a u ti o u s c a l c ul a t i on a n d
w i t h perfect a rt i s t i c t a ct .I t w a s ne c e s s a ry i f he w a s ,

t o pro d u c e a ny t h i ng b u t c onfu s i on t h a t h i s compl i cat e d

,

s u bje c t m a tt er s ho u l d be mo s t c a refu lly c o or d i n a t e d

- -
The .

m a n i fol d t heme s e a ch of w h i ch he d e s i re d t o t re a t ex
,

h a us t i v e l y nee d e d t o be k ep t a p a rt w i t h th e u t mo s t
,

s t r i ct ne s s . Tho s e a n ti c i p a tory h i n ts t o o w h i ch a pren t i c e

, ,

h a n d w oul d h ave s ca tt ere d l avi s hly w e a k en i ng i n a d va n c e

,

t h e e ffe ct of h i s w ork — w i th t he s e th e m a s t er w a s bo u n d t o
O b s er v e a w i s e e conomy Som e tho u gh t s there w ere w h i ch
.
 “
AR T I N ARRA N GEMEN T O F TH E R EP UB L I 71

he h ad re s ol ve d n o t t o i mp a rt to h i s re a ders t i ll t hey w ere

a t t une d t o c onfi d en c e a n d re a dy t o len d a w i ll i ng e a r
; a ll
refere n ce t o t hes e h a d to be a vo i d e d by e very po s s i ble
me a n s a n d i n d ee d t here i s a p a r t o f h i s s ys t em o ver w h i c h
,

a t t h e ou t s e t ( a s he h i m s elf s ay s ) he purpo s ely d re w a v e i l .

O f th e gro u n d pl a n of th e i d e a l S t a t e only s o mu ch m i gh t
-

i mme d i a t ely be re ve a le d a s w a s a b s ol u t ely ne ce s s a ry for

t h e firs t s t a ge of t h e i nqu i ry t h a t n a mely i n w h i c h t h e
, , ,

n a t ure of j u s t i c e i s a s c er ta i ne d .

B u t i f P l at o t hu s a llo ws s ome of t h e t hre a ds w h i ch he

‘

h a s s t a r t e d t o run on i n c on c e a lm en t he g at her s t oge t her

,

w i t h a po w erful h a n d t ho s e w h i ch le a d t o h i s prox i m a t e
go a l The ne a rer he a ppro a che s to t h i s th e more vi vi d
.
,

be come s th e colour i ng of h i s expo s i t i on J u s t i c e w h i c h .

,

w a s t o be foun d i n th e S t at e i s n o w t o be s ough t for i n

,

th e p att ern c om mon w e a l th The m a nn er of t h e s e a rch

.

rem i n ds u s of th e mo d ern me tho d of re s i d ue s F i rs t of a l l .

,

th e s e a rc her s fix t he i r g a ze on w i s dom Th i s vi rt ue i s .

d i s t i ngu i s he d from a l l s pe c i a l br a n che s of k no w le dge a n d ,

i d en t i fie d w i t h w ell a dvi s e d ne s s
- i t s s e at i s d i s c o vere d i n
t h a t s m a ll group of c i t i zen s t o w hom t h e d i re ct i on of t h e
S tat e i s en t ru s t e d Nex t c ome s th e t urn of cou r ag e th e
.
,

e s s en ce of w h i ch c on s i s t s i n t h e ri gh t kno w le dge of w h a t t o
fe a r i ts s o u rc e i s s t a t e d t o be th e e du ca t i on pre s cr i be d by
l a w a n d i ts s e a t t h e w hole s ol di er c l as s
,
Te mper a n ce i s
-
.

nex t c on s i d ere d a n d a d i fferen c e a t on c e a ppe a rs be t w een

,

i t a n d th e firs t t w o v i rt ue s i n as m u ch a s i t re s i d e s n o t i n a
,

p a r t b u t i n th e w hole of th e c om mun i ty I ts e s s en c e .
,

w he ther i n t h e i n d i vi d u a l or i n s o c i e ty c on s i s t s i n t h e fa ct
,

t h at th e be tt er a n d t h e w ors e elemen ts a re i n h a rmony ,

t h at k i n d of h a rmony t o o w h i c h re s t s on t h e p re d o m i
, ,

n a nc e of t h e h i gher an d t h e s u bord i n at i on of t h e lo w er .

On e v i rt u e t h e l a s t of th e four s t i ll rem a i n s to b e d e te cte d

, , ,

a n d t h a t i s j u s t i ce . S oc ra t e s c omp a re s h i m s elf a n d th e
o ther s pe akers t o a p a r ty of hun t ers w h o h av e s u rroun d e d
a t h i ck e t . Every t r a i l mu s t be follo w e d u p i n or d er t h a t ,

t h e noble qu a rry m ay n o t e s ca pe B ut t h e groun d i s

.

d i ffi cu l t a n d t h e pl ac e d a rk th e s e a r cher s a re on t h e po i n t
of g i vi n g up t he i r t a s k S u dd enly Soc ra te s bre aks o ut i n to
.
7 2 GREE K TH I NKERS .

a c ry of jo y ; he t h i n k s he i s on th e r i gh t t rack Wh at .

nee d t o s e a r ch fo r t h a t w h i ch i s w i t h i n the i r gr a s p ? I t i s
a pr i n c i ple w h i ch t hey h a v e no t e d long a g o i n c onnex i on

w i t h th e gene s i s of s o ci e ty o ne t o o of w h i ch t hey h av e
, ,

m a de frequ en t us e i n con s t ru cti ng th e i d e a l S tat e— t h e

pr i n ci ple of th e d i v i s i on of l a bour th e s pe c i a l i z at i on of ,

a ct i vi t i e s .When e a ch one h as a n d doe s h i s ri gh t fu l s h a re ,

t hen w i ll j u s t i c e be re a l i ze d I n th e S t a t e i t w i ll m a n i fe s t
.
,

i ts elf i n ri gh t rel at i on s h i p s be tw een a l l th e c i t i zen s i n t h e ,

“
pe cul i a r or s pe ci a l a c ti v i t i e s of e ach of th e c l a s s e s for
a re a s on w h i c h w e s h a ll s hort ly s e e P l a t o n o w en u mer a t e s ,

t hree of t he s e c l as s e s — c ra fts m en helpers a n d g u a r d i a n s , , .

B ut t h i s re s u l t w e are t ol d i s by n o me a n s a fin a l s olu t i on
, ,

of th e problem Wh a t h a s no w been re a d i n th e l a rger

.

ch a r a ct er s s houl d nex t become leg i ble i n th e s m a ller

a s w ell ( cf p 6 3 ) . . w e mu s t t urn from th e S t at e t o th e
i n d i v i d u a l a n d t hen from h i m on c e more to t h e S t at e
, .

Only from s uch con ti nue d c omp a ri s on s w i ll th e fu ll t r ut h

a ppe a r a s w hen t wo s t i cks rubbe d t oge ther bur s t i n t o
,

b ri gh t fl a me The i n ve s t i g at i on a ccor d i ngly n o w c en t re s

.

pr i m a ri ly i n th e i n di v i d u a l hum a n be i ng an d th e di ff eren t
p a r ts of e ach s ep a r at e s ou l .

Th a t t h i s l a t t er d oe s i n t ru th con s i s t of p a rt s i s m a i n
9 .

t a i n e d on th e s t rengt h of a n u nu s u a lly l a bori ou s d emon s t r a

t i on i n w h i ch no t a fe w obj e ct i on s a r e m e t i n a n t i c i p a t i on
, .

I t i s urge d t h at one a n d t h e s a me t h i ng ca nno t d o or s u ff er

c on t r a r i e s s i mul t a neou s ly The va r i o u s a ppe a ra n ce s w h i ch
.

c onfl i c t w i t h t h s pr n
i i c i —
ple th e pr i n ci ple of con t ra di ct i on
v a n i s h on c lo s er i n v e s t i g a t i on I f a m a n s ta n ds s t i ll a n d
.
,

a t t h e s a me t i me h i s h a n d s mo v e re s t i s an a t t r i b u t e of h i s ,

bod y a s a w hole mo ti on of a p a rt of i t I f a to p s p i n s
, .
,

rem a i n i n g s tat i on a ry i n on e s po t i t i s a t re s t rel at i v ely to,

t h e ver ti ca l d i re ct i o n b u t i n mo t i on hori zon t a lly

, B ut t h a t .

one a n d th e s a me en t i ty s houl d s i mul t a neo u s ly d e s i re a n d

lo a t he one a n d th e s a m e obj ect s houl d w i ll a n d n o t w i ll ,

th e s a me t h i ng — t h at w e a re t ol d i s a n a b s ol u t e i mp os s i
, , ,

b i l i ty An d ye t i t s ome ti me s h appen s t h a t a m an feel s

.

t h i r s ty th at i s d e s i re s t o d r i n k a n d a t th e s a me t i m e (for
, , ,

s ome re a s on or o t her w e m ay a dd e g , o u t of reg a r d for h i s

, . .
,
 G R EEK TH I N KE RS .

i t m ay be obje ct e d t h a t t h e a s s ump t i on of d i ff eren t p a rt s of

t h e s o u l by no me a n s remo v e s t h e d i ffi cu l ty i t i s i n t en d e d
to mee t For t h e c on fl i ct s w h i c h t h i s t heory c l a i m s t o
.
,

m a k e i n t ell i g i ble o cc ur n o t only be t w ee n th e d i fferen t

,

p a rt s here di s t i ng u i s he d b u t a l s o w i t h i n one a n d th e
,

s a m e p a rt Su ch for ex a mple w i ll be th e c a s e w i th th e
.
, ,

a ppe t i t i v e elemen t i f t h e c r a v i ng for foo d a n d t h e c r a vi ng

,

for s leep s t ri ve for pre c e d en c e w i t h i n th e s oul of a c h i l d .

The re a lly va lu a ble elemen t i n t h i s r u di men ta ry p sychology

i s th e re cogn i t i on t h a t w e h av e no r i gh t t o a t t r i bu t e t h e
fu n ct i on s of t h e s oul t o a s i mple s u b s t a n c e B u t j u s t as .
_

l i t t le a s w e c a n a rr i v e a t a n y s at i s fa ct ory re s ul t by a s s um i ng
t hree s u ch s ub s t a n c e s or a n y o t her n umber w e ple as e — s o
,

l i tt le h a s t h e pr i n c i ple o f c on t r a d i ct i on a n y be a r i ng o n
th e pro blem Th i s p ri nci p l e coul d be leg i t i m at ely i nv ok e d
.

only a g a i n s t s om e s uch a s s er t i on a s th e follow i ng : A w i ll s

a n d a t t h e s a m e t i me d oe s no t w i ll— i t be i ng un d er s t oo d

t h a t by h i s v ol i t i on no mere d e s i re i s me a n t b u t a re a l ,

re s ol v e s u ch a s i s a d m i tt e d ly a n i n di vi s i ble p s ych i c a ct
,

a n d i mpl i e s a n a t le a s t t empor a ry t r u c e w he t her a r i s i ng ,

from t h e un a n i m i ty of th e di ff eren t elemen t s i n t h e s o u l

or forci bly i mpo s e d on a re ca l ci t r a n t m i nor i ty O n t h e .

o t her h a n d i t i s n o t v i ol at i ng th e pri n ci ple of c on t ra di ct i on

,

i n t h e s l i gh t e s t d egree t o repre s en t c on s c i ou s l i fe as a
s eet h i ng t u mul t of m u t u a lly ho s t i le t en d en c i e s w h i ch l i k e , ,

m e c h a n i ca l i mp u l s e s a ct i ng S i mul t a n eou s ly s ome ti me s ,

c a n c el e a ch o t her a n d a g a i n blen d i n t o a re s u l t a n t The .

on e i mpo s s i b i l i ty i n e i ther ca s e i s th a t s u c h a re s u l t a n t
, ,

s ho u l d bo t h ex i s t a n d n o t ex i s t a t th e s a me momen t .

1 0. P l at o t o be s u re m a rche s t ow a r d s h i s go a l w i t h
, ,

v i gorou s s t ri d e s un t ro u ble d by a ny of t he s e d i ffi cu l t i e s
,
.

“ ”
S o o u r d re a m h a s been fu lfille d he m a k e s So c r a t e s ,

ex cl a i m . The d iv i s i on of l a bo u r h a s s ho w n u s t h e r i gh t
”
w a y t o t h e k no w le d ge of j u s t i c e As th e c a ll i ng s w i t h i n
.

“ ”
t h e S t at e s o m u s t th e s e v er a l
,
r a n k s w i th i n th e s o u l be
k ep t a p a r t I t s s a l va t i on l i e s i n th e a vo i d a n c e of e v e ry
.

en c ro achmen t i n th e h a rmon i ou s co opera t i on of al l t h e

,
-

p a r ts S uch i s th e n a tu re of j u s t i c e w h i le i t s a n t i the s i s
. , ,

th e re v ol t of a p a rt a g a i n s t t h e w hole s o u l th e re s u l ti ng ,
 VI R TUE TH E H E A L TH O F TH E S O UL .
75

j a ngle a n d t a ngle ,noth i ng el s e t h a n

is i nj u s t i c e ,

i n co n t i nen c e , c o w a r d i c e i gnor a n c e — b a d n e s s i n a w or d of
, , ,
”
e v ery ki n d A s t h e he a l th of t h e bo dy d epen ds on i t s
.

p a r ts be i ng i n t he i r n a tu ra l rel a t i on s s om e ru l i ng o thers
, ,

s erv i ng w h i le i t s d i s e a s e fo llo w s from t h e re v er s a l of t h i s

,

or der s o i s i t a l s o i n th e e th i ca l s phere V i r tu e a ppe a rs

, .

“
a s th e he a l th be a u ty a n d fa i r n urt ure of th e s o u l
, ,
“
vi c e , a s i ts d i s e a s e ugl i ne s s a n d w e a k ne s s
, ,
Th u s th e .

i n v e s t i g at i on re a che s a n a t le a s t t empora ry con c l u s i on

“ ”
For hen c efo r th i t w oul d be r i di cu lou s t o r a i s e th e
que s t i on w he ther j u s ti c e i s re a lly profi ta ble to th e j u s t
m a n or i nj u s t i c e h a rmfu l t o t h e u nj u s t l e t t h e v i rt u e of,

t h e on e or t h e v i c e of th e o t her be m a n i fe s t t o th e worl d
or n o t .

I f t h i s gre a t proje c t o f e s t a bl i s h i ng e th i cs o n i ts n a t u r a l
b as i s a n d m a k i ng a n e n d fo r e ver of th e fa t a l d i s cor d
be tw een h u m a n s t a n d a r ds — i f t h i s b r i ll i a n t a tt emp t t h e ,

s plen d our of w h i ch s h i n e s u n di mme d t hro u gh th e c en t ur i e s ,

w as n o t c ro w ne d w i t h c omple t e s u cce s s w h o ca n w on d er ? ,
’
W i t h th e poe t ph i lo s opher s gen i u s for d i s coveri ng re s em
-

bl a n c e s t here w en t a c omp a n i on fa c ul ty of d i s cr i m i n at i on ,

w h i ch t ho u gh h i ghly d ev elope d w a s n o t of qu i t e th e s a m e
, ,

qu a l i ty An d th e m a g i c of numbers (three p a r ts of th e
.

s oul — t hree c l a s s e s i n t h e S t at e ) foun d h i m a n a lmo s t

d efen c ele s s v i ct i m .

Th a t th e boun da ry bet w een t emper a n c e an d j u s t i ce i s

blurre d a lmo s t beyon d re cogn i t i o n t h a t t h e l at t er v i rt ue
, ,

i n d ee d t en d s to be c onfu s e d w i t h v i r tu e i n gener a l i s a
, ,

d efe ct of log i ca l r i gour pl a i n for a l l t o s e e I t i s c lo s ely

.

bo u n d up w i t h a s t i ll d eeper fa ul t of th e w hole i nv e s t i g a t i on ,

th e i n s u ffi c i en t s e v er a n c e of i n d i v i d u a l from s o ci a l e th i cs .

I t i s i n c on s equen ce of t h i s d efe ct t h a t t h e t rue c on t en t of

j us t i c e— th e s u m of th e d em a n d s w h i ch s o ci e ty m ak e s u pon
u s a c on cep t w h i c h h a s no t h i ng i n common w i t h t h a t of
,

i n di vi du a l p s ych i c hyg i ene i n t i m a t ely a s t h e t w o m ay b e

,

c onne ct e d by a ct i on a n d re a c t i on — i s s ome t i me s p a s s e d

o ver i n s i len ce s ome t i me s i n t ro d uce d w i t ho ut j us t i fi c a t i on

, .

S uch a r e s ome of t h e obj ect i on s wh i ch forc e t hem s elve s

on t h e mo d ern re a d er ; b ut i t i s from no d eferen ce t o a ny
 7 6 GREEK TH I NKE RS .

of them th at P l a t o here s ub d ue s h i s tone a n d defers th e

full expre s s i on of h i s t r i u mph a n t j oy H e i s s a vi ng up h i s
.

more pow erful no t e s fo r a m u ch l a t er p as s a ge a t w h i ch th e

,

fin a l go a l of th e w hole i n ve s ti g ati on h as been re a che d We .

m ay here s hort ly i n d i c a t e w h a t s t i ll rem a i n s t o be d one .

The i de a l S ta te l a cks a s ye t bo t h i ts t rue foun d a t i on a n d

i t s c ro w n i ng glory — t h e former i n t h e org a n i z a t i on of t h e
fa m i ly t h e l at t er i n th e gov ernmen t of ph i lo s ophers No t
, .

t i ll t h e c on s t i t u t i on a l e d i fi c e h a s been c omple t e d by t he s e
a d d i t i on s c a n i t be b ro u gh t i n t o c omp a r i s on w i t h i t s a n t i

t he s i s — th e i mperfe ct S ta t e i n i t s m a ny hue s i t s form s more

,

a n d more w i d ely d i v erg i ng from th e i d e a l : th e S t a t e a s

pre s en te d t o u s i n h i s tori c re a l i ty E v en t hen by th e s i d e

.
,

of thes e i d e a l a n d re a l type s of con s ti tut i on s m u s t be pl ac e d

t h e c orre s pon d i ng hum a n type s ; a n d th e l at t er mu s t be
exh a u s t i v ely d e s c ri be d before th e w hole of th e m a ter i a l s
w i ll h a v e been c olle ct e d for th e fin a l s olu t i on of th e or i g i n a l
problem Wh at c ome s a ft er t h a t i s of a s upplemen t a ry
.

c h a r a ct er : a dd i t i on a l c onfirm a t i on s of t h e re s ul t a lre a dy w o n
,

n e w t re a t men t s of s ubj e ct s w h i c h h av e a lre a d y been d i s

c u s s e d b u t w h i ch c o u l d n o t be fu lly w or k e d o ut w i t h t h e
,

m at eri al s or i g i n a lly a va i l a ble fi n a lly t here i s one of t ho s e

,

m a gn i fi cen t p i ct ure s of th e un i vers e a n d th e fu ture l i fe w i th

” “ ”
w h i ch P l a t o a s t h e
,
P h ae d o a n d th e Gorg i a s h av e
a lre a dy t a u gh t u s lo v e d t o roun d o ff h i s gre a t er w ork s
,
.
 TH E EMAN CI P A TI ON OF W OMEN .
77

C H A P T E R XI I .

L A TO U BL IC
’
P S R EP .

1 . FR O M n ti ci p ati on s w e re t u rn t o th e beg i nn i ng of
t he s e a

t h e fift h boo k The i mme di a t e pro s pe ct here hel d o ut i s

.

“
a p a s s i ng i n re vi e w of t h e vi ti a t e d form s o f th e S ta te .

At t h i s po i n t a d i vers i on i s i n t ro d u ce d by me a n s of a n ,

a rti fi ce of w h i ch t h i s i s n o t th e only ex a mple i n P l a to s

,
’

w or k s . Two pers on s i n th e d i a log u e b rot hers of P l a t o , ,

h a v e bee n t a l ki ng i n s ub d u e d t one s b ut lou d enough for ,

“ ”
So c ra te s to c a tc h th e que s ti on : Sh a ll w e l e t h i m o ff ?
The referen c e i s t o th e pre vi ou s ly re s erve d q u e s t i on of
women a n d th e fa m i ly for t h e i mme d i a t e s ol u t i o n of
,

w h i ch Gl a u c on an d A d e i m a n t us n o w pre s s Soc ra t e s .

“ ”
relu ct a n t ly c omp l i e s H e s ee s a s w a rm of s pee che s
.

“ ”
r i s e up before h i m H e i s s e i ze d wi th t rembl i ng a t
.

th e t hough t of th e pec ul i a r a n d w on d erfu l propo s a l s he h as

to m ak e th e pr act i ca b i l i t y of w h i c h w i ll s eem t o h i s he a rers
,

a s c on tro v ert i ble a s t he i r s a lu t a ry c h a r a ct er E n cour a ge d.

,

ho w ever by th e k i n d a s s ura n c e s of h i s fri en ds he ven tu re s

, ,
”
upon h i s expo s i ti on of t h i ng s ri d i c ulou s be ca u s e unu s u a l ,

e co m
a n d c ongr a t ul a t e s h i m s elf
(a n i mpor t a n t h i n t on t h
po s i ti on o f th e w ork) t h at he d i d n o t t ak e th e pl u nge a t
wh at w as re a lly t h e more a ppropr i at e momen t .

H e goe s on to pro cl a i m w h at w e genera lly c a ll th e

em a n ci p at i on of w omen t h e pl a ci n g of t hem on a c omplet e
,

equ a l i t y w i th t h e m al e g ua r di a n s e ven t o t h e ex t en t of
,

perm i t ti ng t hem a cce s s to th e h i ghe s t o ffi c e s i n th e S t a t e .

Th i s d o ct r i ne w h i ch i n c l u de s th e p a rt i ci p a ti on of w omen
,

i n w a r i s d efen d e d by a n a log i e s d r a w n fro m a n i m a l l i fe

, ,
 78 GR E EK TH I N KE R S .

and by th e ert i on t h at be tw een th e s exe s t here a re only

ass

q u a n t i ta t i ve a n d n o t qu a l i t a ti ve d i fferen c e s of c a p a c i t y
, , .

The s a me m a x i m fu rn i s he s a n a n sw er t o th e obj e ct i o n
d er i v e d from t h e pr i n c i ple of t h e di v i s i on of l abo u r One .

m i gh t a s w ell a rg ue t h a t be c au s e s ome s hoem ak ers a re

b a l d men po s s e s s e d of h a i r s houl d be ex cl u de d from th a t
,

t r a d e or v i ce ver s d
, The a v er a ge w om a n i s d ec l a re d t o be
.

n o t d i ff eren t i n n a t u re b u t o n ly w e a k er a n d w e a k er i n
, ,

ev ery re s pe ct t h a n th e av er a ge m a n ; n o t b u t w h a t w e
,
“
fin d ex c ep t i on s a n d c on s i d er a b le s u per i or i ty i n
, m a ny a
”
w om a n o v er m a ny a m a n Ed u ca t i on t o o s hou l d be
.
, ,

t h e s a m e for bo t h s exe s a n d re c e i v e d i n c om mon ; P l a t o

,

d oe s n o t e v en s hr i n k from t h e expo s u re of t h e fem a le

“
form i n gymn a s t i c exerc i s e s s ee i n g th a t they w i ll b e ,

c lo t he d w i t h v i rt u e i n st e a d of g a rmen t s The s e ct i on .

c on c l u d e s i n a t on e of s olemn e a r n e s t ne s s w i t h a n a ppro
, ,

p ri a t e q u ot a t i on from P i n da r a n d a n emph a t i c a s s ert i on

,

of u ti l i t y a n d i t s oppo s i t e as th e only t rue s ta n d a rds for th e

me a s uremen t of v a l u e s .

H a r d ly h as So cra t e s e s ca pe d from th e firs t w a v e

w h i ch t hre a t ene d t o eng u lf h i m w hen he s ee s a s e c o n d ,

a n d s t i ll more d a ngerou s one a ppro a ch i ng Th at w h i c h .

i s i n que s t i on i s t h e reg u l at i on more a cc ur a t ely th e ,

a bol i t i on of th e fa m i ly P l a t o s pe a ks here of t h e co m
, .

m u n i ty of w omen ; t h e expre s s i on how e ver i s s ome w h at , ,

t o o po i n t e d a n d n o t ex act ly a ppropri a t e For i t i s n o t .

prom i s cu i ty t h at he h a s i n v i e w b u t t empor a ry m a rr i a ge s
, ,

a rr a nge d w i t h t h e pr i n c i p a l a i m of s e c ur i ng th e he a l t h i e s t

po s s i ble o ff s pr i ng a n d reg u l a t e d by th e a u thori t i e s on

,

s t r i ct pr i n c i ple s s i m i l a r t o t ho s e ob s erve d by bree d er s of

,

a ni m als .

B u t t h e d e s i gn a t i on c om m u n i t y of w omen a n d
c h i l d ren i s n o t c ho s en w i t hou t c on s i d er a ble re as on It .

i s i n t en d e d t o pl a c e t h e s h a rpe s t a n d s tronges t emph a s i s

on th e c on t ra s t w i th t h e u s u a l d i vi s i on of t h e S ta t e i n t o
i s ol a t e d fa m i l i e s w h i c h a re s t r a nge t o e a ch o ther a n d oft en
ho s t i le Ch i l d ren a re proc re a t e d for t h e S ta t e
. only t h e
w ell favo u re d o ffs pr i n g of t h e
- be s t p a ren ts i s re a re d ;
t h e a ge of gener at i on i s fixe d i n v i ol a bly a t be t w een t w en ty
 OR GA NI C UN I TY OF S O CI E TY .
79

a nd for ty for w ome n be tw een th i rty a n d fi fty fi ve for men

,
-
.

At gre a t er a ge s t h a n the s e l i ber ty of s ex u a l i n tercours e i s

a llo w e d b u t t here i s a n expre s s pr o h i b i ti on a g a i n s t re a r i ng

a n y fru i t of s u ch un i on s I n a ll ci rc um s t a n c e s i n fa n ts a r e
.

t a k en a w a y from the i r mot hers i mme di a t ely a ft er b i r th a n d ,

en t ru s te d t o th e fo s t eri n g ca re of th e S t at e Th u s ev ery .

bon d of u n i on betw een p a ren t a n d ch i l d i s b rok e n ; t hey

d o n o t k now e ach o t her a s s u c h On th e o ther h a n d i t i s
.
,

h a i le d a s a gre a t g a i n th at a l l pers on s of a bo u t th e s a me
a g e w i ll reg a r d e ac h o t her a s bro ther s a n d s i s t er s t h at , ,

i n gener a l a w i d ely c om prehen s i v e t h o u gh hypo t he t i ca l

,

ki n s h i p t a k e s t h e pl a c e of th e or di n a ry c er t a i n b u t n a rro w
t i e s of fa m i ly . B y th i s me a n s i t i s i n t en d e d t o s e c ure th e
h i ghe s t po s s i ble d egree o f org a n i c u n i ty for th e S t at e or ,

ra ther for t h e cl as s of g u a r di a n s wh o a re a lon e i n qu e s t i o n .

“
The be s t type o f comm u n i ty i s t h a t i n w h i c h th e m i ne
a n d t h i ne d i v i d e s men le a s t t h e s oci e ty w ho s e member s
,

a r e n o le s s c lo s ely b o un d t oge t her t h a n t h e member s of a

phys i c a l bo dy Do u b ts a re a d m i tt e d by P l a t o only o n th e
.

po s s i b i l i ty no t on t h e s a lu t a ry e ffe ct of t h i s s weep i ng
, ,

i nnova t i on . The s t u dy of h i s t ori ca l p a ra llel s w h i ch a re ,

n o t w holly w a n t i ng ,
a n d a n u nprej u d i c e d c omp a r i s on of

t h e or d er of l i fe here propo s e d w i th t h a t t o w h i c h w e a r e
a cc u s t ome d w i ll j u s t i fy u s I bel i e v e i n ex a ct ly re v er s i ng
, , ,

t h i s j u dgmen t .

2
. A s s oon a s S o cr a t e s h a s left th e s e con d of th e
“ ”
d re a d e d w av e s beh i n d h i m he beg i n s to le a d u p i m
,

percep t i bly to th e p as s a ge i n w h i c h he i s fin a lly to bre as t

“ ”
th e t r i pl e s urge . Do ub t s h a v e been expre s s e d t o uch i ng
t h e po s s i b i l i t y of t h e t r a n s form a t i on w ho s e h a ppy co n
s eq u en c e s h av e been p a i n t e d i n s u c h glo w i ng c olour s a n d ,

i t i s by th e d i s cu s s i on of t h i s po s s i b i l i ty t h a t t h e w ay i s
b r i dge d t o t h e gre a t e s t a n d mo s t d el i ca t e of th e problem s .

A ft er a d i s qu i s i ti on on i n t ern a t i on a l l aw i n t ro duc e d a t t h i s
,

s t a ge w e m a s u ppo s e c h i efly for t h e p u rpo s e of a llo w i ng

, y ,

t h e re a d er t o g a t her fre s h s t reng th s e a r c h i s m a d e for t h e

,

be s t po s s i ble s ta rt i n g po i n t of reform s u ch a s ta rt i ng po i n t
-
,
-

a s m a y en a ble th e t r a n s i t i on t o be m a d e from t h e o l d

b a d pol i t i c a l s y s t e m t o th e n e w s a l va t i on w i t h th e le a s t
 GRE E K TH I NKE RS .

expen di t ure of force A s before an d i n dee d mu c h more

.
, , ,

t h a n before So c ra t e s expe ct s t o be o ver whelme d by a

,

s t orm of c on t emp t a n d obloquy y e t s h a ll t h e s a v i ng w or d

“
n o t rem a i n u n s po k en : There ca n be n o c ure for t h e i ll s
of a S t at e or as I t h i n k of tne w /z ol e li u ni a n r a ce u n ti l
, , , ,

p o l i t i ca l p o w e r a n d p ki l os o fi
p y a r e u n i te d un t i l e i t her,
ph i lo
s opher s be come k i ng s or t ho s e w h o a r e n o w ca lle d k i ng s
,

a n d po t e n t a t e s beg i n t o purs ue ph i lo s ophy n o t s uper ,

fici a l ly b u t i n th e t rue s p i r i t
, No t t i ll t hen ca n our S t a t e
.

”
a r i s e a n d s e e t h e l i gh t Th i s p a s s a ge h as been ri gh t ly
.

c a lle d t h e k e
y s t o ne of t h e w hole w or k
-
.

Th a t P l at o s ho u l d h av e pl a ce d k no w le dge— th e h i ghe s t
k no w le dge s c i en t i fi c a lly t r a i ne d— a t t h e he a d of h i s
,

c om mon w e a l t h i s no more t h a n w h a t w a s t o be ex
,

p e c t e d. B u t w h y d oe s he fulfil t h i s expe ct a t i on s o l a t e ?

w h y h a s he hel d up h i s be s t t rump for s o long ? P l at o

h a s h i m s elf a n s w ere d th e q u e s t i on pl a i n ly eno u gh p a r t ly ,

i n h i s s i m i le of t h e t hree w a v e s w i t h t he i r a s cen d i ng
d egree s of men a c e p a r t ly i n t h e fur t her c o u r s e of t h e
,

d i a logue .A ft er pro cl a i m i n g t h e s overe i gn ty of t h e ph i lo

s opher s ,
he goe s on t o d i s cu s s t h e t r a i n i ng of th e men
t h u s c a lle d t o r u le a n d he s e i z e s t h e oppor t un i t y — w e
,

m i ght perh a p s more corre ct ly s a y t h e pre t ex t — to ex

, ,

poun d h i s w hole t heory of k n o w le dge S i m i l a rly i n th e .

,

e a rl i er boo ks w here t h e elemen t a ry e d u cat i on of t h e

,

gu a r di a n s w a s u n d er di s cu s s i on he t oo k occas i on t o ,

t re a t exh a u s t i v ely of my t hology rel i g i on mu s i c poe t ry , , , ,

gymn as t i c a l l t o a n ex t en t fa r ex c ee di ng t h e requ i re
,

men t s of h i s i m m e d i a t e p u rpos e I t i s e vi d en t t h a t h i s
.

pre s en t t heme t h e mo s t s u b t le a n d d i ffi cul t of a l l coul d

, ,

only be d e a l t w i th a t a n a dva n c e d s t a ge of t h e w or k .

H e begi n s by emph as i z i ng w i t h th e help of frequen t ly ,

repe a t e d referen ces t o th e a n t i ci p a t ory h i n t s of e a rl i er

c h a p t er s t h e enh a n c e d refinemen t a n d r i go u r of th e ex
,

po s i t i on n o w i n pro s pe ct a s c omp a re d w i th th e ro u gher

a n d more s u mm a ry me t ho d s of t h e fir s t boo k s M u ch .

“ ”
help t o o i s prom i s e d t o w a r ds th e more ex a ct u n der
, ,

s t a n di ng O f t h e t heory of t h e t r i p a r t i t e s oul a n d of t h e ,
“ ”
e th i cs b a s e d o n i t from th e , longer w ay w h i c h w a s
82 G R EE K TH I N KE RS .

From h i s e a rly yo ut h he i s be s e t by fr i e n d s a n d k i n s men ,

l a t er on by h i s fello w c i t i zen s a s w ell a ll urg i ng h i m t o

-
,

d e vo t e h i s r i ch g i ft s from w h i ch t hey hope t o d raw gre a t

,

profi t t o t h e a cq u i s i t i on of pol i ti ca l po w er P h i lo s ophy

, .
,

t o o t hr i v e s a s l i t t le i n t h e s o i l of a b a d pol i t i c a l c on s t i
,

t ut i o n a s a pl a n t t r a n s ferre d t o a n e w a n d s t r a nge reg i on

, .

I t i s dw a rfe d or d egen er a t e s An d t h e be tt er t h e or i g i n a l
.

germ th e w or s e i s i t s d egen er a t e s t a t e A w e a k n a t u re
, .

ca n pro d u c e no th i n g gre a t w he t her goo d or e vi l , The .

s o u rc e of c orrup t i on ho w e v er i s n o t t o be foun d a s m a n y
, , ,

m a i n t a i n i n th e s oph i s ts b ut i n p ubl i c O p i n i on ; t h at
, ,

m i gh ty be i ng w h i ch c a ll s goo d t h at w h i ch ple a s es i t a n d ,

b a d t h a t w h i c h d i s ple a s e s i t— t h a t m o n s t er w h i ch c ompel s
e ven th e s oph i s ts to moul d them s el ve s to i t s ca pr i c e s a n d
h i de from i ts o u tburs ts of w r a th When th e mul ti t u d e i s .

a s s emble d a n d t h e ro c k s — P l a t o h a s i n m i n d t h e t err a c e s
,

of th e P nyx — ri ng t o the i r s ho u ts a n d th e c l a pp i ng of the i r

h a n d s a s t hey n o w pra i s e t h i s n o w bl a me t h a t a n d bo t h
, , ,

i n o v er me a s u re : h o w can th e you t h l i s t en un move d or

-
,

a n y or di n a ry e d u ca t i on s av e h i m from b e i ng c a rr i e d a w a y

by th e a l l c onqu er i n g floo d ? Th u s i s P h i lo s ophy left

-

d e s ol a t e b ut there i s no l a ck of a s p i r a n t s t o th e va ca n t
pl a ce a t her s i de H i t her pre s s for t h e m o s t p a rt a ll
.
, ,

“ ”
t ho s e w h o h av e brough t t he i r a rt l e ts (w e m i gh t s ay ,

the i r l i tt le vi r tuo s i t i e s ) to t h e h i ghe s t p i tc h of pol i s h .

Foremo s t a mong t hem i s th e rhe t ori c i a n or a r t i s t i n s tyle ,

— I s o c ra t e s s eem s s pec i a lly a i me d a t — w i t h w hom th e

w ell rou n d e d h a rmony of a perfe ct peri o d c oun t s for e v ery
-

t h i ng , t h e i n w a r d h a rmony a n d perfe ct i on of h u m a n
c h a r a c t er for no t h i ng Left i n i s ol a t i on t h e t ru e ph i lo
.
,

s opher feel s h i m s elf a s po w erle s s a g a i n s t th e m a d ne s s of

”
t h e m a ny a s a g a i n s t th e m i ght of th e w h i rl w i n d H e .

s t ep s t i m i d ly a s i d e J u s t as a t t h e on s e t of a d us t Storm
.
-

no r re exper i en c e i n At hen s ) a m a n w i ll t a k e s hel t er

( a

beh i n d th e ne a re s t w a ll s o t h e ph i lo s opher i s c on ten t

,

i f he c a n k eep h i m s elf free from a l l s h a re i n th e c r i me s

w i t h w h i c h he c a n no t pre v e n t h i s fello w c i t i zen s s t a i n i ng -

t hem s el ve s .

I f how e ver pot en t a t e s or th e s on s of s u ch s houl d e v er

, , , ,
 TH E H I E RA R CH Y O F S CI E N CES . 83

be won o v er proj e
t o th e ct e t r n form a i on
d a s t —
a pro s pe ct

w h i c h c a n n o t b u t rem i n d u s of P l a t o s S i ci l i a n hope s
’

l a rgely b u i l t on D i on — t hen i t w i ll be ne c e s s a ry to m a k e
a c le a n s w eep o f ex i s t i ng l a w s a n d c u s t om s an d l e t t h e ,

S t a t e c om e i n to t he i r h a n ds a ta bul a r as a The gra du a t e d .

i n t elle ct u a l t r a i n i ng i s nex t t re a t e d of by w h i ch t h e ,

s av i o u r s of th e S t at e a re t o be fi tt e d for t h e execu t i on
of t he i r t as k The curri c ulum follo w s th e or d er of th e
.

s c i en c e s t hem s el ve s of w ho s e s c a le of pre c e d e n c e or
, ,

h i er a r chy (t o u s e a phra s e c o i n e d by Au g u s t e Com t e ) a

ru d i men t a ry a cc o u n t i s n o w g i v en .

A ft er t h e s c i en c e of number c ome s th at of s p ac e a n d ,

t hen t h a t of t h e s t a rs Th i s firs t a rr a ngemen t i s fort h w i th

.

c orre ct e d by t h e i n t erpo s i t i on be t w een ge o me t ry a s un d er ,

s t o o d a t t h a t d a y a n d a s t ronomy
, of a n e w bra n ch— th e ,

me a s u remen t of s ol i ds As t ronomy i s t hu s releg at e d to

.

t h e fo u rt h pl a c e be i ng pre c e d e d by a r i t hme t i c
, pl a ne ,

geome t ry a n d s ol i d geome t ry The more ab s t ract s c i en c e s

, .

a re follo w e d by t ho s e w i th a more c on c re t e s ubje ct m a t t er -

,

i n s u ch w i s e t h a t w i th e a ch s t ep t o w a r ds c on c re t ene s s
a n e w s e t of a tt r i bu t e s i s i n t ro d u ce d Th u s t h e re a lm .

of th e n u mer a ble i s more comprehen s i ve t h a n th a t of th e

ex t en d e d a n d t h e c on cep t i on of a s ol i d bo dy i s genera t e d
by th e a ddi t i o n t o th e two pl a n e d i men s i on s of t h i ck ne s s
, , ,

w h i c h i s th e t h i r d From pure figu re s i n s p ac e P l a to

.

a dv a n ce s t o bo d i e s en d o w e d w i th qu a l i t i e s by t a ki ng ,

“
a cc o u n t of th e mo t i o n s of s ol i d s or t r a n s feren c e of d ep t h
,

a s he c a ll s i t I n re a l i ty ho w e v er he only t re a t s of
. , ,

c ele s t i a l me ch a n i c s or a s t ronomy Why h a s he m a d e no

.

men t i on of t erre s t r i a l me ch a n i cs ? Why d o e s he n o t a t th e ,

le a s t re cogn i ze th e vo i d w a i t i ng to be fille d a s he d i d i n
, ,

t h e ca s e of s ol i d geome t ry ? Th i s qu es t i o n dem a n d s a n
a n s w er .

E v en i n th e c as e of a s t ronomy he d oe s n o t s ee k t h e ,

c a u s e s of mo t i on b u t t ype s of mo t i on t h e mo s t perfe c t co n
, , ,

t i n uo u s a n d or d erly po s s i ble a n d boun d u p w i t h n u mer i ca l

, ,

rel at i on s h i p s s u c h a s be s t s at i s fy m at hem at i ca l t hought

c f Vol I p Th a t t erre s t r i a l me c h a n i cs i s i n re a l i t y
( . . . .I

g o verne d by th e s a me l aw s a s cele s t i a l a n d t h at th i s w i d er ,
 84 GR EEK TH I N KE RS .

fiel d of k n o w le dge a mply fu lfil s t h e mo s t ex a cti ng d em a n d s

in po i n t of s i mpl i c i t y a n d reg u l a r i t y — a ll t h i s w a s beyon d
,
’
th e d re a m s of P l a t o s pre em i nen t ly d e d u c t i ve gen i u s
-
.

The s e u n i form i ti e s l i e h i d a t a d ep t h from w h i ch s p e cu

l a t i v e t ho u gh t ca nno t ava i l to d r a g t hem b ut only th e ,

a n a ly s i s of con c ret e pro ce s s e s Su ch w a s th e me tho d

.

purs ue d by A rch i me d e s i n s t a t i cs by G a l i le i i n dyn a m i cs

, .

The i mpre s s i on of or d er an d l aw w h i ch th e m i n d re c e i ve s
from th e mere ob s erva t i on of th e c eles t i a l phenomen a on ,

b a rely corre ct i ng th e i m me di at e me s s a ge of t h e s en s e s i s ,

pro du ce d i n c omp a ra ti v ely s m a ll me as u re by th e movemen t s

o f t erre s t r i a l obj e ct s . The t heor i es t o o w h i ch w ere gle a ne d
, ,

from th e u n a n a ly t i ca l ob s er va ti on of a ppe a ra n c e s w ere of a

s u perfi c i a l or d er a n d g a ve a fa l s e p i ct u re of t h e mo d e i n
,

As an i n s t a n c e w e m ay t a k e
’
w h i ch n a tu re s forc e s w ork .
,

t h e bel i ef— rej e c t e d only by t h e a t om i s t s — t h a t l i gh t obje cts ,

a s s u ch t en d t o r i s e or a g a i n t h a t he a vy O bj e c t s fa ll w i t h
, , ,

gre at er ra p i di t y t h e he av i er t hey a re S o me of the s e v i e w s .

w ere n o t u n acc ep t a ble to P l a t o a n d h e g a t here d them

,
“ ”
t oge t her i n h i s d o ct r i ne of n at ura l pl ac e s (cf Vol I . . .

p .
Th at w h i ch i s l i gh t a s fire t en ds to mov e
, ,

u p w a r ds w h i le t h a t w h i c h i s h e a vy a s e a r t h a n d w a t er , ,

p a s s e s do w n w a r ds — e a ch th at i s t o s ay t o w a r ds th e reg i on
, ,

w here th e m a tt er of l i k e n a t u re w i t h i ts elf i s a cc umul a t e d .

To corre ct t h es e i n a dequ a t e i n terpre ta t i on s a n d t hereby ,

t o a dva n c e t o w a r ds a s ta t emen t of t h e l a ws of mo ti on w h i ch
s houl d c omb i ne t r u t h w i t h s i mpl i c i ty w a s i mpo s s i ble w i t h ,

o u t a n a rt i fi c i a l i s ol a t i on of th e s uperpo s e d n at ur a l fa ct or s

w h i ch i n a n y g i v en c a s e m as k e a c h o t her s a cti on : i n a
’

w or d w i t hou t exper i me n t
,
. The beg i n n i ng s of di s en t a ngle
ment moreover w ere due t o m a n i pul at i on s s ervi ng pra ct i ca l
, ,

en ds a n d performe d n o t i n a ny s p i r i t of s ci en t i fi c re s e a rch
, .

M e ch a n i cs me a n t or i g i n a lly no th i ng more t h a n th e theory

of m a ch i ne s ; a n d i t w a s on e of th e s i mple s t of t hem th e ,

le v er w h i ch g av e A r i s t o tle th e fir s t h a n d le for a n i n qu i ry
,

i n t o t h e fu n da men ta l s of s t a t i cs H i s a n s w er t o t h e
.

que s t i o n w a s no d o u b t p i t i a ble enough B ut to r a i s e i t .

a t a ll he h a d t o ob s erv e oper a t i on s w h i ch P l a t o d e s p i s e d a s
”
m a n u a l a n d b a n au s i c . To m a k e s u ch d o i ng s th e s ubj e ct
 P L A TO A N D KE P L E R . 85

of s ci en t i fi c s tu dy w o u l d h av e bee n i mpo s s i ble for a m a n

w h o s hrug s h i s s houl d er s a t exper i men t s e v en w hen co n
d uct e d w i t h a purely s pe cu l a t i v e purp o s e a n d w h o m a k e s ,

merry o ver mu s i c i a n s pr i ck i ng up t he i r e a rs a n d em u lo u s ly
s t r i vi ng t o d e t erm i ne t h e s m a lle s t per c ep t i ble i n t erva l He .

w oul d h av e t h i s p a r t of phy s i cs a lmo s t th e only one w h i c h

,

“
h a d a s ye t begun t o b e cu l t i va t e d b as e d n o t on , s o un d s
”
w h i ch a re he a r d b ut on propert i e s of p u re number s
, .

S i m i l a rly he w oul d prefer t o t re at a s t ronomy a s a n

,

ex clu s i vely m athem a t i ca l s c i en ce j us t a s K epler d i d before

,

Tycho B rah e s ob s erv a t i on s s u ppl i e d h i m w i th a s ol i d b as i s

’

o f fa ct . I t i s for h i m moreo v er a s c i en c e w ho s e pure a n d

, ,

s t r i ngen t l a ws a re o n ly a pprox i m a t ely re a l i ze d by t ho s e

bo d i e s m a t eri a l a ft er a l l w h i ch w e s e e i n th e s ky I t i s
, , .

no pra ct i ca l u ti l i ty t h a t m ak e s t h i s k no w le dge v a lu able ,

nor ye t th e l i fti ng up of th e m i n d before th e my s t er i e s of

th e he a v en s .Th i s l a s t w ay of t h i n k i ng i n dee d a rou s e s , ,
”
h i s b i t ter s corn I t i s s i mplene s s of m i n d he t h i n ks t o
.
, ,
“ ”
pri ze ce i l i ng orn a men ts more h i ghly t h a n th e be a u t i ful
t h i n g s w h i c h perh a p s l i e i n t h e d ep t h s i t m a k e s no d i ffer
en c e w he ther t h e behol d er i s s w i mm i ng on h i s b a ck or on h i s
“
bre as t For t h e i n v i s i ble a n d re a lly ex i s t en t th e on e
.
,

mo d e of con templ ati on i s a s l i tt le s u i t e d as th e o ther .

“
The a i m o f t he s e s ci en c e s i s s olely th e pur i fi ca t i on a n d
” “
re v i va l of t h a t org a n w i th i n th e s o u l more pre c i ou s th a n ,
”
t e n t hou s a n d bo d i ly eye s w h i c h h a s been blu n t e d a n d
,

d i m me d by a tt en t i on t o th e t h i ng s of s en s e Al l our .

e ff or ts m u s t be d i re ct e d to th e t a s k of ra i s i ng o u rs el ve s
a bo ve th e re a lm of B e com i ng t o t ru e ex i s ten ce t h a t ,

i s to th e re a lm of t h e a rche type s a n d a s th e culm i n at i on

, ,

“ ”
an d c ro w n of t hem to t h e i d e a of t h e goo d
,
.

.
3 Th i s l as t i s c omp a re d w i t h th e s u n c on s i d ere d a s ,

th e s ourc e n o t only of l i gh t a n d v i s i on b u t of th e gener a ,

t i on a n d gro w th of v i s i ble t h i n g s The i d e a of th e goo d

.

i s fo r P l a t o t h e h i ghe s t ca us e a t on c e of a ll k no w le dge a n d
of a ll be i ng I t i s th e c en t ra l en t i t y w h i ch a t t h i s ph a s e of
.

h i s d e v elopmen t a lmo s t o ccu p i e s t h e pl ac e of t h e s u prem e

per s on a l De i ty For us i t i s d i ffi cu l t i f n o t i mpo s s i ble t o
.
, ,

gra s p t h i s tho ugh t w i th fu ll cle a rne s s A s t epp i ng s ton e .

-

V O L I II
. . H
 GRE EK TH I N KERS .

t o wa r d s i t, as been r i gh t ly rem a rk e d i s t o be fo u n d
h as ,

”
i n th e pure a n d d i v i ne be a ut y of t h e Sympo s i u m
“
a l a t er d i a logue th e
,
Ph i l e b u s w i ll pre s en t u s w i t h a
,

d i fferen t c on c ep t i o n of th e goo d The c ra vi ng s een i n th e

.
,

”
P h ae d o , fo r a t eleolog i c a l t re a t men t of n a t u r a l s ci en c e
”
re c e i v e s l i gh t from t h i s p a r t of th e Republ i c Goo d n e s s .
,

i n t h e s en s e of bene v olen c e a n d b e n e fic e n ce i s n o t fore i gn ,

t o t h e c on c ep t i n q u e s t i on b u t by no me a n s form s t h e
,

pri n ci p a l p a r t of i t s c on t en t P erm a n e n c e s t ab i l i ty w ell

.
, ,

be i ng or der s u bord i n a ti on t o purpo s e — t he s e a r e t h e c h i ef

, , ,

i ngre di en ts i n i t w h i le A n a x a gor a s a n d th e P y th a gore a n

,

ph i lo s ophy h av e been l a i d u n d er c on t ri bu t i on I t i s n o t free .

from th e con t ra d i ct i on s w h i ch b e s e t t h e E x i s t i n g or Re a l of
E u cl i d e s by h i m i d en t i fie d w i t h t h e goo d (c f Vol I I p
,
. . . .

To t h e i de a of t h e goo d th e o ther i d e a s o w e t he i r ex i s t en ce .

B ut w hen c e a r i s e w e va i nly a s k t ho s e a r c he t ype s or i d e a s

, ,

w h i c h pre s i d e o v er t h e re a lm of th e m e a n a n d t h e t r i vi a l ,

th e e vi l a n d th e no x i o u s S u c h i d e a s a re n ece s s a ry t o th e
’
c on s i s t en c y of P l a t o s t ho u gh t a n d a r e p a rt i a lly re c og n i ze d
, ,
”
t ho ugh w i t h rel u c ta n c e by So c r a t e s i n t h e
, P a rmen i d e s .

The d oc t r i ne of i d e a s i s i n t ro du c e d by a br i ll i a n t
me t aphor i n w h i ch e a r thly ex i s t en c e i s comp a re d t o a
,

s ojourn i n a s u b t err a ne a n d w ell i ng I n t h i s c av ern men

.

p a s s t he i r w h ole l i fe prev en t e d by ch a i n s from mo vi ng

,

t he i r ne ck s or leg s B eh i n d t hem t here a re per s on s p a s s i ng

.

t o a n d fro on a r a i s e d pl a t form hol di ng up a l l k i n ds of ,

obj e cts w oo den a n d s t one i m a ge s of a n i m a l s pl a n ts a n d

, , ,

s o on ,
a bo v e a bre a s tw ork or s c reen O ver an d beh i n d .

t hem a fl a me burn s Thu s t h e s h a d ow s t hro w n by th e

.

i m a ge s a re a l l t h at th e c av e d w ellers c a n s e e-
For t hem .

t h i s w orl d of s h a d o w s i s t h e only re a l i ty I f one of t hem .

w ere t o h av e h i s c h a i n s loo s e d a n d b e a llo w e d t o t urn h i s

,

he a d a n d s e e th e l i gh t or w a l k t o w a rd s i t he w oul d s uffer
, ,

p a i n ; he w o u l d h a r dly be a ble t o be a r t h e bri gh t ne s s of

t h e fl a me a n d he w o u l d t h i n k t h e s c ene before h i s eye s
,

le s s re a l t h a n t h at to wh i ch he h a d b een a ccu s t ome d B u t .

s uppo s e h i m d r a gge d forc i bly u p t h e s t eep p a t h w h i c h

le a ds o u t of t h e ca v e i n to th e s u n l i gh t H e w o u l d be .

i n di gn a n t a n d th e d a zzl i ng gl a re w o u l d pre ven t h i m from

,
 TH E A LLE G OR Y O F TH E CA VE . 87

s ee i ng a ny t h i ng o f w h a t w oul d n o w be o ff ere d h i m a s t ru th .

O n ly by d egree s w oul d h i s eye be come a cc u s tome d to t h e

l i gh t of th e u pper w orl d At fi rs t he w o u l d be a ble to s e e
.

s h a d o w s t hen reflex i on s i n w a t er a ft er wa r d s t h i ng s t hem

, ,
~

s el ve s i n t i me he w oul d le a rn to loo k u pon t h e moo n a n d

s t a rs
, l a s t of a l l upon th e l i gh t of th e Sun h i m s elf Shoul d .

he ever re tu rn t o th e cave a n d a tt emp t t o free th e o thers

,

from the i r i mpr i s o n men t a n d le a d t hem up t o th e l i gh t ,

t hey w oul d be fur i o u s w i t h h i m a n d i f t hey c o u l d p u t

, , ,

h i m t o d e ath .

The a llegory h a r d ly nee ds any w or d of expl a n ati on .

No o n e w i ll nee d t o be t ol d th at th e t h i ng s of e a rt h
i llum i n at e d by th e re a l s u n th e i m a ge s of the s e t h i ng s
,

ca rr i e d i n th e cav e a n d t h e s h a d o w s s een by t h e pr i s oner s

,

me a n no th i ng el s e t h a n t h e a rche type s i ll u m i n a t e d by th e ,

i d e a l s u n or i de a of th e goo d t h e e a r thly c op i e s of t hem

, ,

a n d t h e i mpre s s i on s w ho s e be i ng i s more t h a t of a s h a d o w
,

th a n of a s ub s t a n c e pro d u c e d by t he s e c op i e s on t h e
,

s e n s e s of m an Follo w i ng o n t h i s p a rable w e h av e a d i s
.

t i n ct i on d raw n be t w een four s t a ge s of k no wle dge a n d four

c orre s pon d i ng s pe c i e s of th e k no wable Tw o of t hem .

belong to t h e w orl d of exper i en ce tw o to t h e s phere of ,

c on c ep ts The r i s i ng s ca le i s forme d by s en s i ble i m a ge s

.

a n d s en s i ble t h i ng s by m a t hem a t i c a l form s a n d a rc he type s

,
“ ”
or i d e a s The t wo firs t c ompo s e th e re a lm of op i n i on
.
,

or emp i r i c i s m e s t ra nge d from t h e s t r i ct k no w le dge of c o n

“
c e p ts . Wi th i n t h i s re a lm conj e ctu re i s s ep a ra t e d from
,
” ”
bel i ef or convi ct i on
,
The obj e ct s of th e u n certa i n o r
.
,

c onj e ct ur a l s t a ge of k no w le dge a r e no d o u b t t o be foun d

,

i n t hos e ki n ds of s en s e percep t i on w h i c h a re frequen t

-

s our c e s of i ll u s i on ; prob a bly t oo i n th e emp i r i c a l l a ws

, ,

w h i ch a re va l i d only for a m ajor i ty of c a s e s Th e obje ct s .

of bel i ef w i l l be th e more t rus tw or thy ki n ds of perc ep t i o n

a n d t h e more c ert a i n i n feren c e s w h i c h c a n be d ra w n from
”
t hem . Th i s w hole w orl d of B e com i ng h as fo r i t s
“
a n t i t he s i s t h e w orl d of B e i ng The k no w le dge of i t i s
.

m a d e po s s i ble by t wo fa c tors w h i c h i n c omb i n a t i on a re

s c i en c e — c ogn i t i on by t h e un d er s t a n d i ng a n d
“
t erme d
t h e re a s on To th e l atter we can only a tt a i n un der t h e
.
 GR EEK TH I N KER S .

g u i d a n c e of d i a le ct i c w h i ch a l o n e s o i t i s c l a i me d can
, , ,

re ach i ts h i gh go a l w i thou t help from s en s e percep t i o n -

,

“
s olely by t h e i n v e s t i g a t i on of c on cep t s The u n d er .

s t a n di ng i s at hom e i n th e va r i ou s b r a n che s of m athe

m a t i e s th e rel at i v e i nferi ori ty of w h i ch b e t ray s i ts elf i n
,

t he i r i n ca p aci ty to d i s pen s e en t i rely w i th th e d a t a of s en s e .

’
I t i s t rue t h at t hey r i s e t o quo t e P l a t o s i n s t a n ce from
, ,

t h e p a rt i cu l a r qu a dr i l a t era l a n d t h e p a r t i cul a r d i a gon a l t o

th e qu a d ri l a t er a l a n d th e d i a gon a l i n t hem s el ve s an d

a s th i s i s i n h i s l a ngu a ge a n eq u i va len t expre s s i on fo r t h e

“ ”
i d ea of t he s e form s on e d oe s n o t a t firs t s e e w h y a
,

s c i en c e o cc upy i ng i t s el f w i t h t he s e i d e a s s houl d b e i nfer i or

’
t o a ny o t her The d i ff eren c e i n P l a t o s eye s s eem s t o be
.

t h a t t h e m a t hem at i ci a n m a n i pul at e s con c ep t s w h i ch he d oe s

n o t re d u c e to t he i r elem en t s w h i le d i a le ct i c h a s pre c i s ely
,

t h i s re d u ct i on for i t s pr i n ci p a l t a s k R u di men ta ry e s s ay s
.

i n t h i s s pe c i e s of a n a ly s i s are t o b e m e t w i th i n P l a t o s
’

l at er w orks e s peci a lly w here he refers t o th e fu n da men t a l

,

c on c ep ts of l i m i t a n d t h e unl i m i te d I t h as been rem a rk e d

.

w i t h s ome j u s t i c e t h a t s u c h a c re at i on a s mo d ern a n a ly t i c a l
geome t ry w h i ch t r a n s l at e s s p a t i a l c on c ep ts i n t o numer i ca l
,

c on c ep t s a n d repre s en t s t h e
, c i r c le a n d t h e ell i p s e for ,

ex a mple by s l i ght ly d i fferi ng mo d i fi cat i o ns of th e s a m e

,

form u l a or a g a i n th e genera l t heory of n u mbers w oul d

, , ,

h av e i n a me as ure s at i s fie d th e d em a n d s of P l a to .

I n a me a s u re b ut n o t w holly
, For b eyon d a doub t he
.

w oul d a l way s h av e re s erv e d t h e fir s t pl a c e for t h e s ci en ce

“ ”
of c on c ep ts w h i ch a lone d i s pen s e s w i t h a ll hypo t he s e s
, ,

“
w h i ch gr a du a lly l i fts up t o t h e l i gh t th e eye of th e s o u l
b u ri e d i n s l i me a n d to w h i ch th e o ther s ci en c e s ren der
,

“ “ ”
s erv i c e only a s fello w helpers a n d fello w g u i d e s
- -
.

The preferen ce for d i a le ct i c expre s s e d here an d el s e

w here i n P l at o be s pe a k s a n i n t elle ct u a l a t ti t u d e w h i ch i s
a lmo s t t h e oppo s i t e of t h a t of mo d ern s c i en c e For h i m .

a l l t h a t i s g i v e n i n exper i en c e c o u n ts a s a h i n d r a n c e a n d

a b a rr i er t o be bro k en t hrough ; w e on t h e o ther h a n d

, ,

w h i le leg i t i m a t ely s t r i v i ng for gre a t er s i mpl i c i ty i n our

c on c ep t i on of t h e u n i v er s e a r e le a rn i ng t o c on t en t our
,

s el ve s more a n d m ore w i t h w h a t i s s o g i v en a n d t o reg a r d ,

 G R EEK TH I N KE RS .

t hey re a c h th e t o pmos t r u ng of ph i lo s ophy Wh a t rem a i n s .

of the i r l i fe t hey d e vo t e pr i n c i p a lly t o ph i lo s oph i c a l co n

t e m pl a t i o n ; b u t i n a d di t i on a s men n o t d e s i ro u s of be a r i ng
,

r u le a n d for t h a t v ery re a s on th e m o s t c a lle d t o rule t hey

, ,

t a k e p a r t a s t he i r t urn c ome s roun d i n th e re a l go v ern

, ,

me n t of th e S ta t e .

A l t ho u gh t h i s s chem e m ay s t ri ke us a s be i ng c on c e i v e d
i n a s ome w h at m a n d a r i n l i k e s p i r i t t w o po i n ts a bou t
-
,

i t s houl d n o t be fo rgo tt en w h i ch d i s t i ng u i s h i t t o i ts ,

a d v a n t a ge from mo d ern s y s t em s of S t a t e e d u c a t i on
, A ll .

c on s t r a i n t e very th i ng t h at m a k e s le a r n i ng a t a s k a n d a
,

burd en r a ther th a n a d el i gh t ful exerci s e of n a t u ra l po w ers ,

i s rep u g n a n t t o P l a t o ; he w oul d k no ck a t th e d oor a s i t ,

w ere of e very s l u mber i ng fac ul t y of e v ery i n d i vi d u a l i n

, ,

or d er t o rou s e i t t o a c t i o n No r d oe s th e i d e a l i s t e ver
.

fo rge t t h e bo dy a n d i ts d em a n ds B e s i d e s th e cont i nu a l .

a l t ern a t i on of pr a c t i ca l a n d t heore t i c a l or m i l i t a ry a n d c i v i l
,

o cc up a t i on s th e u n i n terrupt e d practi c e of gymn as t i c i s

,

d e s i gne d t o k eep th e bo dy n o le s s fre s h a n d e ffi ci en t t h a n

“
t h e s o u l a n d gu a r d ag a i n s t th e one k i n d of
. l i mp i ng
one s i d e dne s s a s m uc h a s a g a i n s t th e o ther Th e s a llo w
-
.

’
c hee k e d n a rro w che s t e d boo kw orm w a s a s l i tt le t o P l a t o s
,
-

’
t a s t e a s t o Goe the s .

5 .The e i gh t h boo k t a k e s up a g a i n t h e t hre a d w h i c h

h a d been d roppe d a t t h e beg i nn i ng of th e fift h The .

d i gre s s i on t here begun i s brough t t o a c lo s e The e di fi c e .

of th e perfe ct c on s t i t u t i on no longer l ack s foun da t i on a n d

c op i ng (c f p . t here i s n o w n o th i ng t o pre v en t t h e
.

i mperfe c t type s w he t her of c on s t i t u t i on s or of men from

, ,

be i ng c omp a re d a n d con t r a s t e d w i th i t Nor t i ll t hey h a ve .

been p a s s e d i n re vi e w w i ll a fi n a l a n s w er be po s s i ble t o t h e
“
que s t i on w he ther th e be s t m an i s a l s o th e h a pp i e s t a n d ,
”
t h e w or s t m a n t h e mo s t m i s er a ble Fo u r form s of t h e
.

S t at e a r e d i s ti ngu i s he d— t i mo c racy ol i g a rchy d emo cr acy , , ,

t yr a nny .B y t i m a rch y or t i mo cr acy i s me a n t n o t a s i n ,

A ri s t o t le t h e ru le of t h e w e a l t hy w h i c h i s by preferen c e
, ,

t erme d ol i g a r chy b u t t h e t ype of c on s t i t u t i on re a l i ze d i n

,

Cre t e a n d Sp a r ta th e v i t a l pr i n c i ple of w h i ch i s th e pu rs u i t
,

of min i or honour The d e s cen di ng s er i e s i n d i ca t e a t on c e

,
.
 TH E D E G E N E R A TE F ORM S O F P OL I TY .
91

th e or d er i n r a n k a n d th e or d er i n t i m e of th e con s t i t ut i on s .

Tw o po i n t s a re t herefore prom i nen t i n th e expo s i t i on

“
t h e s ca le of mer i t a n d t h e h i s t or i ca l s equen c e (t h e t ra n s i
”
t i on s ) of t he s e form s of go v ernmen t Th i s c omb i n at i on
.

of t w o po i n t s o f v i e w i s n o t a l w a y s po s s i ble w i thou t s ome

“
v i o len c e .Thu s t h e mo s t l a u d a ble o f a ll h i s tor i ca l c o n
s t i t u ti o n s h a s t o be repre s en t e d a s a pro d u c t o f d e ca y a s ,

a p s eu d o a r i s t o c r ac y w h i c h i s a d egener a t e fo rm o f t h e re a l
-

t h i ng . B ut a s t h i s l a t t er i s t h e P l at on i c i d e a l a s ye t no ,

w here re a l i ze d o n e a rt h i t i s t a c i t ly repl a c e d firs t by

,

p at r i a rch a l mon a rchy t hen by th e c orre s po n di ng type of

,

a ri s t o c r a cy a n d t h e ho a ry p a s t i s t h u s c re d i t e d w i t h a
,

pol i t i ca l perfe ct i on w h i c h i t ne ver re a lly po s s e s s e d In .

“ ” “ ”
th e T i m ae us a n d t h e C r i t i as th e va gue i n d i ca ti on s
here g iv en a re w o rk e d o ut a s fa r a s reg a r ds th e pr i m i ti ve
,

a ge of At hen s w i t h poe t i c free d om

, Tw o mo t i v e s s eem
.

’
t o u n d erl i e t h i s pro ce d ure of P l a t o s : t h e s t r i vi ng w e h av e
a lre a dy not e d t o w a r d s a s y s t em a t i c ph i l o s ophy o f h i s t ory ,

a n d th e nee d fel t a l s o by A n t i s thene s for s u pport i ng

, ,

fa ct s e ven h a lf fict i t i o u s facts by w h i ch h i s i de a l p i ct ure

,
-
,

m i ght be re d eeme d from th e ch a r a cter of a pure U t op i a ,

a n d th e d o u b t s l a i d t o re s t w h i c h e v e n h e fel t a s to t h e

po s s i b i l i ty of re a l i z at i on .

There a re o ther m at ters t o o i n c on nex i on w i th w h i c h th e

, ,

ph i lo s opher a ppe a rs i n th e g u i s e o f a n i m a g i n a t i ve w ri t er .

I t i s c le a rly rep u gn a n t t o h i m t o m a i n t a i n a d ry di d a c t i c
t one t hro u ghou t h i s h i s t or i c a l a n d pol i t i ca l expo s i t i on s .

H e prefers t o c lo the t hem a s one m a y s ay i n p a r a ble s

, , ,

i n w h i c h a c h a r a ct er i s t i c i n s t a n c e t a k e s t h e pl ac e of a
gener a l pro ce s s By t h i s me a n s he a l s o s u cc ee d s i n g i vi ng
.

i mme d i a t e expre s s i on t o th e a n a logy p a r t ly re a l p a rt ly , ,

a rt i fi ci a l be t w een form s of t h e S ta t e a n d type s of i n di v i d u a l

,

c h a r a ct er .

Al l e a r thly t h i ng s a re s ubj e ct t o d e ca y a n d t h a t ,

a cc or d i ng t o a cy c l i c l a w by w h i c h t h e e n d i s c onne c t e d

w i t h th e beg i nn i ng An a t t emp t i s m a d e t o embo dy t h i s

.

l a w i n a m a t hem at i ca l expre s s i on w h i c h i s fa mou s u n d er

“ ”
t h e n a me of t h e P l at on i c n u mber a n d h a s been t h e
,

d e s p a i r of c om men t at ors I t i s w i t h h u m a n ge n er a t i o n
.
 GR E E K TH I N K E RS .

as wi th th e fru i t s of th e fie l d— i ll gro wth s w i ll a ppe a r

o cca s i on a lly Our i gnora n c e of t he s e my s t er i ou s pro c e s s e s
.

a d ds t o t h e d i ffi c ul ty of t a k i ng t i mely pre ca u t i on s The .

c ro s s i ng of s u per i or w i t h i n fer i or s t o ck s c a u s e s t h e r a c e

t o d egener a t e S i l ver (Pl a t o re t urn s t o a former i m a ge

.
,

see p 69 ) re c e i v e s a n a d m i x t ure of i ron gol d of bronze

.
,
.

I nequ a l i ty a n d i rregul a r i ty en s u e w h i c h a re e very w here ,

t h e c a u s e s of enm i ty a n d w a r P e a ce i s a t l a s t m a d e on
.

t erm s w h i c h i n vol v e t w o c on s equen c e s : t h e d e n at i o n al i z a

t i on or con ver s i on i n to pr i va t e proper ty of l a n d a n d t h e
, , ,

“ ”
en s l avemen t of th e pro te ct e d or lo w er c l a s s e s Thu s a
, , .

m i xe d form c om e s i n t o be i ng i n term e di a t e be tw een th e,

i d e a l S ta t e a n d th e firs t s t a ge of c orr u p t i on exh i b i t i ng , ,

t herefore s ome ch a r a ct er i s t i c s of bo th
, The a b s t i nen c e .

of th e upper c l as s from al l purs u i t of g a i n th e com mon ,

me a l s of th e men t h e a s s i duou s pra ct i c e of gym n a s t i c a re

, ,

fe a t ure s w h i ch i t s h a re s wi th th e h i gher type ; w i t h th e

lo w er i t a gree s i n th e me a ner va lue s e t on s ci enc e i n ,

th e preferen c e of w a rl i ke a bo v e pe ac eful o ccu p a t i on s i n th e ,

i n cre a s e d d e s i re for w e a l th Cret e a n d more p a rt i c ul a rly

.
,
’
Sp a r t a h av e here s erve d a s P l at o s mo d el s a n d by t r a n s
, ,

ferr i ng t he i r fe a ture s to h i s p age he h i m s elf g i ve s us t h e

“ ”
k e y t o s ome of th e h i s t ori ca l elemen t s i n h i s p attern
S tat e The a greem en t ex t en d s to qu i t e s ubor d i n a t e d e ta i l s
.
,

s u c h a s th e e va d i ng of th e l a w by a cc um u l a t i ng t re a s ure

a bro a d The ch i ef c h a r a cter i s ti c of t i m arch y ho w ever i s

.
, ,

“ ”
th e pre d om i n a n c e of t h e m i dd le or s p i r i te d ,p a r t of
t h e s oul .

The nex t s t a ge on th e d o w n wa rd p at h i s m a rk e d by th e
i n c re a s e d po w er of p r i va t e i n t ere s t w h i ch h a s been k ep t ,

i n re s t r a i n t by ex t ern a l che cks r a t her t h a n by i n t ern a l

“ ”
s u bj ug a ti on Wi th th e money c he s t d eca d en ce i n va d e s
.
-

t h e S t at e We a l th t urn s t h e b a l a n c e a n d vi rt ue ki ck s
.
,

th e be a m Ol i g a rchy or t h e r u le of t h e r i ch c ome s i n t o
.
, ,

ex i s ten ce Tho s e of s len der me a n s — b y w hom a re a l w a ys

.

me a n t th e le s s w ell to do a mong t h e u pper c l a s s — lo s e a l l

- -

t he i r s h a re of pol i t i ca l pr i vi lege s The S ta t e i s t h us more

.

poorly s u ppl i e d w i t h t a len t I t i s m u ch a s i f th e m ore

.

c ompe t en t b ut poorer p i lo t w ere c ompelle d t o y i el d pl a c e

94 GR EEK TH I NK E RS .

w h ich pro d uce d ol i g a rchy The r i ch e v er d e s i re to be c ome

.

r i cher a n d they s i t i n t h e s e a t of a u thor i ty Accor d i ngly .

,

a l l t h e b a rr i er s a re t orn d o w n w h i c h m i gh t pre v en t ex

t r av ag a n ce a n d fi n a n ci a l ru i n on t h e one s i d e a n d th e ,

e n r i chmen t of money len d ers an d buyer s up of l a n d o n th e

- -

o ther (The s e v e ry e vi l s h a d been experi en c e d at Thebe s

.

i n t h e ol d en d ay s a n d P h i lol au s of Cori n t h h a d s o u gh t t o
,

mee t t hem by h i s a dop t i on l aw s th e obje ct of w h i c h w a s ,

“
to m a i n ta i n th e lo t s of l a n d un di m i n i s he d i n
I mpo v er i s he d a n d i n deb t e d m ember s of t h e r u l i ng c l a s s ,

w h o a re y e t i n m a ny c a s e s men of h i gh g i ft s an d h i gh a i m s ,

be come i n t he i r emb i tt ermen t a n d t he i r d e s i re for i nno

,

v a t i on , a d a nger t o t h e S t a t e — a d a nger t o w h i c h th e
le a d i ng pol i t i ci a n s k eep t he i r eye s c a refu lly c lo s e d For .

t he s e po s s e s s or s of po w er a r e t o o c o v e t o u s t o a dop t t h e
a ppropr i a t e reme d i e s t o c onfin e b u s i ne s s t ra n s a ct i on s
,

w i t h i n n a rro w er bo u n ds or t o w i t h d r a w t h e p ro t e ct i on of
,

t h e l a w from mo d e s of a c qu i r i ng ex c e s s i v e w e a l t h I n th e .

long ru n i t i s t ru e t h e ru lers them s el ve s d o n o t e s cape

, ,

u n h a rme d Goo d l i vi ng enerva te s t hem a nx i e ty for g a i n

.

d r i v e s a l l o ther i n t ere s t s i n t o th e b ack groun d t hey c e a s e

from th e exert i on s n e ce s s a ry to k eep t hem e ffi ci en t a n d
s u per i or t o th e unmoneye d c l as s S o i t c ome s a bou t t h a t
.

th e s u nb u m t s i ne w y a n d s ta l w a rt s o n of th e people le a rn s
, ,

to d e s p i s e th e blo a t e d s hort w i n de d helple s s pl u t o cr a t w h o

,
-
,

m ay s t a n d be s i d e h i m i n th e r a n k s B y s u c h c omp a r i s on s
.

t h e m a s s e s be c ome a w a re of t he i r s uper i or i ty a n d feel t h e ,

c on t i nu a n c e of t he i r ex clu s i on from po w er a n d proper t y a s

a di s gr a c e Only a s l i gh t i mpul s e i s then nee d e d s ay a n

. ,

a ll i a n c e w i t h a s i m i l a r fa ct i on i n a n e i ghbour i ng S t a t e t o ,

k i n d le a con t e s t w h i ch i f th e poorer s i d e w i n s w i ll le a d to
, , ,

d emo cr acy .

P l at o s a t ti t u de t ow a r ds d emo cr ac y w i ll o cc upy u s i n
’

t h e s equel Th i s w a s th e form of go vern men t u n d er w h i ch

.

he l i v e d a n d w ork e d t h e one w h i ch a cc or di ng t o a l a w
, ,

formul at e d by h i m s elf— th e l a w of re a ct i on— pro du ce d t h e

mo s t po w erful e ffe ct upon h i s m i n d The e vi l s w h i ch he .

h a s h i m s elf exper i en c e d a ffe ct h i m s o s t rongly t h a t l i t tle

room rem a i n s for o ther i mpre s s i on s No t one gle a m of .
 TH E E VI L S O F D E M O CR A C Y .
95

l igh t rel i eve s th e mono tonou s bl a ck ne s s of h i s p i ctu re .

Dem o c racy i s for h i m n o t on e c on s t i tu ti on b ut a m a r t of ,

”
c on s t i t u t i o n s
. S o gre a t i s i ts m co n s t a n cy s o c onfu s i ng ,

th e mot ley mul t i form i t y w h i ch c ompo s e s i t s be i ng Th a t .

h e s houl d be t h e fr i en d of th e people i s th e one d em a n d

m a de on t h e pol i t i ci a n h i s all i n a ll t h a t s ta n ds for ev ery
,
- -

ex cellen c e a n d c ompen s a t e s e v ery d efe c t The l a w s of .

d emo c r a cy rem a i n a d e a d le tt er i t s free d om i s a n a rchy i t s

, ,
“ ”
equ a l i ty t h e equ a l i ty of t h e unequ a l .

I t i s mu ch t h e s a me i n t h e bre a s t of th e i n di v i du a l .

For t h e d emo c ra t i c m a n a l l d e s i re s a re on a lev el Th a t .

h e s ho u l d re s pe ct s ome a n d d i s c i pl i ne o thers i s t e a ch i ng to
w h i ch he w i ll n o t l i s t en All e th i ca l con c ep t i on s a r e
.

t u rne d i n s i d e o u t .As l i bert i n a ge be c ome s free d om a n d

s h a mele s s ne s s m a nly i n d epen d en c e s o mo d er a t i on be c ome s
,

w e a k ne s s a n d p i o u s a w e i mbe c i l i ty All noble qu a l i t i e s of

.

c h a r a ct er a re pl ac e d u n d er b a n a n d d r i v en w i t h c on t u mely

o u t of t h e c i ty j u s t a s w ere t h e be s t men w hen d emo c r a cy

,

w a s foun d e d . I n th i s d e s cr i p t i on t here a re t wo po i n ts of
p a rt i cu l a r i n t ere s t : a un i que b u t u nm i s tak a ble referen ce to
a p as s a ge i n Th u cy d i d e s a n d t h e p a r a llel w h i ch w e h a v e
, ,

n o t p u r s ue d i n t o i t s fine s t d e t a i l s b e tw een t h e proc e s s e s

,

w i th i n th e d emo c r at i c s oul a n d t h e c orre s pon d i ng pol i t i ca l

phenomen a— a p a r a llel w h i ch i s oft en forc e d a n d o ver
lo a d e d w i t h i m a gery I t provo k es a s m i le t o c omp a re th i s
.

m i s u s e of th e i m a g i n at i on w i t h th e w hole s a le co n d e mn a
t i on of t h at fac ul ty w h i ch P l at o pronoun c e s i n h i s a t ta ck
on poe t ry a n d poe ts .

Democ racy i s follow e d by tyra nny — t h e m a x i m u m of

l i bert y by th e m a x i m u m of s erv i t u d e I t i s i n dee d a .
, ,

fu n da men t a l l a w th e opera t i on of w h i ch i n c l u de s bo th
,

n at ure a n d h u m a n l i fe t h at ex t reme s genera t e e a ch o ther

,

re c i pro ca lly J u s t a s ol i g a rchy w a s d e s t roye d by th a t

.

w h i c h u n d er i t w a s pr i ze d a s th e h i ghe s t goo d a n d m a d e
t h e obj e c t of ex c l u s i v e pur s u i t— b y th e l u s t of r i che s — s o
a l s o i s i t w i t h d emoc r a cy th e d o w n fa ll of w h i ch i s bro u gh t
,

a bo u t by i ts ex c e s s i v e a n d one s i d e d d e v o t i on t o l i bert y
-
.

The s a m e i n s a t i a b i l i ty m a rk s t h e t w o ca s e s A n d w hen .

evi l cup be a rers g i ve th e S t at e w h i ch th i rs t s for free dom

-
, ,
96 G REE K TH I N K E RS .

to o st rong a d ra ugh t i t lo s e s i ts s en s e s I t rev i le s th e

, .

“ ”
mo d era te pol i t i c i a n s a s a bom i n a ble ol i g a rch s a n d r e ,

p ro a ch e s t he i r a d heren t s for pl u ng i n g w i lfu lly i n to s l a v ery .

The c i t i zen s s oon fin d t hem s el ve s l i vi ng i n a t op s y tu r vy -

w orl d o ut of w h i c h all a u t hor i ty h a s v a n i s he d

, F a thers .

fe a r t he i r s o n s me t i cs fore i gners a n d ev e n s l a ve s a r e p ut
, ,

o n a le v el w i th c i t i zen s ; t h e v ery a n i m a l s p a ra d e t h e
s t ree t s w i th a prou d a i r of i n d epen d en c e a n d j o s t le w h o

e ver w i ll n o t s t a n d o u t of t he i r p a th Bu t th e d e ci di ng .

“ ”
v o i c e i n t h e S t a t e i s t h a t of t h e d rone s of th e po w erful ,

o n e s w i t h s t i ng s a s w ell a s t h e w e ak a n d s ti ngle s s th e firs t ,

of w h i ch can le a d th e s ec on d only by offer i ng t hem m uch

“ “
honey . A l i t t le h o ney t o o mu s t be p a i d t o t h e m as s of
, ,

wa ge e a rner s here for th e firs t t i me m en t i one d

-
, Wh at i s .

t hu s g i v en mu s t fir s t be t ak en from t h e po s s e s s ors If .

t he s e ho w e v er d efen d t hem s el ve s i n t he i r ex t rem i ty t hey

, , ,

a r e a c cu s e d of ol i g a r ch i c a l d e s i gn s a n d t h e people c r for
y,

a pro t e ct or . Th i s pro t e ctors h i p i s t h e roo t from w h i ch

t yr a nny S pr i ng s The pro t ec tor or a gent of th e people
.
, ,

t hre a t en s t h e l i fe no le s s t h a n t h e propert y of t h e w e a l thy .

H i s d e coy c a ll s a re prom i s e s i n v ol vi ng th e ex t i n ct i on of
-

d eb t s a n d t h e d i v i s i on of l a n d H e goe s to th e leng t h of
.

u t i l i z i ng th e l a w co ur ts a n d pro c ur i ng c a p i t a l s en t en c e s
-
.

On c e h avi ng t as t e d bloo d ho we ver he m u s t s oon fa c e t h e

, ,

c ho i c e be t w een fa ll i ng a v i ct i m t o h i s e nem i e s a n d s e i z i ng

a b s olu t e po w er H i s nex t s t ep i s t h e requ e s t for a bo dy

.

gu a rd w h i ch i s t o s e c ure t h e fr i en d a n d pro t e ctor of t h e

,

people a g a i n s t ho s ti le m ach i n a t i on s I f t h i s reque s t i s .

gra n t e d i t i s n o t long b efore he s ta n ds i n th e S t a t e

,

c h a r i o t ere c t a n d s ubl i me i n al l h i s glory : t h e t r i bun e h a s

,

be com e t h e tyr a n t .

H i s c a reer i s d i vi d e d i n t o s e v er a l ph a s e s At firs t he .

”
is a ll s m i le s a n d a ffa b i l i t y ; he s a t i s fie s h i s o w n fa cti on

by fu lfill i ng h i s prom i s e s B u t a l l th e w h i le th e momen t

.

i s a ppro a ch i ng w hen he m u s t m ak e h i m s elf i n d i s pen s a ble

t o t h e people .For t h i s p u rpo s e he c on t r i ve s fore ign w a rs ,

by w h i ch he g a i n s ye t o ther a dva n t a ge s The proper ty of .

h i s opponen t s i s e a t en u p by e x t r a or d i n a ry t a x a t i on ; t h e
c on d u ct of a c a mp a i gn pro v i d e s fa vo u r a ble opport u n i t i e s
98 GR E E K TH I N K ERS .

ob s er ver a n d d e s c ri be s th e gr a d u a l tr a n s fo r
d i s p a s s i on a t e ,
’
m a ti on of th e people s a dvo c at e h i s tyra n t s progre s s a s ,
’

a n i ne v i t a ble ne c e s s i t y a cc ompl i s h i ng i ts elf s t ep by s t ep So .

fa r h i s acc oun t i s n o t w i t ho u t a t o uc h of c omp as s i on But .

s u dd enly he be c ome s a fier c e a cc u s er for w hom th e tyr a n t

,

i s th e q u i n t e s s en c e of a ll t h a t i s d e s p i ca ble a n d h a t efu l ,

d e s t i tu t e from th e beg i nn i ng of e v ery germ of noble

feel i ng .P l a t o h as been rou s e d t o s t rong emo t i o n
memor i e s of h i s o w n exper i en c e s len d b i tt ern e s s to h i s
l a ngu a ge a t th e s a me t i m e h e i s ben t on demon s t ra ti ng
,
“
th e m a i n the s i s of th e Republ i c : The mo s t unj u s t of
m en i s a l s o t h e mo s t m i s erable .

6 As i f t o l ay s t i ll d eeper foun d a ti on s for t h i s momen

.

t o u s d e c i s i on P l at o (a t t h e beg i nn i ng of t h e n i n t h boo k)
,

s ee k s th e tyr a nn i ca l n a t u re i n pro c e s s of m a nufact ure .

Two generat i on s a re requ i re d for i t s pro d u ct i on I ts .

grow th i s ca u s e d by th e m ore a n d more luxuri a n t d e velop

men t of p a s s i on s for w h i ch d emo c racy (here loo ke d a t
w i t h a more len i en t eye a s th e fo i l of tya nny) h a d prep a re d
,

t h e groun d Th e w i l d be as t w h i ch s leep s i n e very m a n

.
,

a n d a t t i me s e s pe c i a lly by n i gh t a w a k e s to r a ge a n d ro a r
, , ,

“
i s free d from e v ery re s t r a i n i ng c urb ; th e her d o f wi ld
”
a n d mu t i nou s d e s i re s i s l e t loo s e O ut of t h e m a ny .

“
p a s s i on s one come s forw a r d as m as t er a s th e t yr a n t ,
”
w i th i n th e s oul a n d th e o t her d e s i re s form i t s bo d y g u a r d
,
-
.

H ere to o a r e s oon enrolle d th e b as er t en den ci e s on c e

, , ,

repre s s e d b ut n o w em a n c i p a te d th e goo d i mpul s e s w h i ch

,

re s i s t t hem a re k i lle d or b a n i s he d ; th e m a n s s oul i s ’

p u rge d of t empera n c e ! Th e re a d er w i ll no te th e m i n ut e
d e ta i l of th e p a r a llel w h i ch for P l a t o i s no m ere rhe tor i ca l
,

orn a men t b ut h a s re a l con v i n ci ng forc e Th e c r i m i n a l

,
.

n a tu re t hu s pro duce d pro cu re s th e m e a n s for th e s a t i s fa c

t i on of i t s d e s i re s a t fir s t by robbery a n d fr a u d pra cti s e d
,

o n p a ren t s ; i t s n ext s t ep i s u n fil i a l vi olen c e j u s t a s th e ,

d em a gogue be c ome tyr a n t w i ll employ forc e a g a i n s t h i s

fa therl a n d or h i s mot her ci ty For i t i s o ut of t h e r a n ks
-
.

of th e c om mon c r i m i n a l s of th e tyra nn i ca l n at ure s t h a t

, ,

here a n d there a tyr a n t i n t h e fu ll s en s e emerge s s en t ,

fort h by s ome or d i n an c e of d e sti n y A lur i d d e s cri p ti on .

 TH E B E S T M AN TH E H A P P I E S T .
99

is now g i v en of h i s v i c e s h i s fa i thle s s n e s s h i s go dle s s ne s s

, , ,

an d , w i t h i t a ll o f h i s m i s ery i n s p i t e o f t h e en v y he
, ,

i n s p i re s ; he i s fu ll of s u s p i ci on a n d fe a r he h a s no pe ac e ,

or re s t he i s d e s ert e d a n d poor for of h i s me a s urele s s

, ,

d e s i re s he ca n s a t i s fy b u t th e s m a lle s t fr a c ti on I n re a l i ty . ,

to o he i s no r u ler b u t a s l a v e a n d a s l av e of th e v i le s t
, , , ,

w hom he mu s t c on t i n u a lly fl a t ter t h a t he m a y h av e t hem

on h i s s i d e . P l a t o h as re a che d h i s go a l The c ry o f .

t r i u mph w i ll no longer b e re s t ra i ne d L e t th e s o n o f .

A ri s ton m a k e i t k no w n by hera l d s c ry t h at th e be s t a n d
’

j us te s t m an i s a l s o th e h a pp i e s t th e w ors t a n d mo s t unj u s t ,

t h e mo s t w re tche d w he t her th e one an d t h e o the r rem a i n

,

h i dd en from Go d a n d men or n o t (c f pp 6 2 a n d . .

j u s t a s t h e t yr a nn i c t ype of c h a r a c t er s t a n d s a t on c e

for t h e w ors t a n d mo s t m i s er able s o th e o ther type s agree ,

i n po i n t of goo d ne s s a n d h a pp i ne s s w i th t h e c orre s pon d i ng

form s of c on s t i tut i on At t he i r he a d i s t h e r o y a l or t ru ly
.

a r i s to c r a t i c n a t u re A ft er t h i s c ome s th e t i moc ra t i c t hen

.
,

t h e o l i g a rch i c w h i ch a g a i n i s follo w e d by t h e d emo c ra t i c

, .

The nev er t i r i ng a u thor of t h e Rep ubl i c pro c ee ds t o

-

s upplemen t t h i s firs t proof by a d d i ti o n a l corrobora ti on s

o f t h e d i s pu t e d t he s i s P rob a bly he h i m s elf feel s t h a t h i s
.

l as t a rg u men t d eri ve d from th e or d er of mer i t of th e

,

c on s t i t u t i on s , s a d ly n ee d s s t reng t hen i ng A referen c e t o .

h i s t heory of t h e s o u l h a s a lre a dy been i n t ro d uc e d by h i s

’
a s s er t i on t h a t i n t h e t yr a n t s s oul th e noble s t i mp u l s e s a re

en s l ave d th e low e s t promot e d to ex c lu s i ve d om i n i on

, .

Corre s pon di ng t o th e t hree p a rts of t h e s o u l he n o w

enumerat e s t hree k i n ds of ple a s ure : for th e h i ghe s t t here
—
TE me m
h '

i s th e ple a s ure of k no w le d ge fo r the m ,

‘

fil m ma
fo m wm m m re
- — “a n ” ’ fi p ss
y re co
g
ni Ze df the ple as u re of g a i n Th a t t h i s o r d er of en u mer a t i o n
'

cm espo fids to t h e po s i t i on of t he s e ple a s u re s i n t h e s c a le

’
‘
'

of v a lue i s i nferre d from exper i en ce The ph i lo s opher or

,
.

lo ver of t r uth prefers h i s s pec i e s of ple as ure t o th e o ther

t wo a n d a l s o t h e s e co n d t o th e t h i r d
,
B u t t h i s v a l u a t i on .

of h i s i s fin a l a n d i n con t ro vert i ble be c a us e h i s exper i en c e ,

i s th e mo s t comprehen s i v e From ch i l d hoo d u p wa r ds h e

.
I OO G RE E K TH I N K E RS .

h as been fa m i l i a r w i th th e o t her tw o k i n ds of ple a s u re ,

w h i le th e j oy of k n o w le d ge i s a s u n k no w n t o t h e mere
lov er of honour a s i t i s t o th e mere lov er of g a i n t h e ,

l att er of w hom r i s e s a t be s t t o th e lo v e o f h ono u r s ee i ng ,

t h a t hono u r i s p a i d a l s o t o r i che s (P l a t
. o l i k e I S M i ll , . .

i n a c og n at e a rgumen t o v erloo ks t h e fa ct t h at gre a t er

,

s us c ep t i b i l i t y t o one ki n d of ple a s u re i s u s u a lly c o u ple d

w i t h a s m a ller c a p ac i ty for enjoy i ng o t her k i n d s ) To .

t h i s mu s t b e a dd e d t h a t th e i n s t rumen t of c omp a r i s on an d
va lu a t i on th e i n t elle ct i s more h i ghly d e v elope d i n t h e
, ,

ph i lo s opher t h a n i n th e o ther t wo c l as s e s of men ; hen c e

from h i s v er d i ct t here c a n b e n o a ppe a l Thu s t h e ju s t .

m an here i d en ti fie d w i th th e ph i lo s opher h a s for th e s e c on d

, ,

t i me g a i ne d a v i ct ory o v er t h e unj u s t .

“
A t h i r d a rgumen t re s t s on th e t ru t h an d puri ty of
ple a s u re s of t h e re as on w here a s a ll o ther ple a s ure i s b u t a
,

s h a do w .Th i s a ppl i e s equ a lly t o th e ple a s ure s w h i ch a r e s ho t

t hro u gh w i th p a i n (d e s i re s w a n t s c f Vol I I pp 3 3 6 an d
, , . . . .

a n d t o t ho s e neu t r a l s t a t e s w h i ch a r e fel t a s ple a s ur a ble

3
o r p a i n ful or ne i ther a ccord i ng t o th e s tat e by w h i ch t hey
,

pre e d e d I h m e —
a r e c n
. t e s a w a y i t i s s ome w h a t a ft er t h i s
fa s h i on th a t P l a t o expre s s e s h i m s elf— a po i n t s i t u a t e d a t a
m i d d le le v el w i ll s eem l o w t o o n e w h o a ppro a che s i t from
a bo v e ,
h i gh t o one w h o c ome s u p from b elo w Thu s .

qu i e s c en c e of th e s ou l i s fel t a s p a i n ful a fter k een ple a s u re ,

a s ple a s ur a ble a ft er t h e c e s s a t i on of v i olen t p a i n How .

ca n t h a t w h i ch i n i t s elf i s n e i t her ple a s u re nor p a i n b e i n

”
t ru t h bo t h ? I t i s n o t here t herefore i n th e s phere of t h e
, ,

rel a t i v e a s w e s ho ul d s ay t h a t th e home of t r u e ple a s u re

, ,

i s t o be s o u gh t True ple a s u re i s u n k no w n t o th e m a s s
.

of m a n k i n d a n d t hey a re u n der th e s a me i ll us i on a s a m a n
,

w h o n o t k no w i ng w h i t e s ho u l d s e e grey by th e s i d e of
, ,

bl a ck a n d t h i n k i t w h i t e A furt her d e velopmen t of t he s e

,
.

“ ”
t hough t s w i ll mee t u s i n th e Ph i l e b u s a n d g ive us a n
,

o c ca s i on for th e c r i t i c i s m of t hem P l at o n ex t pl a ce s th e
.

a c q u i s i t i on of k no w le dge a bo v e t h e n u t r i t i on of t h e bo dy ,

on t h e groun d t h at th e obj e ct of kno w le dge i s t h e i mper i s h

a ble a n d t h e i m mu ta ble en d o w e d w i t h t rue be i ng a s
, ,

oppo s e d t o th e t h i ng s of s en s e by w h i ch th e b o dy i s fe d .
 GR E EK TH I N K E R S .

th a n wa x l i tt le m a n a l a rger l i on a n d a polymorph o u s
a , ,

mon s t er Th i s l as t i s t o h av e a c h a plet of he a ds s ome of

.
,

t hem per ta i n i n g t o t a me a n d o t hers to w i l d be a s t s b ut ,

c a p a ble of t r a n s form a ti on a n d rene w a l All t hree— m a n.

,

i —
l on mon t er a re t o b e s uppo s e d jo i ne d toge ther a n d
, s ,

en clo s e d i n a n ou t er hu s k of hum a n form The a d vo cat e s .

of i nj us t i c e w h o w oul d h a ve t h i s qu a l i ty a vo i de d merely
,

on a ccou nt of i ts ex t ern a l c on s equ en ce s vi rt u a lly d em a n d ,

“ ”
t h a t th e m a n w i t h i n m an s h a ll b e s t a rv e d w e a k ene d , ,

a n d pl a c e d a t t h e m er cy of t h e i nferi or c re a t ure a t h i s s i d e

B u t t h at w h i c h i s re a lly befi tt i ng i s t h a t we s houl d u t i l i ze

t h e help of t h e l i on w i t h i n u s t o d i s c i pl i ne ye t more
s t r i ct ly t h e t a m e p a r t of t h e m a ny he a d e d mon s t er a n d
-
,

no u ri s h t h i s p ar t t o gre at er s t reng th w h i le c he cki ng th e

,

gro w t h of th e w i l d p a r t Thu s t he s e c re at ure s m ay be

.

k ep t a t pe ac e w i t h e ach o t her a n d w i t h ours el v e s No .

pr i c e w oul d t emp t u s t o s ell our s on s a n d d a ugh t ers i n t o

s l a v ery s t i ll le s s t o a s a va ge a n d w i ck e d m a s t er ; j u s t a s
,

l it t le i s i t t o our profi t for t h e s a k e of wh at ev er a dva n tage

, ,

t o pl ace t h a t w h i c h i s be s t i n u s un d er bon da ge t o
,

t h a t w h i c h i s w ors t t h at w h i ch i s mo s t go dl i k e t o t h a t
,

w h i c h i s mo s t go dle s s a n d mo s t foul S o do i ng we .
,

s houl d be gu i l ty of w or s e t re a s on t h a n E r i phyle w h o s ol d ,

her hu s b a n d s l i fe for a gol den ne ck l a ce W i t h th e el abora

’
.

t i o n of t he s e t hough ts a n d a repe a t e d exhor ta ti on to s e t up

“
t h e i d e a l k i ng d om i n t h e i n ner c i ty of th e s oul w he ther ,

“ ”
th e he av enly p a tt ern i s e ver re a l i ze d on e a rt h or no t ,

t h e boo k i s brough t t o a c lo s e Wh a t rem a i n s i s of a

.

s u pplemen ta ry c h a r a ct er .

7 The t en t h a n d l a s t boo k beg i n s w i t h a t r a n s i t i on

.
,

t h e a br u p t ne s s of w h i ch re ce i ve s i m me d i a t e j u s t i fi ca t i on .

The figh t i s re s ume d a g a i n s t poe try a s th e a rc h enemy of -

a n or d er of l i fe b a s e d on re a s on I t ca n n o w b e c a rr i e d
.

on more e ffe ct u a lly beca u s e th e di vi s i on of th e s oul a n d

,

— a s w e m ay a dd th e d o ct r i n e of i d e as h a ve been ex
-

poun d e d i n t h e i n t erva l P oe t ry i s t re a t e d a s one of th e

.

i m i ta t i v e a rt s They a l l o ffer i mperfe ct s embl a n c e s of

.

re a l i ty The i r pro d u cts a re n o t t ru t h b ut a ppe a ra n c e a n d

.
, ,

i n d ee d a n a ppe a r a n c e n o t only on e b u t t w o d e g ree s

,
 TH E FI GH T A GA I N S T P OE TR Y . 1 03

remo ve d from t h e t ru th When for ex a mple t h e ca b i ne t

.
, ,

m ak er fas h i on s t a ble s a n d be ds t h at w h i ch he c op i e s i s ,

t h e a r c he type or i d e a of th e t a ble or b e d w h i c h ex i s ts b u t ,

on c e a n d w h i ch m ay b e s a i d t o h ave been m a d e by th e
,

go ds Th us th e p a i n t er w h o c ount erfe i ts t he s e obje cts

.

pro du ce s i n re a l i ty only th e copy of a copy a n d a fa l s e ,

one a t th a t for th e t able or b e d s een s i dew ays i s n o t th e

,

s a me as w hen v i e w e d from t h e fron t The d i s cu s s i on on .

ple as ure a n d p a i n i n th e n i n t h boo k w here s h a dow s of

, ,

s h a d o w s h a v e a lre a d y been bro u gh t to v i e w w oul d s eem t o ,

be s t i ll e cho i ng i n P l at o s m i n d The pre s en t a rgumen t

’
.
,

w h i c h i n a d equ a tely s ep a r a t e s t h e problem s of a r t from

t ho s e of s c i en c e a n d w h i ch un d u ly n a rro w s th e s phere of
,

a rt by reg a r d i ng i t a s pure i m i t a t i on d er i ve s i ts m a i n ,

i n t ere s t from th e pre d om i n a n ce g i ven to th e e t h i ca l s t a n d

’
po i n t P l a t o s qu a rrel w i t h th e fin e a r ts t u rn s c h i efly on
.

t he i r e ffe ct s — t he i r a n t a gon i s m to h i s e t h i ca l i d e a l t he i r ,

glori fica ti on of th e s en s e s t he i r enerva ti ng a ppe a l t o th e

,

emo t i on s P oe t ry i s here th e w ors t o ffen der t ra g i c poe t ry

—o f w h i ch H omer w as th e re a l foun d er— th e w ors t of a ll
.
,

,
“ ”
for i t w a t ers a n d fee ds t ho s e elem en t s i n th e s ou l w h i c h
“ ”
ough t to b e d r i e d up .

Th i s a tta ck i s b i t ter beyon d th e pro verb i a l b i t terne s s

of c i vi l w a r P l a t o I s a t feu d n o t w i th h i s fello w coun t ry
.
,
-

men only b ut w i th h i m s elf H e o ff ers a S pe ctacle ne ver

, .

s een before h i s d ay one of w h i ch t h e firs t a s ton i s h i ng

,

repe ti t i on h a s been re s erve d for our o wn t i me — a pr i n c e

a mong a rt i s t s v i olen t ly roo t i ng u p th e lo ve of a rt from h i s

o w n s oul .H e ack no w le dge s i n h i s p a i n t h at he fin ds i t

, ,

d i ffi c ul t to figh t d o w n t h e a d m i ra t i on for H o mer w h i c h he

h as c her i s he d from h i s yo u th B u t t ru th d em a n ds th e .

s acri fice . We no t e w i t h as ton i s hmen t th e a d a p ta b i l i ty of

I n or d er t o humble th e poe t s he e le va t e s
’
P l at o s m i n d .

t h e S oph i s t s The s l i gh t i ng t one i n w h i ch he genera lly

.

s pe a k s of t h i s cl a s s i s forgo t t en for t h e momen t I f H omer .

— —
or H e s i o d s o r u n s on e of the s e rgu men t h a d benefi te d
a s

h i s ne i ghb o u r s by h i s w i s d om as m u ch a s s ay P ro t a gor a s , ,

or Pro d i cu s he w oul d h av e been as h ighly hono u re d a s

,

t he s e m e n a n d n o t a llo w e d to e n d h i s l i fe as a begg a r a n d
,
 GR EEK TH I N K E RS .

“
rh a p s o di s t The gre at poe ts ho w e v er h a d only s h a d o ws
.
, ,
”
of v i rtu e to o ffer th e mo s t t hey c o u l d do i n re a l i ty w a s
t o d el i gh t . B u t where t h e con d u ct of l i fe i s c o n c erne d
t here i s s ome th i ng w h i ch s t a n ds h i gher t h a n a l l d el i gh t s
th e gre a t q u e s t i on of w he ther w e a re be c om i ng goo d or
b a d (c f Vol I I p 3 3 7
. . . . th e s t ruggle t o m a i n t a i n t h e
pol i ty wi t h i n th e s o u l for th e i m age a lre a dy employe d
-

i n t h e n i n t h book i s re t a i ne d i n t h i s c on t i nu at i on He .

t herefore fin a lly c ongra t ul a t e s h i m s elf on h a v i n g b a n i s he d

“
t h e poe t s from h i s republ i c I f ple a s ure a n d p a i n
. a re
'

n o t t o r u le i n s t e a d of re as on a n d l aw only r e l z gz oz z s poe t ry
,

m ay b e t olera t e d no th i ng w i ll be a d m i tt e d b ut hymn s t o
,

th e g o d a n d s ong s i n pr a i s e of gre at men .

Rel i g i ou s tho u gh ts a n d t he i r expre s s i on by th e a i d of

my t h form a l s o t h e con c l u s i on of th e w ork B efore P l ato .

re a che s t h a t bourne he t urn s th e t able s i n a rem a rk a ble

,

m a n ner S oc ra t es reque s ts rep aymen t of th e lo a n w h i ch

.

he h a d m a de t o th e o ther s pe ak er s — th e c on ce s s i on t h a t i s ,

to s ay by w h i c h bo t h t h e j u s t m a n a n d t h e unj u s t w ere
,

t re a t e d as t hough t hey rem a i ne d h i dd en from go ds a n d

men The hypo t he s i s w as nec e s s a ry i n order to d e term i ne
.

t h e i n t r i n s i c v a lue or h a pp i ne s s y i el d i ng qu a l i ty of vi rt ue
-

a d t
n i s oppo s i t e — s t r i ppe d of a l l ex t ern a l a dd i t i on s —a n d t o

i n s ti tu t e a s t r i ct a n d s e a rch i ng c omp a r i s on bet w een j u s ti c e

a n d i nj u s t i c e t a k en e ac h by i t s elf B u t th e d i a logue mu s t
.

“ ”
n o t e n d before t h e ju s t m a n h a s t h e pri ze s of vi ctory
a w a r d e d t o h i m w h i c h a t fir s t w ere w i t hhel d
, For by w h a t .

po s s i ble me a n s c oul d our a cti on s re a lly rem a i n h i dden from

t h e go ds Nor w i ll th e j us t m a n a s a rule be more t h a n
, ,

t empor a r i ly m i s j u d ge d by h i s fellow s i n th e e n d bot h he

a n d t h e u nj u s t m a n w i ll b e k no w n for w h a t t hey a re a n d ,

re c e i v e th e rew a r d or pun i s hmen t w h i ch t hey h ave e a rne d .

A my th i ca l n a rra t i v e follow s re s t i ng on th e s uppos e d

,

t e s t i mony of E r t h e P a m p h yl i an son of Arm e n i us a

, ,

pers on o t herw i s e en t i rely un k now n Th i s m a n fell on th e .

fiel d of b a tt le a n d h i s s oul w e a re t ol d w i t ne s s e d t h e
, , ,

j u dgmen t of t h e d e a d b u t a ft er tw elv e d ay s re tu rne d t o

,

h i s bo dy w h i c h w a s s t i ll u n c orr u p t e d for E r h a d been

, ,

c ho s en by t h e go d s t o br i ng men t i d i ng s of t h e for t u ne s
 GRE EK TH I N K E RS .

C H AP T E R X I I I .

’
P LATO S E TH I CAL, P O LI TI CAL ,
AND S OCI AL I D E AL .

1 . O F th e t wo t i t le s born e by t h i s gre a t w ork On

J u s t i ce , an d
“
The Con s ti t ut i on or “
Republ i c —th e
s e c on d h as ob ta i ne d th e preferen c e Th e s oc i a l a n d
.

’
pol i ti ca l con t en t of P l a t o s c re at i on h as m a d e a d eeper
i mpre s s i on t h a n th e e t h i ca l I n t re a t i ng of th e former
.

before th e l att er w e s h a ll i n di re ct ly a t le a s t c omply w i t h

, , ,
’
t h e a u t hor s p u rpo s e : w e s h a ll pro cee d from th e o u t er
hu s k of h i s i d e a l t o i ts k ernel .

A qu e s t i on frequen t ly p ut t o experts a t th e pre s en t d ay

i s t h i s — W a s P l a t o a forerunner of t h e mo d ern s oci a l i s t s
a n d c om m u n i s ts The a n sw er m u s t be bo th Y e s an d No .

B y th e s i d e of th e ob vi ou s po i n t s of a greemen t t here a r e
di fferen c e s of t h e mo s t fa r re ac h i ng k i n d -
Wh a t the s e .

mo d ern m ov emen t s s t ri ve to ob ta i n for th e c om m u n i ty a s

a w hole P l a t o propo s e d t o en a ct m erely for h i s upper or
,

rul i ng c l as s e s of w a rr i or s a n d gu a r di a n s For th e gre a t .

m as s for t h e c l a s s e s eng age d i n a gri c ul ture a n d h a n di

,

c r a ft s ,
th e t r a di t i on a l form of th e fa m i ly a n d t h e o l d
econom i c or der w ere t o b e re t a i ne d I n d ee d h e i s s o fa r .
,

from a dvocati ng a ny em a n ci p a t i on of the s e c l a s s e s t h a t h e

requ i re s t hem to p rovi d e t h e me a n s of l i vi ng for th e upper
c l a s s e s t o wa r d s w hom h e pl a c e s t hem i n a rel a t i on of t h e
,

s t r i ct e s t d epen d en c e I n d e s c r i b i ng t h i s rel a t i on he d oe s
.

“ ”
n o t e v en s hr i n k from u s i ng t h e w or d s l av e ry t hough he ,

me a n s by i t no more t h a n a s t a te of w a r ds h i p s a l uta ry to
t h e m a s s e s t hem s el ve s No cle a r p i cture i s vou ch s a fe d u s
.

of t he s e c l as s e s P l at o i s s i len t a n d h i s s i len ce i s eloquen t

.
, .
 P L A TO S
’
C ON TE MP T FOR TH E M AS S E S . 1 0 7

I n th e ours e of h i s expos i t i on i t h a s b een ri gh t ly re

c ,

m a rke d h e le t s th e lo w er or d ers fa ll comple t ely o u t of

,

s i gh t. H e w i ll h ave t hem w ell a n d ju s t ly rule d b u t he ,

t ak e s s o l i t t le i n t ere s t i n t hem t h a t he forge t s t o g i v e u s

a n y d e t a i l s of t h e m a nner of rul i ng t hem A ll w e ca n .

g a ther ca s u a lly i s th a t for t hem t o o t h e d i v i s i on of l a bour , ,

“ ”
i s t o b e s t r i ct ly enforc e d a n d t h a t , w e a l th no le s s t h a n
”
po v erty i s t o b e k ep t fa r from them i n ord er th a t t hey ,

m ay l a ck ne i ther th e d e s i re nor th e pow er t o w ork For .

th e re s t he c on t en t s h i m s elf w i th c omp a r i n g t hem t o th e

.

lo w e s t elem en t s i n t h e s oul w i t h pronoun ci ng i t a n ,

i mpo s s i b i l i ty for t hem to or d er t he i r o w n l i ve s i n d e

pen d en t ly a n d s u cce s s fully w i t h d i s cu s s i ng th e que s t i o n
, ,

n o t w he the r b ut w ky t hey s houl d be hel d i n i nfer i or

, ,

reg a r d .

For th i s a tt i tu d e of d epre c i a t i on s ev er a l ca u s e s m a y be
a s s i gne d M ere pr i d e of b i r th a n d ra n k h a d s ome th i ng
.

’
to d o w i t h i t S u ch feel i ng s w ere pre s en t i n P l a t o s m i n d
.
,
'

i f only a s a n un d er c urren t ye t n o t w i t hou t e fi e ct

-
, The .

re a d er w i ll remember m a ny i n s t a n c e s e s pe ci a lly i n th e ,
”
Ch a rm i de s w here he u s e s expre s s i on s t en d i ng t o ex a l t
,

h i s o w n fa m i ly The i mp i e ty of E uth yp h ro w h o a ccu s e d

.
,

h i s o wn fa ther of mur d er (c f Vol I I p . a ppe a rs t o h i m

. . .

i n d a rk er colours be cau s e t h e m u r d ere d m a n w as on ly a

”
d a y l a bourer
-
S t i ll s t ra nger i n o u r eye s i s a p as s a ge of th e
.

” ”
Gorg i as w here a mec h a n i c w h o h a d s ave d h i s co u n t ry
, ,

from d e s t ru ct i on by i n ven t i ng a n eng i n e of w ar i s nev er , ,

th e l e s s s po k en of i n a t one of c on t emp t j u s t be ca u s e he
, ,
”
l a bo u re d w i t h h i s h a n ds I n a p a s s a ge of th e Rep ubl i c
.

P l a t o c on d emn s t h e b ru t a l t re at men t of s l av e s on th e ,

gro u n d t h at th e t r u ly e d u ca t e d m a n d e s p i s e s t hem t oo
m uch to b e a ngry w i th t hem For t h e re s t a c l as s of .
,

s l av e s i s n o t expl i c i t ly men t i one d a s ex i s t i ng i n th e i d e a l

S t at e b ut t h e proh i b i t i on a g a i n s t en s l a vi ng Gree k pri so n ers

of w a r i n d i cat e s th a t i n t h e ca s e of b a rb a ri a n s P l at o w o u l d
h av e r a i s e d no obj e ct i on The proh i b i t i on i n que s t i on
.

oc cu rs i t m ay be rem a r ke d i n a s e ct i on d e vo te d t o i n ter
, ,

n a t i on a l l aw a n d i s one of a s eri e s of pre c ep t s wh i c h al l

,

a gr ee i n re s t ri ct i ng to w a rs ag a i n s t b a rb ar i a n s c ert a i n
 GR E E K TH I N K E RS .

s e v er i t i e s w h i ch at t h at t i me w ere c u s tom a ry a s be t w ee n
Hellene s — d e v as t at i on of t err i t ory burn i n g of ho u s e s an d
, ,

s o on . A w a r be tw een H e llene s P l at o s ay s s houl d ne v er

, ,

be a r th e ch a ract er of perpe tu a l ho s t i l i ty b ut r a ther th a t of ,

a t empor a ry c h a s t i s emen t ,
a n e n fo r c i ng of th e l a w w h i c h

only a ff e ct s th e gu i l ty a n d n o t th e genera l m a s s of th e
popul a t i on .

The ch i ef log i c a l groun d how e ver on w h i c h Pl a t o

, ,

j u s t i fie s h i s con temp t for th e lo w er cl a s s e s a s w ell a s s l ave s ,

i s the i r l a ck of le i s ure a n d c on s equen t ly of th e h i gher

c ul t ure w h i c h le i s ure a lone m ak e s po s s i ble I t i s t h i s .

c ul t ure — t h e a s s i d uou s pur s u i t of mu s i c gymn a s t i cs a n d , ,

t h e s c i en c e s — w h i c h form s th e t rue ch a rt er of t h e r u l i ng
cla s s ,
hereby a s s i m i l at e d i n s o m e me a s u re t o t h e Pyth a
s regul at e d on t h e c om m u n i s t i c
‘

g o r e a n or d er The . i r l i fe i
’

pl a n for t h e purpo s e of c omple t i ng th e i r e d u cat i on No .

p ri vat e ow ners h i p i s a llo w e d a mong the m mw h i ch ex c ee d s

t h e i n d i s pen s abl e m i n i mum . The i r i n come is t o prov i d e
t hem w i t h a s u ffici en t m a i n t en a n c e b ut no s up e r fl u i t i e s , .

Gol d a n d s i l ver m a y n o t b e u s e d e ven for a d orn men t or

i n th e form of pl a t e . The po s s e s s i on of pr i v at e l a n d or
ho u s e s m i gh t m ak e th e memb ers of t h e r u l i ng c l a s s
“
s ucc e s s fu l ho u s ehol d er s an d fa rmers b u t n o t goo d
,

“
gu a r di a n s .

I n a l l t h i s P l at o i s n o t en t i rely i n d epen d en t of h i s t ori ca l

mo d el s A ru l i ng cl a s s w h i ch k ep t a loof n o t only from
.

t r a d e a n d m a nu a l w or k b u t e v en from a gr i c ul t u re w as
, ,

n o t un k now n e i t her a t S p a rt a or i n C re t e Ru d i men t s .

,

t o o of a c ommun i s t i c or d er of l i fe m i gh t be ob s erv e d a t
,

Sp a rt a w here hun t ers for ex a mple w ere a llow e d t o help

, , ,

t hem s el e
v s t o pro v i s i on s from o t her men s s t ore s — ’
a c u s t om
’

w h i c h h a s a n e cho i n P l a t o s i njun ct i on n o t t o lo ck up th e
s t oreho u s e s Nee d w e rem i n d th e re a d er of t h e L ace dae
.

mon i a n an d Cre ta n s ys s i t i a or c ommo n me a l s of m en

, ,

by w h i ch c a mp l i fe w a s c on t i nue d i n t i me of pe ac e ?
P l a t o mo d i fie s th e i n s t i t u t i on i n a m a nn er w h i c h m a k e s a
c le a n s w eep of a l l fa m i ly l i fe E v en d ur i ng th e c on t i n u
.

a n ce of t h e t empora ry m a rr i a ge s a lre a dy s po k en of no ,

co m mon home l i fe i s po s s i ble for t h e c ouple s I t i s no t .

 G R EEK TH I N KE RS .

e n d e avours d o n o t ce a s e t o be d i re cte d t o w a r ds t h e roo t i n g

o u t of th e s o ca lle d pr i va t e or p a r t i cu l a r elemen t from e very
-

d ep a rt me n t o f l i fe So fa r a s i s by an y m e a n s po s s i ble
.
,

a ll s houl d pr a i s e or bl a me t h e s a me t h i n g t oge t her al l ,

s houl d rej o i c e or gri ev e for t h e s a me ca u s e The .

gre a t e s t po s s i ble emph as i s i s be s t ow e d o n t h e gl o ri fic a

“ ”
t i o n of l i fe i n c ommo n a n d on t h e i n j u n ct i on t o d e s t roy
,

from a mo n g men even from a mo n g t h e dome s t i c a n i m a l s

, ,
“
t h at l ack of a m as ter w h i ch m a k e s for d i vi s i o n Th i s .

“ ”
en d ea vour a ft er t h e un i fi ca t i on of t h e c om mon w e a l th
goe s fa r beyon d th e d e s i g n of d ry i n g up th e s o u rc es of
’
d i s cor d i n publ i c l i fe P l a t o s qu a rrel i s w i t h i n di v i du a l i t y
.

a s s u ch a n d a s m u c h w i t h t h e di v er s i t y of di ffere n t i n d i
,

v i d u a l s a s w i t h t h e i n w a r d mul t i form i t y w i t h i n t h e s i n gle

s oul . Th i s l a tt er po i n t a ppe a rs mo s t c le a rly i n th e p i ctu re

“
he g i ve s of t h e d emo cra t t h at i s of h i s At hen i a n co n
”
, ,

t empora r i e s M o t ley va ri e ty a n d mul ti pl i ci t y of form s

.

a re t h e w or s t repro ac he s w h i c h he le v el s a g a i n s t t h i s t ype

of m an — a type w h i ch accord i ng t o h i m c on t a i n s i n i ts elf

, ,

p a tt ern s of al l po s s i ble c on s t i t u t i o n s (cf p . .

S uc h a m a n i s s o P l ato t ell s us i n e ffe ct t h e pl ay t h i n g

, ,

of ev ery fl ee t i ng moo d To d ay he revel s i n w i n e a n d

.
-

b a nque t mu s i c t o morrow he w i ll fa s t on bre a d a n d w a ter

- -
.

To d ay he w orks i n t h e gymn a s i u m t i ll t h e s w e a t run s

-

d o w n h i s bro w ; t o morrow he w i ll d e d i cat e t o d ol ee f a r

-

m e rz te A t one t i me he w i ll pl a y t h e ph i lo s opher a t
'

.
,

a no t her t h e pol i t i c i a n he w i ll s pri n g to h i s fee t from h i s

pl a ce i n t h e a s s embly a n d d o a n d s ay w h a t come s i n t o h i s
,
’
he a d I f a ge n er a l s fa me ca t c he s h i s fa n cy h e i s o ff
.

’
s ol d i er i n g ; i f a s pe c ul a t or s g a i n s ro u s e h i s en vy he t r i e s ,

h i s l u ck i n b u s i ne s s I n s hort t here i s n o or d er a n d n o
.
,

d i s ci pl i n e i n h i s d o i ng s an d t h i s i s pre ci s ely t h e re as o n w h y
,

i n h i s o w n eye s h i s l i fe i s s o free s o s w ee t s o ble s s e d , , .

Who can fa i l t o per c e i v e here i n th e ca r i c at ure of j u s t t h a t

bri ll i a n t type w h i ch Thu cy di d e s h a s p ai n t e d i n i mperi s h a ble
c olour s ( cf Vol I I p 4 1 )
. . . The s ubject of th e t w o p i ct ures
.

i s t h e s a me ; At hen s h a s perh a p s i n th e me a n t i me l a p s e d, ,

s ome w h a t from t h e he i gh t t o w h i c h s h e h a d a t t a i n e d ; b ut

w h a t h a s c h a nge d more fu n d a me n t a lly i s t h e s t a n dpo i n t of

 CONTRA S T WI TH MOD ERN I DE AL S . I I I

th e beh o l der The vers a ti le exerci s e of m a ny s i d e d t a le n ts

.
-
,

i n di vi d ua l c h a r act er a n d gen i u s — al l t h i s i s n o n ex i s t en t
,
-

for Pl a t o ; i n a l l th at w e a d m i re he ca n s e e no th i ng b ut
a n a r ch i c i rregul a r i t y ,
b u ngl i ng h a lf k no w le dge a n d a m a
-
,

t e u r i s h i n compe t en c e . He i s free on th e o ther h a n d from

, ,

a n a nx i e ty w h i ch h a s t rouble d s ome of t h e be s t m e n of t h e

n i ne t ee n th c e n t u ry —from t h e fe a r of a n ev er w i de n i ng -

di v ergen c e fro m t h e P er i cle a n i d e a l of a n a ppro a c h t o t h e “

,
”
Ch i ne s e i d e a l of m a k i ng a l l people a l i k e The s h a do w s.

a lone a re v i s i ble t o h i m i n t h e p i ct u re of h i s a e ; a l l t h e
g
energy a n d fi re of h i s n a ture a re d i re cte d t ow a r ds t h e
re a l i z at i on of a n e w p att ern of w ho s e l a t e n t d a n ger s he
,

h a s n o t t h e s l i gh t e s t s u s p i ci on .

Nor mu s t w e forge t th e c on n ex i on be tw e e n Pl a t o s ’

e th i c o pol i t i ca l i d e a l a n d h i s d o ct r i ne
-
of i d e as E very .

s ep a r a t e t h i ng or be i n g i s for h i m t h e i n a d eq u a t e c opy of a

more perfe ct un i ver s a l H o w t hen coul d he h ave l a i d a n y

.
, ,
”
s t ore o n t h e m a i n t en a n c e of t h e p a rt i cul a r on t h e m u l t i ,

pl i ca ti on of va ri et i e s of i mperfe ct i on o n i n d i vi dua l i ty ? ,

Ag a i n w e mo d e m s reg a r d t h e d i v ers i ty of i n di vi d u a l s a s
,

s a l ut a ry for th e a dd i ti on a l re a s on t h a t by t h e mul t i pl i c i t y
,

of p ath s en t ere d upon th e pros pe ct i s i n cre a s e d of progre s s ,

of t h e a tt a i nmen t of a perfe cti on a s ye t u n k now n t o u s .

P l ato o n t h e o t her h a n d c oul d s e e i n i n d i vi du a l d i fferen c e s

, ,

only i mpe d i men t s pre ven t i n g th e re a l i z a ti on of a n i de a l

w h i c h for h i m w a s fin a l a n d c omple t e t h e s h a rp a n d cer ta i n
,

o utl i ne of w h i ch w a s gr aven i n h i s s o u l .

“
I t i s n o t t o no p u rpo s e t h a t t h e g ua r d i a n s
3
. a r e

h a lf ph i lo s ophers a n d h a lf a r i s to c rat i c s ol di ers E a ch of .

t he s e elemen t s h as left i ts t r ace s o n t h e P l a t o n i c i d e a l .

The At hen i a n ol i g a rch s to w h i ch c i r cle P l a t o a n d h i s fa m i ly

,

“ ”
bel o nge d w ere fr i en ds of t h e L a ce dse mo n i a n s
,
A mong .

s u c h m o d e s of or d er i n g l i fe a s w ere p u t i n pr a ct i c e i n h i s

o w n a ge a n d c o u n t ry t h a t follo w e d a t Sp a rt a s t oo d ne a re s t
,

h i s he a r t Reveren ce for a g e s t ri ct di s ci pl i ne of yo ut h a
.
, ,

h i gh va l uat i on of m us i ca l gymn a s t i c a n d m i l i ta ry e d uca t i o n

, , ,

c o n temp t for t h e b a n au s i c a l l t he s e a re fe a t u re s c om mon

,
-

t o t h e P l a ton i c a n d t h e Sp a r t a n i d e a l A C ri t i a s a n d a
.

C h a r m i de s prob a bly t ho u gh t a n d fel t o n t he s e m att ers

 G RE EK TH I N KE RS .

mu ch a s d id t he i r yo u ng k i n s m a n th e ph i lo s opher O f .

a r i s t o c r a t i c or i g i n t o o i s t h e s t rong a cc en t w h i ch P l a t o l a y s
, ,

on m a gn i fi cen ce a q u a l i ty w h i ch he more t h a n o n ce s et s
,

i n th e c omp a ny of t h e ca r d i n a l vi r t ue s w i t hou t j u s t i fy i ng ,

t h i s po s i t i on on a n y pr i n ci ple S i m i l a rly t h e oppo s i t e of

.
,
”
m ag n i fi cen ce s ti ng i ne s s me a nnes s i ll i bera l i ty i s a mong
, , , ,

t h e a tt r i bu t e s w h i c h P l at o mo s t d e s p i s e s A c on vi ct i on .

t h at t h e purs u i t of t ra d e s c a nn o t b u t engen d er t h i s vi c e
s t reng t hen s w h a t w e m a y t erm a n i nn a t e rep u gn a n c e In .

”
t h i s c o n nex i on a p as s a ge i n t h e L a w s i s h i ghly i n s tru c
t ive . I t s how s s ome a dva n c e t o w a r ds a j u s t er a ppre ci at i on
of t ra d e a n d i ts benefi ci a l oper at i on i n levell i n g d ow n
e c onom i c c on t ra s ts The hypot he s i s i s t here a llow e d t o
.

”
s t a n d for a momen t t h a t t h e be s t men of a l l or w omen ,

of s i m i l a r qu a l i ty m i ght be c ompelle d by s ome s t rok e o f

,

fa t e t o d o t h e w ork of i nn keepers t o o ffer t h e longe d for ,

-

refre s hmen t or s hel t er t o one w e a ri e d by long t ravel or lo s t

i n a n i nho s p i t a ble reg i on Tra d e w o u l d t hen a ppe a r i n
.

t h e m o s t favoura ble l i gh t po s s i ble B u t t h e t hough t i s.

d roppe d i m me d i at ely The bel i ef t h a t s u ch o ccup a t i on s

.

fo s t er a n i gnoble lov e of g a i n a t en d en cy t o fr a u d a n d ,

ov er re a ch i ng i s t o o d eeply root e d t o a llow th e a bov e

-
,
’
hypo t he s i s t o a ppe a r o ther t h a n r i di cu lo u s S ch i ller s d i s t i ch .
,
”
The M erch a n t w oul d h a ve bee n un i n t ell i g i ble t o P l at o
, .

“
W i th th e d em a n d for d i s c i pl i ne a n d or d er t here i s
“ ”
c ouple d a no t her for s ym me t ry a n d be a u t y
’
( c f Vol I I . . .

p . Th i s l a tt er i s t h e s o u l s cry of one w h o i s at on ce
a n a r t i s t d ev o t e d t o t h e c ul t of be a u ty an d a ph i lo s opher

w i t h P y t h a gore a n le a n i ng s one w h o h as le a rn t t o s e e a n d
,

a d m i re t h e re i g n of rule of s ymme t ry of h a rmony an d

, ,

rhyt hm i n m at hem at i cs a co u s t i cs a n d a bov e a ll i n

, , , ,

a s t r o n omy . The S o c ra ti c mora l i s t t o o i n s i s t s no le s s , ,

i mper a t i vely t h a t u nque s t i on i ng obe di en ce be p a i d t o t h e

c omm a n d s of re a s on more ex a ct ly of u t i l i t y e s t a bl i s he d by
, ,

re a s on From t h e fu s i on of t he s e elemen ts t here a ro s e i n

.

P l a t o t h at i d e a l w h i ch i s pe cul i a r t o h i m of i n w a r d or d er
c o u ple d w i t h d e v o t i on t o s ci e n c e of s elf m a s t ery of co n
,
-
,

s t an c c a lmne s s eq u a n i m i t y a n d mo d er a t i on Temper
y , , ,
.

a n c e i n re a l i ty t a k e s t h e h i ghe s t po s i t i on w i t h h i m t hough
, , ,
 GRE E K TH I N KER S .

si gn i fie s b u t l i t t le i f one pro cl a i m s a n i de a l w h i le a not her

a d o p t s i n d i vi d u a l or c olle ct i v e h a pp i ne s s a s h i s s uprem e

s ta n da rd . Wh at i t i s t h at m ak e s us h a ppy c an only i n
t h e s m a lle s t me a s u re be d e t erm i ne d by obj e ct i v e c r i t er i a ;
t h e d e c i s i on mu s t for by far t h e gre a t er p a rt re s t w i t h
feel i ng beyon d th e po s s i b i l i ty of a ppe a l
,
.

A t th e beg i nn i ng of t h e fo u rt h boo k of th e Republ i c

expre s s i on i s g i ven to a d o ub t w hether th e l i ve s of th e
gu a r di a n s a re l i kely t o be h a ppy d epr i ve d a s they a re of ,

t h e goo d t h i ng s c ommonly pri ze d mo s t h i ghly Th i s .

“
d o ub t i s a d m i t t e d t hough n o t w i t hou t a re s e r va t i on ( I
,

s houl d n o t be s urpr i s e d i f t he i r l i v e s w ere re a lly t h e h app i e s t

a ft er b u t t h e obje ct i on fo un de d upon i t i s d i s m i s s e d
w i t h t h e rem a r k t h a t t h e obj e ct a i me d a t i s n o t t h e gre at e s t
po s s i ble h a pp i ne s s of any one c l as s b ut of th e S t at e a s a ,

w hole . Th i s a rgumen t h as b een c ri t i ci ze d on goo d groun ds

by A ri s to t le An d i t w oul d be i n dee d s t ra nge i f P l a t o h a d
.

re a lly propo s e d t o s ac ri fi c e th e gu a r di a n s t o th e i n tere s t s

of th e m a ny — i f t h e c l as s r a i s e d a bove t h e o thers n o t ,

merely by th e po s s e s s i on of po w er b ut by i ts i nner w or th , ,

th e c l a s s t o o w h i c h l a y n e a re s t h i s o w n he a r t h a d been
, , ,

s ubor d i n a t e d t o t h e c l a s s w h i ch he c omp a re s w i t h th e

lo w e s t elemen t i n t h e s o u l a n d w h i c h he t herefore refus e s

,

t o reg a r d a s ca p a ble of t rue w ell be i ng P l a t o h as h i m s elf

-
.

left no room for d oub t ; a s e a rly a s th e m i dd le of th e fift h

boo k he re s ume s th e s ubj e ct r e afli rm s th e re s ervat i o n we
,

h av e a ll u d e d to a n d d efen ds i t w i th t h e u t mo s t em ph as i s
,
-
.

L i fe i n c om mon s u ch as he propo s e s for th e gu a r di a n s

, ,

i s he s a y s free from t h e d i s s en s i on s th e a n i mo s i t i e s t h e
, , , ,

j ea lou s i e s th e act s of vi olen c e a n d t h e s t ri fe a t l aw w h i ch

, ,

s pr i ng fro m t h e M i ne a n d Th i ne ; fl a tt ery h a s no pl a c e i n

i t nor th e m i nor e vi l s w h i ch a t t en d i nequ a l i t y

, The l i fe of .

t h e gu a r d i a n s s o c on clu d e s h i s en thu s i a s ti c e u lo g y i s th e
, ,

h a pp i e s t w h i ch i t i s pos s i ble for m an to l i v e .

A c omp a ri s o n of t h e two p a s s age s w i ll furn i s h u s w i th

a n i n s t ru ct i v e c lue I n th e fir s t P l a t o d oe s hom a ge q u i t e
.
,

s i n c erely to t h e pr i n c i ple of u t i l i t y
, i n t h e s e c on d he o v er
flo ws w i th ferven t d evo t i on t o h i s i d e a l For t h e d e ci s i ve .

factor i s here t h e s at i s fa ct i on w h i c h l i fe i n c ommon gi ve s

 TH E UN I F YI N G TE N D E N C Y . I I S

h im .
H e po s s e s s e d no b a l a n ce i n w h i c h he m i gh t w e i gh ,

o n e a g a i n s t t h e o ther t h e m er i ts a n d t h e di s a dva n t a ge s of
,

t h i s mo d e of l i fe a n d i t s oppo s i t e Tha t w h i ch i n h i s s oul

.

t urne d th e s ca le i n fav our of th e former w as a n i mpul s e

c ogn a t e t o h i s preferen c e for un i ver s a l s i n t h e t heory of

k no w le dge a n a r d en t long i ng for t h e a bol i t i on of a l l t h a t

,
“
d i vi d e s a n d i s ol a t e s men for a s t at e i n w h i c h t hey
,
c a ll

not h i ng t hei r o w n b ut t he i r bo dy — a l a s t b a rri er before

”

w h i c h one i s i n c l i ne d t o s ay th at t h e u n i fy i ng t en d en cy
c ome s t o a rel u ct a n t h a l t M ay we n o t i nfer t h at t h e
.

ra t i on a l i s ti c u t i l i ta ri a n b as i s of a rgumen t i s often merely a n

a ft er tho u gh t
-
,a s th e t i c a n d e t h i ca l preferen ce s s u pply i ng

t h e re a l mo t i ve pow er of h i s reform i ng ze a l ?
-
Th i s w i ll
a pply w i t h p a r t i c ul a r forc e t o t h e que s ti on i n c onnex i on

w i t h w h i c h t h e a phor i s m q u o t e d a t t h e beg i nn i ng of t h i s
s e ct i on i s eno u n c e d — t h e que s t i on of w omen .

P l a t o d e s i re d t h e fu ll a n d m a ny s id e d d ev elopmen t of
-

’
w omen s ta len t s th e fiel d for w h i ch e s pe c i a lly i n t h e
, ,

Athen s of t h a t d ay w a s v ery gre a t ly c ra mpe d he d re a m t

,

of t he i r eleva t i on from profo u n d i gnor a n c e a n d s ubj ect i on

borderi ng on s ervi t u de t o t h e po w er of know le dge a n d
prou d i n d epen d en ce H e fel t th e ch a rm of th e i d e a l type
.

’
of w om a n w h i c h he h a d i n h i s m i n d s eye a n d of w h i ch ,

s ome ru di men t a t le a s t w a s exh i b i t e d by th e Sp a r ta n

w omen , w i t h t he i r fine phys i ca l d evelopmen t d u e t o ,

gymn a s t i c a n d t he i r c elebra t e d be a u ty The pro verb i a l

, .

bol d ne s s w h i ch h a d been engen d ere d by Sp a rt a n s em i

em an ci p a ti on m i gh t he hope d b e ennoble d by a c omple t er
, ,

e duca ti on a n d t ran s fig u r e d i n to s elf c on s ci ou s d i gn i ty A l l

-
.

th i s w e m ay i m a g i ne o u tw e i ghe d i n h i s s oul th e ra t i on a l i s ti c
, ,

c on s i d er a t i on s by w h i ch he s uppor ts h i s i nno va t i on : th e
a n a log i e s from a n i m a l l i fe employe d a l s o by A n t i s thene s
, ,

a n d th e a rgumen t of t h e L aw s t h at th e pre va i l i ng ord er

of s oci e ty a llo w s h a lf of i t s ava i l a ble forces t o l i e fa llow ,

a n d w i t h d r a w s t hem from t h e s ervi c e of t h e c ommun i t y .

5 The p i ct ure of P l a t o a s mor a l i s t w o u l d be i n c omple t e

.

w i t ho u t t ho s e fe a t u re s of s t ernne s s a n d s e ver i ty w h i ch s eem

s o s u rpr i s i ng t o u s a n d w h i c h a re s o c h a rac t er i s t i c of h i s

i n di vi d u a l i t y . H e w o u l d h ave th e he a l i ng a rt re s t ri ct e d
 GRE E K TH I N K E RS .

to urgery a n d t h e t re a t men t of a cut e d i s e a s e s The

s .

d i e t e t i c m e di ci ne w h i ch w as t hen a no v el ty of t h e d ay ,

a n d w h i c h s er ve d t o prolong a r t i fi c i a lly th e l i ve s of s i c k ly
“ ”
pers on s a ppe a rs to h i m as a fo s t erer of d i s e a s e s a n d i s
, ,

c on demne d a cc or d i ngly B ut he loo ks w i t h full a ppro va l

.

on t h e s o n of th e people w h o s ee ks s pee dy d e ath or s pee dy

“
c u re w h o
,
h a s no t i me t o be i l l A c a u t i ou s ly regul a t e d
.

l i fe a nx i ou s ly a vo i d i ng a l l r i s ks a n d s h i el di ng for ex a mple
, , ,

s u ch p a r t s of t h e bo dy a s th e he a d a n d fee t from th e
expo s ure w h i ch s houl d h a rd en them i s an a bom i n a ti on t o ,

P l ato .

M or a l h a r den i ng goe s s i d e by s i de w i t h phys i ca l H e .

c on d emn s t r a ge d y pr i n c i p a lly on t h e groun d t h a t i t s u ppl i e s

,

a bun d a n t nu t r i men t t o t h e feel i ng of p i t y a n d t hereby,

rel a xe s th e emot i on a l fibre H e w h o p ay s th e t ri b ut e of

.

’
t e a r s t o a s t a ge hero s m i s for t u ne s d i m i n i s he s h i s po w er
-

of be a ri ng h i s o w n s orrow s unmo ve d A qu i e t ne s s of s o u l
.

bord eri ng on r i g i di ty i s t h e t emper w h i c h P l at o w oul d h a v e

men pre s er ve u n der e v ery s t ro k e of fa t e— a n i nj un cti on i n
g i vi ng w h i ch h e i s c le a rly c omb at i ng h i s o wn n at ure a s
mu ch a s i n h i s polem i c a g a i n s t poe t ry Fa r from h i m i s .

th e t hough t t h a t on s u ch o cca s i on s a s th e lo s s of fr i en d s or
k i n i t i s po s s i ble t o mourn to o l i tt le a s w ell a s t o o m u ch .

There i s s ome t h i ng t h at rem i n ds us of t h e Cyn i cs i n th e

w a y i n w h i c h he t re at s s u c h q u e s t i on s w i th a s ole eye to
t h e pro t e c t i on of w i ll po w er a g a i n s t t h e d a ngers w h i ch
-

t hre a ten i t on th i s s i d e . I t h a s been r i gh t ly rem a r ke d t h a t

an a t t emp t , l i k e th at of S chopenh a uer to b a s e e th i cs on
,

c omp a s s i on , w o u l d h av e been i n comprehen s i ble t o P l a t o .

An d h e w o u l d h a v e u tt erly d es p i s e d a ll th e d el i gh ts of
s en s i b i l i ty a s d ep i ct e d by a Rou s s e a u .

We h av e here a un i on of th e So cra ti c a n d Cyn i c s elf

s u ffic i e n c
y (a é r é p rcu a ) w i t h s u c h a vi ew of l i fe a s grow s o u t
of th e en vi ron men t of a m i l i ta ry a ri s t o cra cy I f A ri s to tle .
,

on th e o t her h a n d a llo w s a wi der s cope to th e s oft er

,

“
feel i ng s a n d b y h i s t heory of C a th a rs i s or emo ti on a l
,
”

di s ch a rge ple a ds for a c omprom i s e w i t h t h i s p a rt of hum a n

n a t ure i n l i fe a n d a r t h i s m i d d le c l a s s ori g i n w oul d s eem
,
-

t o h av e s om e t h i ng t o d o w i th t h i s n o ta ble d i vergen c e from

 GREEK TH I N K E RS .

A ri s to tle s ubj ect e d h i s m a s ter s proje cts of reform

’
6 . to
a t horough ri t i ca l ex a m i n a ti on We s h a ll s ele c t s ome o f
c .

h i s ch i ef po i n ts a n d u s e t hem a s peg s on w h i c h to h a ng our

fin a l commen ts No t a l i tt le s u rp ri s i ng i s th e i n i t i a l
.

a t t i t u d e of A r i s t o t le t o w a r ds t h e P l a ton i c s o c i a l ord er
”
w h i ch he fin a lly c on d emn s Leg i s l a ti on of t h i s type he
.
,

s a ys,
m a k e s a n ex c ellen t s how an d h as every a ppe a r a n c e ,

of be i ng a boon to hum a n i ty ; i t t herefore com men ds i ts elf

t o t ho s e w h o he a r of i t a n d c re at e s th e i mpre s s i on t h a t i t
,

w o u l d d o w on d er s i n t h e w a y of i n tro du ci ng a h i gh d egree
”
of mu t u a l s ymp a thy a mong men Th e pri n ci p a l referen ce .

i s to t h e c ommun i t y of goo ds b ut th e c ommun i ty of w omen , ,

of w h i ch he h as s po k en i mme di at ely before i s d o ub t le s s ,

i n cl u d e d The obj e ct a i me d a t i n t hes e reform s n a mely

.
, ,

“ ”
th e un i fi cati on of s o ci e ty i s d i s a pprove d of on th e ,

groun d t h at n o t e very d egree of un i ty i s d e s i ra ble for th e

S t at e . I t i s th e n a t ure of th e S t at e t o be c ompo s e d of
he terogeneou s elemen ts an d un i ty go i ng beyon d a c ert a i n ,

me as ure woul d d e s t roy i ts e s s en ce The fa m i ly mu s t .

h ave more u n i ty th a n th e S ta te a n d t h e i n di vi d u a l hum a n ,

be i ng m ore s t i ll W i t h t h i s obj e cti on w h i ch w e m ay ca ll a

.
,

log i c a l one goe s t h e d i s cu s s i on of n o t a fe w d i ffi c ul ti e s

,

i n c i d en t a l t o t h e c a rry i ng o ut of th e s c hem e i n d e t a i l B ut .

for an y rej e ct i on of i t on s tr i ct ly fun da men ta l pr i n ci ple s ,

a ny expre s s i on of rep u gn a n c e on e t h i ca l groun d s w e m a y ,

s e a r ch A r i s to t le i n va i n Th i s i s n o t a l i tt le not ew ort hy
.
,

a n d requ i re s expl a n a ti on .

We re c ur t o a fa ct w h i ch h a s a lre a dy been m en ti one d ,

n a mely t h at Sp a rt a a S ta t e reg a r d e d by t h e ph i lo s ophers

, ,

a s a l l b u t a p a tt ern exh i b i t e d a t le a s t t h e r u d i men t s of a

,

pra ct i ca l commun i s m : t h e common me a l s of th e men th e ,

’
l i ber ty acc or de d w i th i n c erta i n l i m i ts of u s i ng o t her pers on s
s l a v e s hors e s d og s a n d s o for t h
, , , A l l th i s i s a ppro ve d of .

by Ar i s to t le ; i n d ee d he re com men ds a fu rt her a dva n c e i n

,

th e s a m e d i re cti on We m i ght a dd t h at germ s of m a ri t a l

.

c om m u n i s m a r e a l s o t o be m e t w i t h a mong t h e Sp a r t a n s ,

a s i n th e s ub s t i t u t i on for a n a ge d hu s b a n d of a yo u nger
“ ”
m an c ho s en by h i m a n d m a ny o t her s u ch l i c en ce s a s
, ,

X e nophon c a ll s t hem No w th e s o c a lle d Lyc u rg e a n

.
-
 A RI S TO TL E S CRI TI CI S M
’
. I 1 9

leg i s l a ti on d i d n o t s o m uch c re a t e novel ti e s as g i ve a n

a r t i fi c i a l fix i ty t o c u s t om s h a n d e d d o w n from t h e e a rl i e s t

a n t i q u i ty ; w e a re t hu s en t i t le d t o d r a w s o m e i nferen c e s a s

t o t h e c on d i t i on s of pr i m i t i ve Gree c e H ere t o o w e m ay .
, ,

men ti on th e a ccoun t by no me a n s con demn atory w h i c h

, ,

H ero do tu s g ive s of th e commun i ty of w omen a mong t h e

Aga th yrs i The obj e ct of i t s o he t ell s us w a s t o m ak e
.
, ,
” “
bro t her s of th e t ri be s men a n d to b a n i s h h at re d a n d
,
”
i ll w i ll from th e w i de c i rcle of k i n d re d I t i s h a rdly a n .

ex a ggera t i on to s ay t h at t o th e common Gree k s en t i men t ,

w h i c h m ay be d e s cr i be d a s t i nge d w i t h a ta vi s m i n t h i s
re s pect ex cl us i ve pers on a l a ppropr i at i on a n d th e re s ul ti ng
,

i nequ a l i ty i n o w ner s h i p w a s a s ye t very fa r from s eem i ng

so m u ch of a l a w of n a tu re or mee t i ng w i t h s uch un ,

c o n d i ti on a l a cc ep t a n c e a s i t d oe s i n mo d ern t i me s .

There i s a no t her p a r t ic ul a r i n w h i ch our comprehen s i o n

’
of P l a t o s reform proje cts i s gre a t ly a s s i s te d by th e c ri t i ci s m
-

of h i s p u p i l The l a t t er a n d w i t hou t d o ub t h i s m as ter a s

.
,

w ell w as a c q u a i n t e d w i t h gen u i nely c omm u n i s t i c i n s t i t u

,

t i on s a mong fore i gn people s S o far i s he from a ny

.

n a rro wn e ss of hori zon i n th i s res pe c t th a t he even d i s ,

t i n g u i s h e s d i fferen t k i n ds of l a n d c olle ct i vi s m : c om mon -

ow ners h i p a n d common ti ll a ge on th e one h a n d ; s ep a rat e

ow ners h i p w i t h c ommon u s ufru ct on th e o ther Commun i ty .

of w omen t o o i s know n t o h i m a s ex i s ti ng a mong th e

, ,

t r i be s of t h e A fr i c a n i n t er i or H ero d o t us w e m ay no t e
.
, ,

h ad a lre a dy repor t e d t h e pre va len c e of t h i s i n s ti t u t i on

a mong t h e Ag at h yrs i t h e L i by a n Na s a mo n e s a n d t h e
, ,

As i a t i c M as s age t e s Thu s t ho s e fe a t ure s of P l a t o s i d e a l

.
’

w h ic h s eem t h e s t r a nge s t t o u s w ere n o t a l toge t her o ut ,

of t o uch w i th t h e fa cts of experi en c e re a l or bel i eve d t o ,

be s o .

S t i ll th e comb i n a ti on of t he s e fe a ture s t oge ther w i th

, ,

t h e a ddi t i on s pe cu l i a r t o P l a t o e s pe c i a lly w i th reg a rd t o

,

th e c l as s of ph i lo s oph i ca l w a rr i or s a n d r u lers w a s s u ffi ,

c i e n tl
y s t ar t l i ng t o d r aw from t h i s c r i t i c t h e s ome w h a t
“
rhe t or i ca l ex cl am ati on Sh a ll leng t h of t i m e go un
,
”
reg a r de d a n d t h e mul t i t u de of ye a rs t h at a re p as t ?
, In
o ther w ord s Th e w orl d i s no w v ery o l d ; a n d h a d s u ch
,
 GRE E K TH I N KE RS

a c on s t i tut i on been po s s i ble s ome re a l i z a t i on of i t w oul d

,

h av e o ccurre d s ome w here before n o w I t i s th e s t a n d i ng .

a n d s t a ple a rg u men t of a ll c on s er va t i v e m i n d s a g a i n s t s ub

v ers i v e i nno v a ti on s — a n a rgumen t w h i c h a ppe a l s t o u s ,

w i th our gre a t ly ex t en d e d e t hnogr a ph i c a n d h i s t ori ca l

pers pe ct i ve fa r le s s forci bly t h a n t o p as t gener a t i on s
, .

The w orl d i s s ti ll i n i ts i n fa n cy s a ys Gol d s m i t h i n

, ,
“ ”
th e Vi ca r of W ak efiel d a n d th e c ry h as been r e e choe d
,
-

“
a hun d re d t i me s s i n ce The t ru th t h at th e p a r a d oxe s
.

”
of t o d ay a re th e c ommonpl ace s of to morrow i s a s
- -

a ppl i c a ble t o pr act i ca l reform s a s t o s pe c u l a t i v e k no w le d ge .

On t h e o t her h a n d i t i s t rue th e compl i ca t i on of a ll hum a n

, ,

c on cern s a n d t h e c on s equen t un t ru s tw ort h i ne s s of merely

,

d e du cti ve re a s on i ng s upon t hem a re n o w re a l i ze d fa r more

,

v i vi d ly t h a n e v er before ; a n d w e requ i re of d eep re ach i ng -

i n no va t i on s t h at t hey s h a ll e s t a bl i s h t he i r vi ab i l i t y a s w ell
a s t he i r u s efulne s s n o t by r a t i o c i n a t i on merely b ut by
, ,

a c tu a l exper i men t .

’
P l at o s expe cta t i on t h at th e s uppre s s i on of s ep a r a t e
fa m i l i e s w oul d engen d er a s en t i men t of un i vers a l bro ther
hoo d a n d t h us ex t en d t h e pow er of ki n d re d t i e s o v er th e
,

w hole of a un i t e d people mo v e s A r i s t o t le t o c on t r a di ct i on
, .

H e rem a rks t h a t by th e very w i dth of t he i r ex t en s i on

t ho s e s en t i men t s w oul d lo s e i n po w er ; he s pe a ks of a
w a t ere d d o w n -
lo ve of ki n a n d t h i n ks t h a t a re a l c ou s i n
,
’
i s w ort h more th an a s o n a ft er P l a t o s mo d el Gro t e here .

c ome s t o t h e re s c ue w i t h t h e rej o i n d er t h a t for t h e obj e ct s

a i me d a t by P l a t o e ven a h i ghly d i lu t e d s en t i men t of k i n

s h i p a n d s ol i d a r i ty w oul d h a v e been s u fli c i e n t w h i le i n t en s i ty
,

i n s u ch s ymp at h i e s i s ex a ct ly one of t h e elemen ts w h i ch

he w oul d h ave d e s i re d to be b a n i s he d from h i s c om mon
w e a lth .

O n th e o ther h a n d no a n s w er s eem s po s s i ble t o a no ther

,

obje ct i on of th e S tag i ri t e n a mely t h a t by t h e fu n da

, ,

m en ta lly d i fferen t e d uca ti o n a n d l i fe of th e rul i ng c l as s

a n d t h e r u le d s o d eep a gulf w o u l d be fixe d be t w een t hem
“
t h at t hey w oul d i n re a l i ty form t w o s ta t e s i n one a n d ,
”
i n dee d t wo m u t u a lly ho s t i le s t a t e s I n t h i s expre s s i on
.

w e no t e a re s embl a n ce w h i c h i s n o d o u b t more th a n a n
,
 GR EE K TH I N K E RS .

h as re a l i z e d t h e i mport a n c e fo r pol i t i ca l l i fe of s ci e n t i fi ca lly

refine d i n t ell i ge n ce Th i s t herefo re m us t be free d o n c e
.
, , ,

for a ll from t h e lea den re s i s ta n c e of folly a n d i nerti a o f

,

t ho u gh t by be i n g en d o w e d w i t h a b s olu t e po w er
, I t is .

t h e s a me i n t h e s o ci a l a n d e t h i ca l s phere H e re cog n i ze s .

t h e gre a t va l u e of d e v o t i on t o t h e c ommo n w e a l of ele va ,

t i on a bo v e t h e c onfl i ct i n g i n t ere s ts w h i c h d i vi d e m a n ki n d
a w a y t herefore w i t h a l l s ep a r a t e l i fe a n d w i t h i t s org a n s
, , , ,

pr i va t e propert y a n d t h e fa m i ly ! S t ou t ne s s of he a rt a n d
s t r i ct conform i t y t o re as on i n t h e c o n du ct of l i fe a re
t hre at ene d by enerva t i ng emo t i on s a n d t h e s u prem acy of
i m a g i n a t i on ; n i n e t en t h s t herefore of a l l poe t ry a s t h e
-
, , ,

m a i n s o u rc e of t he s e d a ngers mu s t be t hro w n ov erbo a r d , .

Th i s w ay of t h i n ki ng P l a t o s h a re s w i t h a goo d m a ny
o t hers Au g u s t e Com t e d e s i re d t h e a nn i h i l a t i on of a l l
.

b a d i n d ee d of a l l s e con d r a t e c ompo s i t i on s a n d he w o u l d
,
-
,

h ave h a d a l l u s ele s s va r i et i e s of a n i m a l s a n d pl a n ts ex
t erm i n at e d Th at m a ny a s peci e s d eeme d t o be u s ele s s
.

or ev en nox i ou s m i gh t i n co u rs e of t i me pro ve t o h av e a
v a lue i s a n ob v i ou s r e fl e x i o n b u t one w h i c h d i d n o t a rre s t
, ,

h i s i mp a t i en t s t ri vi ng for t h e a bol i t i on of t h e w or t hle s s .

Th i s error s eem s t o us typ i ca l of t h e t ren d of t hough t

repre s en t e d by P l a t o I t i s i n t h e mora l w orl d a s i n t h e
.

phy s i ca l w here w i t h ne a rly e very po i s on a me a n s of he a l i ng

,

w o u l d be lo s t The s a me pow ers of h u m a n n a t ure a re

.

c a p able of be i ng u s e d w i t h t h e be s t re s u l t s a n d of be i ng ,

m i s u s e d w i t h th e w ors t H e w h o w i ll a ch i ev e perfect
.

goo dne s s i n a n y one d i rect i on by t h e era di cat i on of th e

oppo s i ng i n s t i n ct s run s a r i s k of t a mperi ng w i t h t h e roo ts
from w h i ch goo d n e s s i ts elf s pri ng s The ph i lo s opher w a s .

here fa r beh i n d h i s el d er c on t empora ry E u ri p i d e s th e ,

t r a ge d i a n w hom he s o he a r t i ly d es p i s e d I t i s t o th e .

l a t t er w e o w e t h e profoun d s ay i ng
Th e go o d an d e vi l can n o t d well a par t
Th e worl d s a m i x ture
’

a t ho u gh t w h i ch O t t o Lu dw i g expre s s e s w i th s ti ll gre a t er
force i n t h e w or ds
E x ci s i o n of my w o r s t
We re l o s s of what i n m e i s b e st of al l .
 H I S TORI C P A RA L L E LS . 1 2 3

An d w h i lenerr i ng c er ta i n ty i n d i s en ta ngl i ng th e b a d
u

from t h e goo d i s s ome th i ng far bey o n d t h e po w ers of

h u m a n re a s on w e a r e n o t s o p as s i ng r i ch i n i mp u l s e s
, ,

c a p ac i t i e s po s s i b i l i t i e s of h a pp i ne s s t h a t w e c a n a fford t o
, ,

s ee k s a l va t i on i n t h e m a i m i ng a n d i mpo v er i s hmen t of our

n atu re r a ther th a n i n i ts e ver rene w e d d i s ci pl i ne a n d -

c ul ture .

Here t o our t h i n ki ng l i e s t h e d ouble obje ct i on w h i ch i s

, ,

d e ci s i v e a g a i n s t P l a t o s s o ci a l reform s — a n obje ct i on of fa r
’

gre a ter w e i gh t t h a n t h e e a s y a n d s uperfi ci a l a s s u mp ti on

t h at t h e unu s u a l m u s t a l s o be t h e i mpo s s i ble Th i s i s .

c ert a i nly n o t t rue of th a t s pe ci e s of c omm u n i s m i n proper ty

w h i c h P l at o d em a n ds for h i s c l a s s of gu a r di a n s I t i s not .

ne ce s s a ry i n t h i s c onnex i on to de ci d e th e que s ti on w he ther

, ,

c olle cti v e m a n a gemen t i s i n i ts elf a d a p t e d t o s uper s e d e

’
pri va te m a n agemen t ev eryw here P l at o s d re a m h a s i n a ny.

c a s e been fulfille d more t h a n on c e Wh at he d em a n ds i s

.

n o t t h e s o c i a l i z a t i on of t h e me a n s of pro d u ct i on ( wh i ch i n
no longer be ca lle d a n unex a mple d pro ce d ure
o ur d a
y c a n
) ,

for th e pro d u ci ng c l as s e s a re n o t t ou che d by h i s reform .

A be t t er p a ra llel to h i s req u i remen ts i s s uppl i e d by e very

mon as t i c c ommun i ty a n d on a l a rger s ca le by bro therhoo d s
,

s u c h a s t h e K n i gh t s of th e Te u t on i c Or d er th e member s of ,

w h i ch renoun c e d pr i va t e property by th e v o w of po ve rty ,

w h i le a d epen d en t a n d t r i b ut a ry pe a s a n t ry o t herw i s e ,

t re a t e d by th e K n i gh ts w i t h i n d ulgen t ki n d ne s s furn i s he d ,

t h e me an s of s u b s i s t en c e for t h e c omm u n i ty .

Thes e a n a log i e s belong to M e di ae va l E u rope O n th e .

o ther h an d m a ri t a l c ommun i s m h as foun d a n ex act p a ra llel

,
“
i n mo d ern A meri ca We refer to th e s e ct of t h e Pe rfe c
.

”
t i o ni s ts
,
foun de d by J ohn Humphrey Noye s w h o w as ,

born i n Ne w E ngl a n d i n 1 8 1 1 For a full genera ti on th i s

.

s e ct h a d i t s c h i ef s e a t a t One i d a i n th e s t a t e of Ne w Yor k .

We do n o t k no w w he ther Noye s w as ac qu a i n t e d w i th
P l a t o s s cheme o f reform I n a ny c a s e th e form w h i c h
’
-

.
,
“ ”
s t i rp i c ul t ure or hum a n s to ck bree d i ng t oo k a mong h i s
,
-
,

a d heren ts (i n 1 8 7 4 t hey n u mbere d ne a rly 3 00 ) exh i b i ts a

s t r i k i ng re s embl a n c e t o t h e P l at on i c mo d el The only .

m a rri age s a llow e d w ere tem pora ry one s for th e purpo s e of

 G R EEK TH I N K E RS .

pro v i d i ng c h i l d ren an d the s e w ere a ll a rr a nge d by t h e

,

he a d of t h e com m u n i ty t h e n umber an d ch a ra ct er of t hem

d epen d e d on t h e e conom i c s i t u at i on of th e s oc i e ty for t h e
t i me be i ng a n d t hey w ere reg u l a t e d by th e en d e a vour t o
,

s e c ure th e gre at e s t po s s i ble perfe ct i on i n th e o ffs pri ng .

E x clu s i v ene s s a n d i n t en s i ty i n th e emo t i on of lov e w as

”
c on d emne d a s re s pect of pers on s a n d bra n d e d a s s i nful
,
”
s elfi s hne s s .

.8 I n d e a l i ng w i t h a gen i u s l i k e P l a t o i t i s a gre a t
ple as u re t o be a ble t o ex ch ange th e p a r t of c r i ti c for
t h a t of e u log i s t We h av e th a t ple a s ure w hen w e t u rn
.

from c ommun i s m i n propert y a n d m a rr i a ge t o th e em a n e i

a t i o n of w omen P l a t o here t re a ds i n t h e foo t s t ep s of h i s
p .

gre at t e acher Th i s i s pro v e d n o t only by th e a greemen t

.
,

w i th X enophon an d An t i s t hene s (c f Vol I I p . b ut by . . .

th e a d di t i on a l c on s en t i en t vo i c e of t h at di s c i ple wh o h a d
th e le as t or i g i n a l i ty a n d w h o m a y t herefore be t ak en a s
,

repre s en ti ng mo s t fa i thfu lly t h e p e c ul i ari te s of th e c om mon

m as t er I n h i s d i a log u e en ti tle d A s p as i a IE s ch i n e s p ut
.
”
,

i n t h e mou t h of t h a t d i s ti ng u i s he d w om a n a n i n ci s i v e
c r i t i c i s m of t h e e d u ca t i on an d mo d e of l i fe t r a d i t i on a l for

her s e x We hol d t h e op i n i on t h a t i n t h i s m a tt er th e a u thor

.

“
of th e Republ i c h a s g i ven u t t era n ce t o th e pure a n d
c omple t e t ru t h a lmo s t w i t hou t a d m i x t ure of error n a mely
, , ,

t h a t th e fem a le i s t h e more d el i ca t e or w e a k er s e x b u t t h a t ,

t h i s rel a t i v e w e a k ne s s only a ppe a rs on s t ri ki ng an a v er a ge ,

s i n ce a n a rr a ngemen t of a ll men a n d a l l w omen by

or der of ca p ac i ty w o u l d y i el d a h i ghly d i vers i fie d s eri e s .

An d furt her t h a t q u a l i t a t i ve di ff eren ce s d e ci s i v e i n t h e

, , ,

c ho i c e of a c a ll i ng d o n o t ex i s t be tw een m a s c ul i ne an d
,

fem i n i ne en d ow men t .

I t i s t rue t h a t t he s e propos i ti on s s eem t o req u i re a

s o me w h a t more c a u t i o u s s t a t emen t Even i n re s pe c t o f
.

t h a t aver a ge i nfer i ori t y i t c a nno t a s y e t be reg a r d e d a s

,

e s tabl i s he d t h at w here i n t elle ct u a l g i fts a r e con cerne d i t

, ,

i s a n u l t i m a t e u n a l t era ble fa ct O n th e o ther h a n d t h e

.
,

po s s i b i l i t y i s n o t ex c l u d e d t h a t a free fiel d for th e d ev elop

’
men t of w omen s ta len ts m i gh t bri ng t o l i gh t a v era ge
di ffe ren c e s of e v en qu a l i ta ti v e or d er Only s o m uch i s .
 1 2 6 GR EE K TH I N K E RS .

’
B u t t h o u gh P l at o s i d e a l of w om a nhoo d h a s l i tt le pro s pe ct
of complet e re a l i z a ti on , a c omp a ri s on be tw een th e At hen s
of th e fifth c en t ury a n d th e mo s t h ighly c i vi l i ze d n at i on s of
to —
d ay h o ws th at th e c ours e of d e v elopmen t i s i n th e
s

d i re ct i on w h i c h P l a t o a ppro ve d a n d t h a t a c on s i d er a ble,

p a rt o f h i s d em a n ds h a ve been a ct u a lly fulfille d .

“
X enophon g i ve s u s i n h i s (E co n o mi cus a p i ct ure
, ,

w h i c h i s a s s u re d ly a fa i thfu l one of t h e m i n d a n d l i fe of ,

At hen i a n w omen The n ew ly m a rri e d I s ch o m ac h us i s

.

b us y w i th th e e d u ca t i on of h i s w i fe a g i rl b a rely o ut of ,

her ch i l dhoo d w hom he i s a nx i ou s to t ra i n i n t o a n a c ti v e

,

a n d c ompe t en t hou s e k eeper a n d c omp a n i on of h i s l i fe ,

he a l t hy i n bo dy a n d m i n d I t i s ne c e s s a ry for h i m firs t
.
,

of a l l t o t a me her as though s h e w ere a w i l d a n i m a l t o

, ,

o verc ome her s hynes s a n d r a i s e her t o w a rds h i s o w n level

, .

H i t her to s h e h a s le a rn t a lmo s t no th i ng ; her mo ther h as

merely bro ugh t her up t o be w ell beh ave d a n d s ubm i s s i v e -

t o her m as t er s w i ll
’
She k now s t o o h o w t o s p i n b ut for
.
, ,

th e re s t i s i n c l i ne d t o le av e w e a vi ng a n d a l l o ther hou s e
w or k t o her s l av e s t o i d le her t i me aw ay a n d t o m a k e
, ,
’
s ure of her hu s b a n d s a ff e ct i on by a rt i fi c i a lly embell i s h i ng

her i n door c omplex i on an d by an un s p a ri ng us e of a l l th e

a rt s of t h e t o i le t (M
. a rr i a ge s for lo v e w e no t e i n p as s i ng , ,

w ere a ll b u t u nhe a r d of s i n c e freeborn m a i d en s w ere ,

d eb a rre d from th e s o c i e ty of young men of t he i r o w n ag e .

I t w as by c on s id er at i on s of pri va t e i n t ere s t t h at m a rr i a ge s
w ere d e c id e d an d P l a t o i s le s s vi olen t t h a n he s eem s a t
,

firs t s i ght w hen he propos e s to c on s ul t th e publ i c i n teres t

i n s t e a d ) H o w gre a t i s th e d i fferen c e be tween t h i s h a lf
.

O ri en t a l s e cl us i on a n d th e l i fe of th e g i rl s an d w omen —i n
t h e s a m e s o c i a l c l a s s — o f t o day ! The i r c hee ks a re bro n ze d
-

w i t h s po rt t hey d el i v er lectu re s an d t a k e p a r t i n publ i c

,

mee ti ng s t hey p a i n t p i ct ure s an d w ri t e boo ks ; m a ny

,

profe s s i on s i n Nor th A meri ca a lmo s t a l l a r e open t o

, ,

t hem ; a n d t hey a re le a vi ng fa rt her a n d fa rt her beh i n d t hem

t h e s t a ge i n w h i c h t hey w ere b a n i s he d t o t h e w a s h tu b a n d -

t h e nee d le t h e ki t c hen a n d t h e n u rs ery

, .

There a r e y e t o t her re s pects i n w h i ch Pl a to s mo del h as ’

by no me a n s rem ai ne d a mere U top i a I f th e w ork of S ta te .

 P L A TO y U S TI FI E D B Y H I S TOR Y . I 2 7

d ep a rt men ts i s now l a rgely performe d by t ra i ne d o ffi c i a l s ,

i f s ta n di ng a rm i e s d i s pl a y a fa r h i gher d egree of e ffi c i en cy
t h an w a s po s s i ble t o a b u rge s s m i l i t i a i f t h e progre s s i ve
-
,

d i vi s i on of l a bour h a s brough t i n d u s t ry t o a he i gh t of
d ve elopmen t un d re a m t of i n a n t i qu i t y — P l a t o i nfluen c e d
, ,

here i n b y So cra t i c i n telle ctua l i s m by h i s h at re d of th e ,

Athen i a n d emo cr at i c a m a teur i s m a s w ell a s by E gypt i a n

,

a n d o t her fore i g n mo d el s mu s t be reg a r d e d a s a pre c ur s or

,

of a l l t he s e ch a nge s I t i s t ru e t h at he d i d n o t e s ca pe
.

o cc as i on a l i n con s i s t en ci es Fo r ex a mple th e s t ri ct d i vi s i on
.
,

of l abo u r w h i ch he pos t ul at e s i s only i mperfe ct ly re a l i ze d

”
by h i s g u a rd i a n s a mong w hom tho s e a t le a s t w h o a tta i n
,

t h e h i ghe s t go a l a re i n t u rn c i vi l o ffi ci a l s m i l i t a ry c o m ,

m a n d ers a n d s pe cu l a t ive ph i los ophers I t i s s urpri s i ng

,
.
,
“ ”
t o o t h at w h i le s pe c i a l t r a i n i ng a n d
, exper i en ce a re n o t
w holly negle ct e d i n t h e go vernors of t h e s t a t e t hey o cc u py ,

a v ery s ubor d i n a t e s p a c e H i s tory h as here pronoun ce d

.

P l at o n o t a l t oge t her i n th e w rong Th u s m a ny of th e

.

mo s t fa mou s E ngl i s h pol i t i ci a n s t ho ugh equ i ppe d w i t h n o

,

more t h a n a purely genera l e d u ca t i on h ave gra pple d s uc ,

c e s s fully w i th th e mo s t d i fli cul t problem s An d a l tern a t i on

.

betw een c i vi l an d m i l i t a ry employmen ts h as i mp a i re d th e

e ffi ci en cy of th e gre at Anglo I n di a n s t a t es men a s l i ttle a s
-

t h at of th e Rom a n .

B ut w h a t e ver our j u dgmen t on m a ny a d e ta i l e ven on ,

m a ny a le a di n g t ho ugh t of t h i s s o ci a l a n d pol i ti ca l s cheme

, ,

th e a ut hor h as e a rne d a n i mper i s h a ble d i s t i n ct i on Fo l l o w .

i n g th e h i n ts of h i s t e a cher So c ra t e s he w a s th e firs t t o ,

t urn upon hum a n i n s t i t u ti on s t h e l i gh t of free r a t i on a l

i n ve s t i g a ti on a n d to open i n t h e t r i ple r a mp a r t of t r a di t i on
, ,

prej u d i c e a n d tyra nno u s forc e a bre a ch w h ic h h a s s i n ce

,

been oft en n a rro w e d b ut ne ver rep a i re d .

’
F u r ther i n th e po s i t i ve c on ten t of P l at o s ch i ef w ork
,

there w ere l a t en t germ s th e d e v elopmen t of w h i ch w a s n o t

t o be a rre s t e d i n dee d th e beg i n n i ng s of th at d e velopmen t
,

a r e i n p a r t v i s i ble to u s i n t h at pro d u ct of t h e ph i lo s opher s

’

”
o l d ag e , th e L aw s . Th at h a rs h s everi ty w h i ch w e fo un d
s o c h a r a c t er i s t i c of t h e a u thor of th e Rep ubl i c w i ll a ppe a r
t here i n gre at ly d i m i n i s he d s t rengt h Nor ca n w e w on der
. .
 GR EE K TH I NK E RS .

For th e ob s tac le s i n t h e p a th of w h a t w e n o w c a ll a l t ru i s m
o r s ol i d a r i s m h a v e a lre a dy been l a rgely o v er c ome i n t h e
”
“
Rep ubl i c . An i de a l i n v olvi ng t h e s a c ri fi ce by th e i n di
v i d u a l of ne a rly a ll h i s s ep a r a t e l i fe w h i c h s w eep s a w a y ,

a ll th e b a rr i ers d i v i d i ng h i m from h i s fello w s — s u c h a n i d e a l

open s a w i d e c h a nnel for th e i nflux of a l t ru i s t i c feel i ng s for ,

t h e d ev o t i on of e ac h one t o t h e i n t ere s ts of o t hers Th a t .

P l a to d i d n o t i mme d i at ely en t er th e p ath t hu s t r a c e d fo r

h i m w as d u e t o th e h i gh s t rung i d e a l i s m of h i s l a t e c on t i n ue d
- -

yo ut h .

A gre a t p a rt of h u m a n i n t ere s ts ne a rly a l l i n fa ct t h a t w e

, , ,

me a n by m a ter i a l w elfa re an d i ts oppo s i t e h ad v ery l i tt le ,

s i gn i fi ca n c e for h i m w he t her i n h i s o w n c a s e or i n t h at of
,

o thers w h i le h i s c on temp t for th e lo w er cl a s s e s c on t ri bu t e d

t o t h e s a me re s u l t from a no ther s i d e Adva n ci ng a g e .

mello w e d th e a us t er i ty of t h at i d e a l i s m a n d a t th e s a me ,

t i me d i m i n i s he d t h at prej u di c e a g a i n s t t h e lo w ly born an d ,

ev en a g a i n s t s l ave s c h i efly perh a p s be c a u s e of h i s grow i ng

, , ,

w i t h d r aw a l from t h e i nfluen ce of t h e a r i s to c r at i c a s s o c i a ti on s
”
of h i s yo u th Al l t h i s w i l l c ome before u s i n th e L a ws
. .

B ut be s i d e s t h e beg i nn i ng s of an enh a n ce d a l t r u i s m w h i ch
“ ”
w e h ave j u s t no t i c e d t h e Republ i c bet ray s a t en d en cy
,

i n q u i t e th e oppo s i t e d i re c t i on t o w a r ds th e h i gher va lu a ti on
,

of th e i n d i vi du a l We refer p a rt icu l a rly to th e c omp a ri s on

.

of th e m a n w i th th e S ta t e or m fl t g an d th e i njun ct i on to
, ,

re a l i z e i n th e s i ngle s oul a t leas t th e p a tt ern w h i ch h a s

, ,

been exh i b i te d e ven s ho u l d i t pro ve i mpos s i ble t o embo d y

,

i t i n a c ommon w e a l t h As c on t r as t e d w i t h th e c ommon
.

Greek v i ew th i s i nj un cti on a n d th e p a ra llel i s m on w h i c h

,

i t re s ts be s pe a k c on s i d er able progre s s i n th e d i re c t i on
follo w e d l a t er by th e S t o a a n d fin a lly by Chr i s t i a n i ty .

I n a l l t he s e re s pe ct s w e ob s erve a c lo s e a ffi n i ty to Cyn i c
d o ct ri ne s of w h i ch th e re a d er w i ll h a r d ly nee d t o be
rem i n d e d (c f Vol I I pp 1 5 2 1 6 1 s eq 1 6 5 s eq )
. . . .
, .
, .

.
9 O ne w or d more on t h e fun d a men t a l t he s i s of t h e

Republ i c th e co i n ci d en c e of h a pp i ne s s a n d j us t i ce The
, .

c r i t i c a l c o m men ts w i t h w h i c h w e h a v e a ccomp a n i e d our

a c c ou n t s of t h e a rg u men t s be a r i ng on t h i s po i n t ( c f pp 6 1 . .

a n d 7 5 ) m ay n o w be fi t ly s u pplemen t e d by a fin a l e s t i m a t e
 GR EEK TH I N K E RS .

room for th e s h a d o w of a d oub t on t h i s he a d B u t ev en .

P l a t o s ol d er c on t empor a ri e s a n H ero d o tu s or a H i pp i as
’

, ,

h a d a lre a d y per c e i v e d t h i s c le a rly e n ough (cf Vol I p . . . .

P l a t o s ze a l i nher i t e d from So c r a t e s a n d s pr i ng i ng from

’

t h e p u re s t mo t i v e s fo r t h e e s t a bl i s h men t of j u s t i c e or
,

s oc i a l v i r tu e on a n u n a s s a i l a ble fo u n d a t i on h a s d i mme d ,

t h e c le a rne s s of h i s v i s i on a n d c a u s e d h i m t o o v erloo k
,

e vi d en t fa ct s O nly s o c a n i t b e expl a i ne d t h a t Pl a t o
.

n o w t hough t h i m s elf j u s t i fie d i n i d en t i fy i n g j u s t i c e w i t h
’
e ffi ci en cy a n d a g a i n w i t h th e equ i l i bri u m of t h e s o u l s
,

po w ers We s hou l d he s i ta t e t o a d m i t h i s con ten t i o n th a t

.

no tyra n t or s l a v e h u n t er or even t h a t no robber ca p t a i n

-
,
-
,

h as e v er ex i s t e d w h o wa s t horo u ghly c a p a ble a n d e ffi c i en t ,

a n d a t t h e s a me t i me h a ppy A m an of a n t i s oc i a l or
.
-

i nhum a n d i s po s i t i on d oe s n o t a s a n i mme di a t e a n d expre s s

,

c on s eq u en c e of t h i s d i s po s i ti on s u ff er a n y lo s s of h i s
,

c a p a c i ty for a c t i on a n d enj oymen t O r more a ccura t ely .

, ,

he d oes n o t beg i n to s u ffer s u ch a lo s s un ti l he h a s gra n t e d

a d m i s s i on t o enough a l t ru i s ti c feel i ng t o i mp a i r t h e u n i t y

a n d c oheren c e of h i s ch a r a c t er Then en s u es t h a t d i s c ord

.

a n d c onfu s i on t h a t i n w a r d c onfl i ct a n d d i s t urb a n c e of

,

equ i l i br i u m w h i ch d e s t roys h i s h a pp i nes s a n d h i s po w er

,

t o a ct b u t w h i c h i s a s fore i gn t o t h e w holly a n ti s o c i a l
,
-

d i s po s i ti on a s i t i s to th e ch a r a cter fille d a n d pene t r a t e d

w i t h th e s oc i a l s p i r i t .

Th i s t ho u gh t one w h i c h bri dge s th e gulf be tween s oc i a l

,

e th i cs a n d t h e hyg i ene of t h e s o u l a d m i ts of a m uch more ,

genera l s tat emen t Whene ver th e pre d om i n a n t eleme n t

.

i n a c h a r a ct er i s t empor a r i ly overpow ere d i t wi ll re s u me ,

i t s r i gh ts w hen t h e t rouble i s o v er b u t n o w a cc omp a n i e d ,

by p ai nful feel i ng s w h i ch w e n a m e regre t rep u gn a n ce

, , ,

remors e pri ck s of c on s ci en c e a cco r di ng t o ci rc um s t an c e s

, , .

An d w ell for h i m w h o h as t h e cou ra ge t o d r a i n th e b i tt er

c up a n d en d ure t o t h e e n d th e s t ruggle be t w een t h e

O ppo s i ng t en d en ci e s w i t h i n h im O ther w i s e t h e a cut e.

d i s or d er e a s i ly be come s a chron i c m a l a dy gr a d u a lly c o r ,

ro di ng th e pow ers bo t h of feel i ng a n d of w i ll For i n t h e .

con t i nu a l s ho ck o f c onfl i ct i n g i mp u l s e s t he s e pow er s b e

c ome w e a k ene d m u c h a s t w o c urren ts mo v i ng i n oppo s i t e

,
 y US TI CE A N D TH E H YGI E N E O F TH E S O UL . 1 3 1

d i re cti on s i n th e s a me h a nnel Th i s enfeebl i ng pro c e s s

c .

i s , moreover i n d i re ct ly
, promo t e d by th e i n vol u n t a ry effort
t o e s c a pe from t h e s t r u ggle t h a t i s t o b a n i s h t h e co n
, ,

fli cti n g i d e a s from t h e m i n d Su ch e ff ort s ca n h a rd ly

.

rem a i n confine d t o a n a rro w reg i on of p s ych i c act i vi ty ;

t hu s th e norm a l fl o w of i d e as i s i t s elf i mpe d e d a n d i nj u ry ,

d o ne t o t h e he a l thy w or k i ng of t h e s oul s fu n ct i on s
’
Pe r .

h a p s t hes e re s u l ts w h i ch h av e been ob t a i ne d from ob s erva

,

t i on a n d t h e a n a logy of n at u ra l phenomen a m ay one d ay ,

be e s t abl i s he d by th e s t ri ct me t ho ds of p s y cho phy s i ca l -

experi men t I f s o t h e d re a m o f P l at o a n d So cr a t es w ou l d
.
,

be fulfille d a n d a n at ura l b a s i s foun d for s oc i a l e th i cs i n

,

t h e proof of i ts re a l i n d i s pen s a b i l i ty for t h e h a pp i ne s s of

th e i n di vi d u a l I t m ay be obj e ct e d c er t a i nly t h a t t h e
.
, ,

i n w a r d bre ac h m i gh t a l s o be he a le d by root i ng o ut n o t
t h e a n t i s o c i a l b u t t h e s o ci a l i mp u l s e s
-
,
I n i t s elf t h e .
,

obj e cti on hol ds b ut i t i s of no prac ti ca l i mporta n ce A

, .

Cyc lop s dw ell i ng i n lonely s e c lu s i on m i gh t m a k e th e

a tt emp t b u t n o t a m ember of s oc i e ty i n c on s t a n t i n t er
,

c o u rs e w i t h h i s fellow s and i f n o t a mon s t er or a d e

, ,

hum a n i z e d bru te c ont i n u a lly bo u n d more c lo s ely to them

,

by n e w t i e s of c on s ci o u s or un con s ci ou s s ymp a thy .

S u ch a d emon s t rat i on ho w ever w i t h i t s long ch ai n of

, ,

i n t erme d i a t e l i n ks s ee me d t o P l at o unne c e s s a ry
,
He .

e s cape d th e ne ce s s i ty of one by s e tt i ng th e mo ti ves

of i nj u s t i ce i n t h e pl a c e of i nj u s t i c e i t s el f For h i m th e .

unju s t m a n i s th e lu s t er a fter rule th e c ov e to us m a n , ,

t h e m an g i ven o v er t o unbr i d le d s en s u a l i ty W i t h t he s e .

type s he c on t r a s t s t he i r O ppos i t e s a n d t hu s fr a me s a n ,

i d e a l w h i ch h as w i el d e d enormo us i nfl u en c e a n d w o n th e
h i ghe s t s i gn i fi ca n c e for hum a n i ty B u t t here i s one th i ng .

w h i ch a n i mp a rt i a l j u dge w i ll no t a d m i t n a mely th at , ,

P l a to h as s u cc ee d e d i n pro vi ng as s t r i ct ly as he t ho ugh t ,

he h ad th e gre a t er w ort h of tho s e t ypes i n re s pe ct o f

,

h a pp i ne s s (cf for ex a mple p

.
,
Th a t he w h o m as ters
, .

h i s d e s i re s i s h a pp i er t h a n he w h o i s u n d er t he i r yo k e ,

m ay be c on c e d e d w i tho u t d emur B ut t h at th e c on t em .

p l a t i ve or ph i lo s oph i c l i fe w h i ch P l at o a d m i ts i n t o h i s
,

i d e a l a s be i ng th e free s t from d e s i re s ble s s e s h i m w h o ,

l i ve s i t more t h a n d oe s th e l i fe of o n e born to ru le one ,

w ho s e energ i e s n a t ur a lly fl o w o u tw a r d s — t h i s i s a n asse rt i on

w h i ch no a rg u men t c oul d e ver m a k e goo d . The t as t e a n d
t h e t a len t of a P l a t o or a n Ar i s t o t le here s t a n d oppo s e d
t o t h e t a s t e a n d th e t a len t of a P er i c le s or a n E p a m i non d as
an d w here s h a ll w e loo k for ump i re ?
I 34 G RE E K TH I N K E RS .

a nd w r i t er s , j us t as a S a mo s a Gelo a n d
P o ly c r a t e s i n ,

H i ero i n Syr a cu s e i t s elf h a d m a d e c elebr a t e d poe t s mem

,

bers of t he i r roy a l ho us ehol ds I n fa c t P l a t o w a s n o t t h e.

,

only re ci p i en t o f t h a t i n vi ta t i on ; A r i s t i pp us of Cyrene a s ,

w ell a s IE s ch i n e s t h e So c ra t i c a l s o re s i d e d a s g u e s t s i n
,

t h e p a l a c e of D i ony s i u s I I P l a t o forg o t th e w r o ng d one

.

h i m by t h e fa t her ; he obeye d t h e s um mon s of t h e s o n ,

b a c ke d a s i t w a s by D i on s u rgen t e n t re a ti e s a n d left t h e
’
,

Ac a d emy a cc omp a n i e d by a t ra i n of p u p i l s
,
.

A t e a c her w ho s e pow erfu l eloq u en c e i s s t i ll m i rrore d

i n h i s d i a log u e s w ho s e for c efu l pers on a l i ty h a d a lre a dy
,

i mpo s e d i ts yo k e on s o m a ny he a r ts m ay w ell h a ve t ho u gh t ,

i t no ch i mer i ca l un d ert a k i ng t o g a i n for t h e s ervi c e of

ph i los ophy a gre a t H elle n i c s tat e rule d by a young a n d ,

s u s c ep t i ble pr i n c e a n d w i t h t h e help t hu s ob ta i ne d t o br i ng
,

h i s pol i t i c a l i d e a l i n t o b e i ng E xper i en c e s w h i ch m i gh t
.

h a v e c heck e d s u ch hope s w ere wholly l a cki ng ; a n d t h e

ex a mple of Sp a rt a w ho s e pe c u l i a r c on s ti t u t i o n t hen hel d
, ,

t o be a m o d el of perfe ct i on i n m a ny of i ts p a rt s w as ,

reg a r de d a s th e w ell pl a nne d w ork of a S i ngle legi s l at or

-
,

s eeme d t o i n vi t e em u l a t i on H i s firs t i mpre s s i on s to o

.
, ,

w ere i n c orre s pon d en c e w i t h t he s e h i gh p i t che d expe ct a -

t i on s . P l a t o w as re c e i ve d w i t h m a r ks of t h e h i ghe s t
d i s t i n ct i on ; a roy a l ca rr i a ge a d orn e d as for a g re a t ,

o cca s i on c on veye d h i m from th e h a rbo u r t o t h e p a l a ce

, .

D i o n ys i u s s oon b ec a me a di l i gen t pup i l of t h e gre a t

A t hen i a n m a s t er A c o u rs e of i n s t ru ct i on w as beg u n
.
,

th e fir s t s t a ge of w h i ch on P l a t on i c pr i n ci ple s w a s d e v o te d
, ,

t o m a t hem a t i cs The fa s h i on t hu s i n t ro d uc e d i n roy a l

.

q u a rt ers w a s t a k en up by t h e c ro w d of c our ti ers w i th

a m u s i ng e a gerne s s a n d s oon th e s a n d of t h e c o u r t s a n d
,

p ath s roun d th e p a l a ce w a s c o vere d w i t h geome t ri ca l

figure s .

No t i n t r i gu i ng pol i t i ci a n s only b ut s i n cere p a t r i o t s a n d

, ,

e s pe ci a lly t h e s ta t e s men w h o h a d gro w n grey i n t h e s er vi c e

of D i onys i us I m ay w ell h a v e s h a ken t he i r he a ds The
.
, .

foun d a t i o n s of th e S t a t e s eeme d i n d a nger P l ut a rch t ell s .

a s t ory w h i c h m a y or m a y n o t be t rue t o t h e effe c t t h a t

, ,

o n ce w hen s a c r i fi c e w a s be i ng O ffere d i n t h e p a l a c e a n d th e
, ,
 A P H I L O S OP H I C H VTE R L UD E . I 3 5

hera l d w a s i n vo ki ng t h e ble s s i ng of he av en on t h e u m
c h a nge d c o n t i nu a n c e o f h i s m as t er s re i gn t h e pr i n c e t hen
’

, ,

t w e n ty fiv e ye a rs of a g e w as s o c a rr i e d a w a y by h i s ze a l fo r
-
,
’
P l a t o s t e ac h i ng th a t b e i n t errup t e d t h e r i t e a n d d e cl a re d
,

th a t bles s i n g a c u rs e A n At hen i a n s oph i s t— s o men

.

w h i s pere d — w a s a tt emp t i ng to d eb a s e a n d em a s c u l a t e
S yra cus e h a d u n dert a ken to w i n by h i s po w er o f s pee c h t h a t
,

t r i u mph i n p u rs u i t of w h i c h h i s c o u n t rymen h a lf a c en t u ry ,

e a rl i er h a d v a i n ly employe d the i r w hole a rme d force The

,

c on s erva t i v e p a r ty d i d w h a t i t a l w a y s d oe s i n s u ch a c a s e — i t

s h o rt ene d s a i l a n d w a i t e d for a fa v o u ra ble w i n d

, P l at o me a n .

t i me c on t i nue d t o d i s ch a rge h i s d ut i e s a s i n s t r uct or a n d t o ,

prep a re h i s roya l p u p i l t o pl a y th e p a rt of a ph i lo s oph i c

r u ler H e h a s been repro ache d w i th a llo w i ng th e d e c i s i v e
.

momen t t o s l i p by u n u s e d I t i s s u gge s t e d th a t he o u gh t .

t o h a ve t u rne d t h e honeymoon of ph i lo s oph i c en t hu s i a s m t o

be tter a cco u n t by bri ng i ng a bo u t a c h ange i n th e form of
go vern men t a n d pro cu r i ng t h e l i ber a ti on of th e Gr e e k c i t i e s
,

s ubj e ct t o Syr a c u s e H e i s c en s ure d as a n unpra ct i ca l

.

pol i ti ci a n w h o i n s t e a d of s e tti ng promp t ly t o w or k pre

, , ,

ferre d to d a lly w i t h h i s o ffi c e a s a d i rec t or of e d u cat i on a n d

c on s c i en c e S uch more or le s s i s th e j u dgmen t of George
.
, ,

Gro t e w h o i nvolun t a ri ly s ub s t i t ut e s h i s o w n pol i t i ca l i d e a l

,
’ ”
for P l a t o s The a u t hor of th e Rep u bl i c w a s no bel i e ver
.

i n t h e u n i vers a l he a l i n g po w er of pol i ti ca l c on s t i t u t i on s .

H i s i de a l bo th t hen a n d for s ome t i me a ft er w a r d s wa s

, ,

ph i los oph i c a b s ol ut i s m The i n w a rd reform a ti on of th e .

r uler w a s t herefore for h i m no merely orn a men t a l or s ub

, , ,

s i di ar
y a c h i e v emen t w h i c h m i gh t be om i t t e
,
d w i t ho ut m u ch

lo s s b ut th e v ery he a r t a n d cen t re of th e re former s t as k

’
.
,

I t i s n o t w a n t of c on s i s t en cy t h a t can fa i rly be c h a rge d

a gai ns t h i m b u t w a n t of k no w le d ge of hum a n n a t u re
,
.

Th i s repro a ch ho w e ver c a n be u rge d w i t h gre a t er j u s ti ce

, ,

a g a i n s t P l a t o s helper an d i n t erme d i a ry D i o n w h o fa i le d
’

, ,

t o perc e i v e t h at t h e s u d d en en t h u s i as m o f h i s yo u ng k i n s
m a n w as b ut a fire of s t ra w w h i c h fl a me s u p fierc ely a n d
s oo n d i e s o ut The m i s ta k e w as t o c os t h i m d e a r The
. .

o l d c o n s erv a t i ve p a rt y t hen l e d by P h i l i s t us a n h i s t or i a n
, ,

a n d s t a t e s m a n w h o h a d been re ca lle d from ex i le w a tche d ,

 I 3 6 GRE E K TH I N K E RS .

vi g i l a n t ly for D i on t o m a k e a fa l s e mo v e Th at w h i c h i s .

s o e a rne s t ly s o u gh t i s gener a lly fo u n d M at er i a l for a n

.

a cc u s a t i on w a s s uppl i e d by i n t er cep t e d le tt ers of D i o n

a d d re s s e d t o th e C a r th a g i n i a n genera l s — le tt ers w hos e
obj ect w a s t h e con c l us i on of a t re a ty of pe a ce an d i n w h i ch ,

a prej u d i c e d eye c o u l d n o t fa i l t o d i s co v er a t re a s on a ble

d e s i gn No th i ng w as e as i er t h a n t o repre s en t t o t h e
.

o cc up a n t of th e t hrone — s u s p i ci o u s a s he w a s by n at u re a n d
s o o n t i re d of a n un a cc u s tome d t u t el a ge— t h a t h i s o w n
ex c l us i on from p ubl i c b u s i ne s s a n d th e ex a l t at i on of D i on
h a d been th e t r u e mo t i v e s of th e s u m mon s s en t t o P l a t o .

The re s en t men t t hu s di l i gen t ly fo s tere d brok e o ut w i t h fu ll

forc e a n d a n a br up t e n d w as m a de of th e ph i lo s oph i c i n t er
,

lu d e a t th e roy a l re s i d en ce No t b u t w h at a c on t i n u a ti on
.

of i t w as t o be w i t ne s s e d s hor tly .

2 . D i on w a s b a n i s he d b u t i t w a s only a ft er long d el ays

t h a t P l a t o h i m s elf re c e i v e d h i s cong e a n d t hen n o t w i t ho u t
’

prom i s i ng D i onys i u s to re t u rn a t a m ore con v en i en t s e as on .

W i t h t h i s prom i s e P l a to c o u ple d t h e c on di t i on t h at a t th e
s a me t i me — a ft er t h e c on c l u s i on of a c a mp a i gn w i t h w h i c h

for th e m omen t th e mon a rc h w as fu lly o cc up i e d— D i on to o , ,

s ho u l d be re c a lle d B ut s u ch a bre a ch a s h a d been opene d

.

be tw een th e r uler a n d h i s el der ki n s m a n a n d a dvi s er h a s

a n a t ur a l t en d en c y t o w i d en The c onfi d en ti a l po s i ti on
.

formerly o cc up i e d by th e d i s pl ac e d fri en d i s i n va de d by
o thers wh o s p a re no p a i n s to m a k e t hem s el ve s s e cure i n i t .

D i on t o o w as h i ghly honoure d i n th e mo t herl a n d ; a n d

, ,

e v ery t o k en of e s teem p a i d t o t h e ex i le s u c h a s t h e c o m ,

p l i m e n ta ry c i ti zen s h i p gra n t e d h i m by Sp a r t a w a s n e ce s ,

s a r i l y fel t by D i ony s i u s a s a n a ffron t Whe ther he w i s he d

.

i t or n o t D i on w a s s u re t o s eem t h e l i vi n g i n di c t men t of
,

h i s roy a l bro ther i n l a w - -

I t w a s i ne v i t a ble th a t th e d i s
.

c o n t en t e d i n Syr a c u s e a n d t h e enem i e s of D i ony s i u s e very

,

w here s ho u l d s e e t he i r n a t u r a l le a d er i n t h e expelle d pri n ce

,
.

D i on h i m s elf how e ver s t i ll hope d for a re co n ci l i a t i on a n d

, , ,

he urge d P l a t o to a cc ep t a n e w i n vi t a t i on w h i ch he re
c e i v e d t o t h e Syr a c u s a n c our t A r chy t a s t hen a t th e hea d
.
,

of th e T a ren t i ne c ommon w e a l th j o i n e d h i s en t re a t i e s a n d
, ,

a t leng t h P l a t o rel u c t a n t ly g a v e w a y H e h a d re ce i v e d
.
 GR E E K TH I N K E R S .

g a i ne d t h e vi ct ory i n th e d ri n k i ng con t e s t i n s t i tut e d by

”
D i ony s i us a t th e Pi tcher Fe as t b u t d i s d a i ne d th e pr i ze
-
, ,

a c i r c le t of gol d an d l a i d i t u pon th e s t a t ue of a g o d
,
He .

s pe a ks t o o of t h e ple as ure w i t h w h i ch he m e t E u d ox u s t h e
, ,

Cn i di a n w h o more th a n tw o d e ca d e s e a rl i er h a d v i s i t e d
,

A t hen s a n d th e Aca demy a s a yo u t h of t w e n ty t h ree a n d -

,

h a d s i n c e be c ome t h e m o s t c elebr a t e d a s t ronomer of th e

age .

Me a n w h i le th e log i c of fa cts w a s pre s s i ng on to fur ther

an d furt her c on s equen c e s D i ony s i u s c oul d n o t b u t expect
.

t h e w ors t from th e pri n c e w hom he h a d robbe d a n d w ronge d

s o gri e v o u s ly a n d he fel t he c oul d n o longer a llow h i m
,

t o po s s e s s i n t h e roy a l p a l a c e i t s elf a po i n t of s u ppor t

, ,

w h i ch s eeme d i n t en d e d for a c en t re of ho s t i le i n t r i gues .

D i on s w i fe A re t e w as th e d a u gh ter of D i ony s i u s I by
’

, , .

h i s m a rr i a ge w i th D i o n s s i s t er A ri s t o m ach e
’
D i on h a d .

formerly m a i n t a i ne d th e c l a i m s t o th e throne of A re te s ’

bro thers w h i le t he i r s i s t er Sophro s yne w a s a t th e s a m e

,

t i me th e h a lf s i s t er an d w i fe of D i o ny s i u s I I w ho s e mo ther
-
.
,

w a s a Lo c r i a n n a me d Dor i s Th i s D i onys i u s n o w di s .

a n d c ompelle d A re t e t o be c om e
’
s olv e d D i on s m a rr i a ge ,

t h e w i fe of Ti m o cra t e s one of h i s o w n fa m i l i a r fr i en d s
, .

Th u s th e l as t bon d w as bro ken by w h i ch th e e s t ra nge d

k i n s men h a d h i thert o been u n i t e d An open confl i ct w a s .

i mm i nen t .

Three ye a rs w ere s pen t i n prep a r at i on s an d t hen D i on ,

d re w t h e s w or d I n A ug u s t 3 5 7 he left Z a n t e for S i c i ly
.
, , ,

t a ki ng w i t h h i m i n fiv e m er ch a n t men a s m a ll bo d y of
, ,

v ol u n t eer s c h i efly c ompo s e d of P eloponne s i a n merc en a r i e s

, .

S e v era l member s of th e Aca d emy a ccomp a n i e d h i m a mong ,

t hem E u de m u s of Cypr u s w h o nev er re t u rn e d a n d w ho s e , ,

u n t i mely e n d w a s m ourne d by h i s fr i en d A r i s t o t le bo th i n

pro s e a n d v ers e (cf Vol I I p . Ti m o n i d e s t o o w en t

. . .
, ,

w i t h t h e expe di t i o n a n d h i s no t e s d r a w n u p i n t h e form ,

of a d i a ry a n d a dd re s s e d to S p e us i p p us a r e on e of t h e c h i ef ,

s ourc e s for t h e h i s t or i ca l n a rr a t i v e of t he s e e v en t s l as tly ,

t here w a s C a ll i pp u s of ev i l d e s t i ny The s m a ll n umber of .

th e a dv en t urer s a n d t he i r r a p i d t r i u mph rem i n d u s of th e

t ho u s a n d of M a r s a l a a n d G a r i b a l d i s m a rv ello u s c onque s t
’
 CA RE E R A N D CH AR A C TE R O F DI ON . 1 39

of t h e k i ng dom of N a ple s I n bo th ca s e s th e d i s c on t en t of
.

t h e people w a s t h e mo s t p o w erfu l a lly O f th e i n va d er s B ut .

t h e fickl e n e s s of th e m a s s e s w h o n o w re c e i v e d D i on a n d
,

h i s c omp a ny w i t h en t h u s i a s t i c j u b i l a t i on an d n o w d ro v e
t hem o ut of t h e c i ty t oge ther w i th t h e i n tr i g u e s of D i on s
’
,

per s on a l opponen t H e ra cl id e s a re tu rne d ex i le jeop a rd i z e d

, , ,

t h e s ucc e s s es w o n u n t i l D i on g a i ne d t h e fin a l v i ct o ry of ,

w h i c h he w a s t o enjoy t h e fr u i t s fo r b a rely a ye a r By a .

fre a k of d e s t i ny th e s chool o f i d e a l i s m s en t fort h a pol i t i ci a n

w ho s e a ct i on s s eeme d i n s p i re d by t h e m o s t u n s c r u pulou s
O pp o r t u n i s m A n u nw or thy member of th e P l a t on i c c i rcle
.
,

t h e C a ll i ppu s a lre a dy men t i o n e d a s s a s s i n a t e d D i on (i n t h e

,

ye a r a n d m a d e h i m s elf m as t er t hough only for a S hort ,

t i me of Syra cu s e
,
.I t i s fore i gn t o th e p u rpo s e of t h e
pre s en t w or k t o t r a c e th e c h a ng i n g fortu ne s of th a t s t ruggle .

A l l w e nee d a s k i s w he t her an d i n w h a t w ay D i on h a d
, ,

mer i t e d h i s t r ag i c e n d a n d w he ther P l a to w as d e ce i ve d i n
,

h im . The a ffi rm a ti v e i s n o w oft en m a i n ta i ne d s om e
t h i n k th at D i on w a s merely a n ex a mple of v ulg a r a mb i t i o n ,

w ho s e only obj e ct w a s t o s e t h i m s elf i n th e pl ac e of

D i ony s i u s w h i le o thers i m a g i ne th a t he q u i c kly fell a vi cti m
,

t o th e i n t ox i ca t i on of po w er an d a b a n d one d t h e h i gh a i m s
,

w i t h w h i ch he h a d s e t o u t Ne i ther of t he s e op i n i on s
.

s eem s t o u s w ell foun d e d-

.

3 .D i on a n d h i s c o un t rymen w ere s ep a ra te d from th e

firs t by a gr av e m i s u n d ers t a n d i ng w h i ch i t w a s h a r d ly
po s s i ble for t hem t o o v er come The dw ellers i n t h e gre a t .

S i c i l i a n c i ty w ere w ell a c qu a i n t e d w i th tw o t h i ng s : th e
r ut hle s s tyr a nny of t he i r mon a rch s th e firs t a n d th e s ec on d ,

D i ony s i u s an d t h e equ a lly r uthle s s re v ol ut i on a ry d e m o c ra cy

,

w h i c h s o u gh t th e w elfa re of t h e m a ny by th e s po i l of t h e
”
r i ch w ho s e w a tch w ords w ere con fi s ca t i on of propert y a n d
,
”
d i vi s i on of t h e l a n d Th a t w h i ch w a s w holly u n k now n to
.

t hem a n d c o u l d s ca r c ely be m a d e i n t ell i g i ble t o t hem w a s

, ,

a r u ler w ho s e a i m w as t h e w elfa re of t h e people b u t w ho s e ,

me a n s c on s i s t e d i n a w ell c on s i dere d d i vi s i on of po w er
-
,

i n a s t rong gov ern men t n o t un re s er v e d ly a t th e m erc y

,

o f th e i mme d i a t e i nfl u en c e of t h e m a ny — a go v ernmen t
w ho s e gu i d i ng pr i n ci ple m i gh t be expre s s e d by th e m o tt o ,
 I 4O GRE E K TH I N K E RS .

E very t h i ng for th e people l i ttle by th e people , We c an .

w ell u n d ers t a n d t h a t t h e Syr ac u s a n s w ere n o t re a d y t o

ex ten d t he i r c onfi d en c e t o a member o f the i r roy a l fa m i ly ,

a n d t h a t t hey fell a n e a s y prey t o t h e s e d u ct i v e a rts of a

d em a gogue l i k e H e ra cli d e s For s uch a n opponen t D i on

.

w a s n o m a t ch The v ery qu a l i t i e s w h i ch h ad en a ble d h i m

.

t o repre s en t h i s c o u n t ry a bro a d w i t h d i gn i ty w h i ch h a d ,

e ffe cti vely i m pre s s e d t h e C a rt h a g i n i a n s on th e o cca s i on of

h i s di ff eren t emb a s s i e s d i m i n i s he d h i s fi t ne s s for t h e p a rt
,

of popul a r le a d er H i s di s po s i t i on w a s prou d an d re s erve d

.
,

he h a d th e s elf a s s u re d a dd re s s of th e pr i n c e a n d th e
-

ph i lo s opher H e po s s e s s e d moreov er a not her fe at ure of

.
, ,

t h e ph i lo s opher s a n d i d e a l i s t s ch a ra ct er— an ex a ggera t e d

’ ’

len i en cy a re a d i nes s t o forg i v e a n d forge t p a s t i nj u r i e s

, ,

w h i ch i n h i s d e a l i ng s w i t h H e ra cl i d e s he c a rr i e d beyon d al l
re a s on a ble l i m i t s Nor w a s he a ble to pers e vere i n th i s
.

c our s e t o th e e n d At th e w rong momen t a nd a g a i n s t t h e

.
,

w i s h of a ll h i s a d heren ts he h a d been merci fu l ; he h a d

,

no t only s p a re d t h e perj u rer s forfe i t e d l i fe when he m i gh t

’

leg i ti m at ely h av e or dere d h i s exe cu t i on b u t h ad s e t h i m ,

on c e more a t h i s o w n s i d e t o s h a re h i s a u t hor i ty At l as t .
,

how ev er he h a d no c ho i ce b ut e i t her to y i el d pl a c e t o h i s
,

u n w ort hy s ubor d i n a t e or pro cure h i s d e a th w i tho ut a

,

j u di ci a l s en t en ce H e d i d th e l att er a n d t hu s en tere d
.
,

u pon t h e p a t h of re vol u t i on w h i c h w a s t o le a d t o h i s o w n

d e s t r u ct i on I n d e a t h a t le a s t D i on re c e i v e d t h e h i ghe s t
.
, ,

h o nours from th e Syra c u s a n people ; an d t he i r mourn i ng

g av e e vi d en c e of th e d eep i mpre s s i on w h i c h th e
c h a r a ct er of t h e roy a l ph i lo s opher h a d m a d e upon t hem

i n s p i t e of a ll m i s u n d ers t a n d i ngs an d d i ff eren ce s of

op i n i on .

Th e ch i ef ch a rge bro u ght a g a i n s t D i o n by m o d ern

h i s t ori a n s w e reg a r d a s en ti rely w i tho u t fo u n da t i on H e .

refu s e d c ompl i a n ce w i th t h e pop u l a r w i s h of w h i ch ,

H e r ac li de s w as t h e S po k e s m a n t h a t he s ho u l d r a ze t h e ,

fort re s s i n to w h i ch t h e roya l re s i d en c e h a d been t ra n s

forme d For t h i s refu s a l he h a d m a ny an d goo d gro u n ds
. .

S u ch a d emol i ti on w o u l d h a v e been firs t a n d foremo s t a , ,

d em o n s t r a t i on i n w h i c h D i on w oul d h av e bee n prev e n t e d

,
I 42 G RE E K TH I N K E RS .

do es not ex i s t t h at s h a rp c on t ra s t w h i c h mo d ern h i s to r i a n s
genera lly c l a i m t o d i s cern The s i m i l a ri ty of s t a rt i n g po i n t
.
-
,

t h e d epen d en c e u pon t h e a r i s t o c r a t i ca lly rule d Cor i n t h

w h i ch i s c ommon t o t h e t w o c a s e s a re
,
prel i m i n a ry
obj e cti on s t o t h at c l a i m An d th i s firs t i mpre s s i on i s
.

s t reng t hene d by t h e l i t t le w e k no w w i t h c ert a i n t y of t h e

go vern men t fo u n d e d by T i moleon by th e ye a rly d r aw i ng

o f lo t s w h i c h pl ac e d a t t h e he a d of t h e S t a t e s o me pr i e s t

of th e Olym p i a n Z e u s belong i ng t o on e of a l i m i t e d c i rc le
of fa m i l i e s by th e c oun ci l of s i x h u n d re d w h i ch forme d
, ,

p a rt of th e s a me c on s t i t u t i on a l en a ct men t a n d w h i c h i n ,

i ts l at er d e v elopmen t a ppe a rs a s t h e org a n of ol i g a r ch i c

t en d en ci e s Th a t w h i ch pr i n ci p a lly d i s ti ng u i s he d t h e tw o
.
.

h i gh m i n d e d m en a n d t he i r w ork a p a r t from th e v ery

-
,

u neq u a l d u r a t i on of t he i r a c t i vi ty w as fir s t ly t he i r t emper a
,

m en t s a n d s e c on d ly — a more i mpor ta n t m a t t er i n o u r
, ,

op i n i on — th e d i fferen ce i n t he i r s i tu a t i on s Ju s t a s t h e
.

glori ou s an d br i ll i a n t re i gn of Lo u i s XI V d i d n o t pre ven t .

th e exh a u s t i on a n d i mpo v er i s hmen t of Fr a n ce a t i ts c lo s e ,

s o Syr a c u s e i n s p i t e of t h e po s i t i on w h i c h i t w o n a s a gre a t
,

pow er i n s p i t e of t h e m i l i t a ry s u cc e s s e s of i ts mon a rch s

, ,

w a s i n th e e n d d r a i ne d of i ts l i fe bloo d by t h e en d le s s w a r s
-

w i t h C a r th a ge a n d t h e long en d ur i ng c i v i l c onfl i ct
-
Gra s s
.

w a s gro w i ng i n th e Syr ac u s a n m a r k e t pl a c e w hen T i moleon

-

en t ere d t h e ci ty Th u s th e D emo s w i t h w h i ch D i on h a d
.

t o d e a l a n d t h at w h i ch aw a i t e d T i moleon w ere i d en ti ca l
, ,

only i n n a me The people w h i ch h a d m e t D i on w i th

.

m u ti nou s d efi a n c e a n d u nbr i d le d gree d be ca me a w i ll i ng

a n d obe d i en t i n s t rumen t i n t h e h a n d of T i moleon D i on .

lo s t a gre at p a r t of h i s pop u l a ri ty w hen he refu s e d co m

l i a n ce w i t h t h e w i l d cry fo r t h e d i v i s i on of t h e l a n d H e
p .

w a s t hu s u n a ble w he t her w i ll i ng or n o t t o t ru s t en t i rely

, ,

t o th e D emo s a n d d i s pen s e w i t h t h e a i d of fore i gn

mer c en a ri e s T i moleon w a s t h e i d ol of t h e people
.
,

a l t ho u gh i n s t e a d of di v i d i ng t h e l a n d a mong t h e m a ny
, ,

he bro u gh t a gre at number of c ol o n i s ts wi t h ca p i t a l i n t o

t h e c o u n t ry a n d S ol d t o t h e h i ghe s t b i d d er t h e hou s e s
,

of b a n i s he d ow ners w h i ch he m i gh t h av e g i ve n a wa y Th i s .

fa r re ac h i ng d i fferen c e i n t h e s oc i a l a n d e c onom i c s i t u a t i on
-
 D I ON A N D TI M OL E ON . I 43

at two epo ch s di vi d e d by s o s hort a n i n t erva l h a s n o t

h i therto we t h i n k re ce i ve d s u ffi ci en t c o n s i d erat i on The
, , .

fa i l u re to recogn i z e t h i s i mport a n t di s t i n ct i on h a s l e d t o
c o mp a r i s on s i n w h i ch t h e he a d of T i moleon h a s been
en ci rc le d w i t h a n un d e s erve d h a lo w h i le th e fig u re of D i on
,

h a s been S hrou d e d i n a n equ a lly u nmer i t e d gloom .

 GRE E K TH I N K E RS

C H AP T E R X V .

P L ATO S ’ “
E U TH Y D E M U S AN D P AR M E N I D E S .

DI D D i on en t erpr i s e —s o m a ny a re a d er m ay w ell a s k
’
I . s
—le a ve no d i s cern i ble t race i n th e long s eri e s of P l a to s ’

w r i t i ng s ? S uch a t rac e w e th i n k i s t o be foun d i n th a t

, ,

“ ”
p as s a ge of th e S ta t e s m a n w h i c h i s con c erne d w i th th e
r i gh t of a ru ler s u ppo s e d w ell i n t en t i one d an d q u a l i fie d for
,
-

h i s t as k t o c oerc e men for t he i r goo d by c on d u ct i ng t hem

,

from a perver s e t o a s a lu ta ry form of pol i ty Th i s r i gh t i s .

t here m a i n t a i ne d w i t h a w a rm t h a n d e a gerne s s s u c h a s
o n ly q u e s t i on s of pract i ca l pol i ti cs u s u a lly i n s p i re We .

c oul d w i s h t o t a k e t h i s opport u n i ty of bri ng i ng o u r

s t u d y of t h e S t at e s m a n —w h i ch i s a l i n k bet w een t h e
“
Rep u bl i c a n d th e L aw s — i n t o c lo s e rel at i on w i t h ou r
“

a cc o u n t of t h e former w or k B u t a full u n d ers t a n d i ng of

.

t h e d i a log u e coul d n o t be re a che d by th i s p a th Fo r th e .

“ ” “
S tat e s m a n i s a c on t i n u at i on of th e Soph i s t w h i ch i n ,

“
i t s t urn t ak e s u p t h e t hre a d of th e Theae t e t u s Ag a i n .
,

tw o p a r ts of t h i s t r i logy — th e
“
Theae t e t u s ”
an d th e
“
Soph i s t ”
— pre s uppo s e th e “
P a rm en i d e s
”
n o t o nly by ,

i s ol a t e d h i n t s a n d a llu s i on s b ut by t he i r expl i ci t men t i on

,

of t h e fi ct i t i ou s c on vers a t i on on t h e d oc t r i ne of i de a s
, ,

betw een th e you thfu l So c rat e s a n d th e a ge d Pa rmen i d e s ,

w h i c h form s th e c on t en t of th e d i a logue be a r i ng t h e
’
E le a t i c t h i n ker s n a me O u r expo s i t i on of t h i s w hole
.

ph a s e of P l at on i c a u t hors h i p mu s t t herefore s t a rt from

“ ”
th e Pa rm en i d e s B u t firs t w e d e s i re t o d e a l w i th a
.

w or k of s l i gh t er i mpor t a n c e w h i c h w e h av e h i ther t o
,

“
i gnore d . Th i s i s t h e E u th yd e m u s w h i ch bo th form,

a n d m a tt er a s s i gn t o a n e a rl i er per i o d .
 I 46 GR E E K TH /N K E RS .

th e r a n k of a cert a i n ty B ut w he ther t h e c ri t i c i n q u e s t i on
.

w h o i s releg a t e d w i t hou t a nger to h i s pr o per pl ac e a n d for

th e re s t i s n o t t re a t e d a l t oge t her w i t hou t re s pe ct be ,

I s o c r a t e s or s ome o t her t h e fact rem a i n s t h a t i n th i s

,

ep i log u e w e h av e th e ke y t o t h e d i a l o g u e a s a w h o l e Some .

a t t a c k of t h e ki n d j u s t m en t i one d s u ppl i e d P l a t o w i t h a n

o c c a s i on for s h a rply di fferen t i a t i ng h i s o wn S o c r a t i s m from

t h at o f h i s opponen ts a n d r i va l s E u th y d e m u s a n d D i o n y
.

s o do ru s a r e th e repres en t a t i ve s i n c a ri c at u re of t h a t
, ,

d i a le ct i c w h i ch a ro s e o ut of t h e s chool of S o c r a t e s b ut a t ,

t h e s a me t i me o w e d m u c h t o i mp u l s e s firs t g i v en by Z eno .

P a r a d ox i c a l re a s on i n g s c e a s e i n t h i s burle s q u e t o be merely
t h e i n s t r u men t of i n t elle ct u a l gym n a s t i c ; a s fa ll a ci e s a n d
log i ca l p i t fa ll s t hey be come an e n d i n them s elv e s or r ather , , ,

a m e a n s of money m a k i ng a n d th e pri m a ry u s e m a d e of
-
,

t hem i s t o d a zzle a n d a s t on i s h t o w i n from c ro w d e d ,

a u d i en c e s l a ugh t e r a n d a ppl a us e t h at s h a ke th e v ery

c ol u mn s of t h e Ly ce u m . The a llege d a i m t h at of gu i di n g ,

t o w a r ds w i s d om a n d vi r t ue i s mo s t gl a r i ngly c on t ra d i c te d
,

by th e fr i vol i ty w i t h w h i ch from th e o u ts et a l l le a rn i ng i s
d e c l a re d i mpo s s i ble on t h e gro u n d t h at t h e w i s e no longer
,

nee d to le a rn w h i le th e i gnora n t a re i n c a p a ble of le a rn i ng

,

“
a ny t h i ng . On th e one h a n d th e w or d le a rn i s u s e d t o
,

d e n o t e t h e a c qu i s i t i on of k now le d ge i n gener a l ; on t h e o ther ,

i t s t a n ds for t h e t u rn i ng t o a cco u n t i n t h a t pro ce s s of , ,

k no w le d ge a lre a dy a c q u i re d e g of t h e a b i l i ty t o re a d i n
, .

le a rn i ng by he a r t S u ch pl ayi ng w i t h t h e d o uble s i gn i fic a n ce
.

of w or d s th e ta ci t om i s s i on of re s t r i ct i ve qu a l i fi ca ti on s
, ,

t h e u s e of c on s t r u ct i on s l i ng u i s t i ca lly po s s i ble b u t i n a d m i s
s i ble i n reg a r d t o t he i r m a t t er t h e s u m m a t i on of pre d i c a t e s
,

d e s i gn a t i ng en t i rely d i fferen t rel a t i on s th e i n t er ch a nge of

,

t h e v a r i o u s me a n i ng s of t h e po s s e s s i v e prono u n a l l t he s e ,

a n d m a ny o t her d e v i c e s s erv e t o s uppor t a s er i e s o f p a r a

d o x i ca l fa ll a ci e s w h i ch perh a p s c u lm i n a t e i n t h e follow i ng
a rg u men t : Y o u be a t t h i s d o g he i s yo u rs he i s a fa ther
t herefore i t i s yo u r fa t her t h a t yo u be a t S i m i l a rly w e a r e
.
,

t ol d t h a t he w h o k no w s a ny t h i ng h a s kno w le d ge t h at h e ,

w h o h a s k n o w le dge c a n n e ver i n a ny c i r cu m s ta n c e s be
i gnor a n t c on s equen t ly t h a t w hoe v er k no w s a ny th i ng a t a ll
 TH E TH O U GH T-YU GGL E R S A N D A N TI S TH E N E S . [47

m u s t k no w e very t h i n g a n d h av e kno w n i t a l w ay s O r .

a g a i n : K i ll i ng befi t s th e b u tc her t herefore i t i s fi tt i ng t o ,

k i ll h i m or : L i vi ng be i ngs (a n i m a l s ) belong i n g t o me I
h a ve th e ri gh t t o o ffer i n s ac ri fi c e or to s ell Apollo belong s
t o me (be i ng bo u n d t o me by a n a n c e s t r a l c u l t) ; he i s a

l i vi ng be i ng ; t herefore I h a ve a r i gh t t o s a c r i fi c e t h e g o d
a n d s ell h i m .

We c ome t o a n exqu i s i t e p i e c e of t ri ckery on P l a to s ’

p a rt I n t h e m i ds t of th e i mbec i l i t i e s of t he s e w o r d twi s t ers

.
-

a n d t ho u gh t j u gglers he s muggle s c er ta i n d o ctr i ne s of

-
,

An t i s thene s Thu s t h e bro t hers a re m a d e t o as s er t th e

.

i mpo s s i b i l i ty of o t her t h a n i d e n t i ca l j u d gme n ts th e i m ,

po s s i b i l i ty o f c o n t r a di cti on a n d fa l s e s t at emen t Th at i n .

t h e m i n d of th e m a n w h o fo u n d e d th e Cyn i c s chool t he s e
w ere s eri o us a n d hone s t d i ffi c u l t i e s t here ca nn o t be th e ,

s l i gh t e s t d o u b t
’
I t i s one of P l a t o s c on t ro v ers i a l a r ti fice s
.

t o d i s c re d i t t h e for h i m d e s p i s e d d o ct ri ne s of a n opp o nen t

, ,

(cf Vol I I p 1 8 2 s eq ) by th e c om p a ny i n w h i ch he i n t ro
. . . .
, .

d uc e s them a n d t h e c h a r a c t er of t ho s e w hom he s ele ct s as t he i r

mo uthp i e c e A n ti s thene s more o ver i s bro u gh t before o u r
.
, ,

t ho u gh t s by t h e w or d s i n w h i ch t h e E r i s t i c mo u n t eb a n ks a r e
firs t pre s en t e d t o o u r not i c e The c i rcu m s ta n c e th a t t hey
.

h av e p as s e d o ver from rhe t or i c t o di a le cti c a n d t h at l a t e i n ,

l i fe i s a to uc h w h i ch m us t i nfa ll i bly h av e rem i n d e d a con tem

,

p a ry re a d er of A n t i s t hene s w h o t r a v er s e d t h e s a me p a t h
o r , ,

a n d w h o i n a d di t i o n i s j eere d a t by P l a t o i n t h e
, ,
Soph i s t
as a n o ld m a n g o ne t o s c hool (cf Vol I I p . . . .

A s fo i l to t h e ca ri c a t u re w e h a ve a n i d e a l i ze d p o r t r a i t .

The t u rn s of th e d i a le ct i c a l va ri e ty a rt i s ts a re repe a te d ly -

rel i e ve d by pl a i n a n d s i mple c oll o q u i e s bet w een So c r a te s

a n d o n e of th e yo u ng men pre s en t The p u rpor t of the s e .

i n terl u d e s i s s ome w h a t a s follo w s : A l l goo d t h i ng s ac q u i re

t h a t ch a rac t er only by r i gh t u s e Left u nu s e d t hey rem a i n
.

a n i n er t po s s e s s i on m i s us e t ra n s form s t hem i n t o e vi l s a n d ,

t ho s e a re t h e w or s t w h i c h h av e th e gre a t e s t po w er o ver
m e n s l i ves No w th e co n di t i on of r i gh t us e i s w i s d om ;
’
.
,

t h i s t hen i s t h e o n e a b s ol ut ely goo d t h i ng

, ,
The q u e s ti on .

a r i s e s — Wh at i s th e n a t u re of t h i s w i s d om I t i s t a ken for
gr a n ted th a t i n i t t h e c a p a c i ty for pro d ucti on a n d th a t for
 GRE E K TH I N K E RS .

th e r i gh t employmen t of w h at i s pro d uc e d mu s t c o i n ci d e .

P ro d u ct i on a lone i s n o t eno u gh For th e m a s ters of e ven

.

t h e mo s t em i nen t a r ts a re c omp a r a ble t o m ere h u n t ers

A s t h e l att er h a n d o v er th e prey they h av e c a u gh t t o o t hers
w h o k no w h o w t o m ak e u s e of i t s o th e gener a l w h o h as
,

t a k en a c i t y m u s t p a ss i t on t o th e s t at e s m a n s o t h e ,

re s e a rc her i n a s pe ci a l s c i en c e t h e m a t hem at i c i a n or
t h e as t ronomer) m u s t en t ru s t h i s a c qu i s i ti on s to th e di a l e c
t i ci an t o w hom he i s s ubor di n a t e Wh at t hen i s t h a t
.
, ,
“ ”
s u preme or roy a l a rt Th i s que s ti on rem a i n s u n
“ ”
a n s w ere d ; w e s h a ll mee t i t a g a i n i n t h e S t a te s m a n .

The mos t no t ew or thy fe a t ure of the s e d i s qu i s i ti on s i s th e

t one i n w h i c h t hey a r e d el i vere d We a re ca rri e d fa r from
.

th e be w i l d er i ng c ro s s ex a m i n a t i on th e benumb i ng s ho ck of
-
,

t h e So c ra t i c i nqu i s i t i on w h i c h a re d e s c r i be d i n t h e
, Meno
by th e graph i c i m a ge of th e t orpe do (c f Vol I I pp 3 6 2 3 7 6 ) . . . .
,

m ys t i fica t i o n a n d p a ra d ox a r e a he aven s bre a d t h beh i n d

’

us . Thes e s a me d i s q u i s i t i on s we m a y rem a rk i n p as s i ng
, ,

s u pply a c ogen t proof t h a t t h e E uth y de m u s i s l a t er tha n

“ ” ”
th e M eno . For w h i le i n th e Meno m u ch s p a ce i s
g i ven to a t re a t men t of th e que s t i on w he t her vi rt ue c a n b e
t a ugh t t h e s a me que s t i on i s here a ffi rm a t i vely a n s w ere d by
,

So c ra t es i n a s hort phra s e of j oyo us a s s en t The fri en d ly .

t one of h i s exhort a t i on s t h e fa t herly w a y i n w h i ch he

,

g u i d e s a n d en co u ra ge s h i s yo u ng he a rer s t o th e acqu i s i ti on
of po s i ti v e re s u l ts s ta n d i n vi olen t a n t i t he s i s t o th e s ter i le
,

a n d repelle n t p a r a d oxe s of th e tw o er i s ti cs Th i s far .

re ach i ng a n d n i cely ca l cu l at e d c on t r as t e ff e ct m ay be -

reg a r de d a s t h e c en t r a l fe a t ure of th e w hole di a logue I ts .

pri m a ry mo ti ve ho w e v er w as th e s e ttl i ng of a ccoun ts w i t h

, ,

o t her s chool s of ph i lo s ophy more p a r ti c ul a rly th e So cra t i c

,

a mo t i v e w h i c h w i t h he i gh t ene d e a rne s tne s s an d i n c re as i ng

,

m at u ri ty go vern s a s eri e s of s ub s equ en t d i a logue s Th i s

, .

rel a t i on s h i p pro vi d e s u s w i t h a n un i mpe ach a ble ch on o l o g i ca l

c r i ter i on w h i c h c ompel s u s a s w e h av e a lre a dy rem a r k e d
, , ,
” “
t o d a t e th e E u th y d e m u s before th e Th e ze te t us a n d ”
,
”
th e P a rmen i d e s before th e S oph i s t .

“
2
. H e wh o t urn s from t h e E u th y de m u s t o th e
”
P a rmen i d e s fin d s a gre at s u rpri s e a w a i t i ng h i m The .
 I so GRE E K TH I N K E RS .

d oc t r i n e of i de a s , w h i ch
So cra t e s w h o i s a t pre s en t h a rd ly
,

o u t of h i s b oyhoo d d efen ds w i t h t h e c onfi d en c e a n d t h e

,

i mpe t u o s i ty of y o u t h s o t h at h i s d ogm a ti s m pro vo ke s th e

,

a ge d he a d of t h e E le a t i c s c hool t o c r i t i c i s m A s er i e s of .

O bj e c t i on s a re urge d a g a i n s t t h e d o ct r i ne of i d e a s a n d ,

rem a i n s ub s t a n t i a lly u n a n s w ere d Th i s di s c us s i on o cc u p i e s

.

th e fir s t a n d mu c h th e s hor t er por ti on of t h e d i a log u e .

W i th th e obj e ct of a s s i s ti ng So c ra t e s t o w a r ds gre a t er
m a t u ri ty P a rmen i d e s n o w s e t s before h i m a s prel i m i n a ry
, ,

“ ”
men t a l exerc i s e s a long s eri e s of d i ffi cu l t i es or a pori e s
, ,

th e s t i ng of w h i c h i s d i re ct e d a g a i n s t no t h i ng el s e t h a n th e
c en t r a l E le a t i c d o ct r i ne of t h e O n e Th u s t h e s elf c r i t i ci s m -

of P l a t o i s follo w e d by t h a t of P a rm en i de s I t i s here t h a t .

’
P l a t o s s u b t le t y a t ta i n s i t s h i ghe s t p i tch here w here t r u e ,

a n d fa l s e a d m i s s i ble a n d i n va l i d a rg u men t s a re c ro w d e d
,

t oge ther i n exuber a n t va r i e t y w here c on t ra d i c tory c o n

,

e l u s i on s a re d e d u c e d from t h e s a me prem i s s e s a n d a t ,

l a s t no th i ng rem a i n s b ut a n i mpre s s i on of bew i l deri ng

c onfu s i o n .

Th i s d i a logu e h a s g i ven s o m u ch t ro u ble t o t h e c ri t i cs

a n d c om men t a t ors t h a t t here h a s been no l a c k of v i olen t

i n t erpre t a t i on s ; t h a t i t s gen u i nene s s h as been d i s p u t e d ;

t h a t fi n a lly a n hypo t he s i s h a s been r a i s e d a c c or d i ng t o
, ,

w h i ch t h e c o n c l u d i ng por ti on of th e w or k c on t a i n i n g ,

th e m u c h d e s i re d po s i t i v e s ol u ti on s h as been lo s t a n d
-
, ,

w h a t rem a i n s i n o u r h a n ds i s a mere t ors o From a ll .

t he s e c o u n s el s o f d e s per a t i on w e a r e s av e d by t h e v i e w
o f t h e d i a log u e w h i c h w e n o w pro c ee d t o expoun d— a v i e w

i n w h i c h w e a r e i n p a r t i a l a greemen t w i t h s e v er a l pre vi o u s
w r i ters .

The Pa rmen id e s i s th e pro d u ct of a n epo ch a t w h i ch

th e a ut hor s m i n d w a s i n a ferm en t Obj e c t i on s pro
’
c ee d i ng
.
,

c h i efly from t h e c a mp of t h e M eg a r i a n s or N eo E le a t i cs -

a n d t h e t h i n k er s i nfl u en c e d by t hem t oge t her w i t h P l a t o s

’

o w n d eepe n e d r e fi e x i o n h av e rev e a le d t o h i m a n u mber

,

of d i fli c u l t i e s a tt a ch i ng t o h i s fu n da men t a l me ta phys i ca l
d o c t r i ne . To o v erco me t hes e d i fli cu lt i e s collecti vely i s for ,

th e momen t a t le a s t a t as k t o w h i ch he feel s h i m s elf

,

u neq u a l .B u t i t i s s t i ll h a r d er for h i m to a b a n don th e

 P L A TO CRI TI CI Z E S P L A TO . 1
5 1

d oc t ri ne of i d e a s w h i ch h a s be come i n t er wov en w i t h h i s
,

w hole con c ep t i on of t h e u n i ver s e or e ven to c lo t he i t i n a ,

fo rm les s s u s c ep t i ble t o a t t a c k Whe t her t h i s w i ll e ver be

.

po s s i ble rem a i n s a n open qu e s t i on B ut th a t th e d i ffi cu l t i e s .

u n d er w h i ch h i s o w n t heory l a bo u r s a r e m a tc he d by eq u a l

or gre at er d i ffi cu l ti e s th e me a n s of s urmou n t i ng w h ic h i s
,

pro vi d e d by h i s t heory a lone — o f t h i s he i s c ert a i n P erh a p s .

,

s o he m a
y h a v e t ho u gh t a n a b s ol ut ely fl aw le s s perfe c t ly
, ,

c on s i s t e n t c o n c ep t i on of t h e h i ghe s t t h i ng s i s more t h a n

w h a t i t i s g i ven t o m a n t o a tt a i n A n i m a t e d therefore by
.
, ,

t h e p u re s t z e a l for t r u t h he g a t her s i n t o a fo cu s e v ery t h i ng

,

t h a t ca n be u rge d a g a i n s t t h e d o ct r i ne of i d e as reg a r d le s s ,

of th e di s t i n ct i o n be tw een a rg u men ts w h i c h s eem t o h i m

a n s w er a ble a n d t h o s e w h i c h d o n o t a s y e t fa ll w i t h i n t h a t

c a t egory . B y t h u s s t r i ng i ng t oge t her th e pl a u s i ble o bj ec ti o n s

t o h i s o wn t h e o ry h e p u rch as e s th e r i gh t t o d e a l s i m i l a rly w i t h
,

t h e t heor i e s of o t her s H e pro cee ds t herefore t o c o mp i le

.
, ,

a no ther exh a u s t i v e l i s t of po s s i ble obj e ct i on s negle c t i ng a s ,

before th e di fferen c e be t w een th e t en a ble a n d t h e un t en able ,

b ut th i s t i me s ele ct i ng for a tt a c k t h e fu n d a men t a l me ta

phy s i ca l d o ct r i ne o f th e v ery s chool from a yo unger b r a n ch
of w h i ch h a d c ome t h e mo s t v i olen t a s s a ul ts upon h i s o wn
d o ct ri ne of i d e as t h e s c hool t o o w h i ch s t oo d pre em i n e n t
, , ,
-

a bo ve a ll o ther s for ex ac t ne s s of t ho u gh t I n t h i s S pe ci e s .

“ ” ’
of re t a l i a ti on w h i c h a ft er P l a t o s m a nner bec ome s a t
,

t h e s a me t i me a pro c e s s of o u t b i d di ng (c f Vol I I p 3 0 9 . . . .
,

a n d Vo l I I I p
. . . he fin d s c on s ol a t i on a n d s a t i s fa c t i on .

Th us t h e P a rmen i d es re s emble s th e pro cee d i ngs i n a

c o u r t of j u s t i c e w here a ft er t h e ple a d i ng s t h e s pee c h fo r
, , ,

t h e pro s e c u t i on a n d t h e s pee ch t a k i ng t h e form of a ,

c o u n t er ch a rge
-
,
for th e d efen c e th e c a s e i s a dj o u rne d ,

before a ver di ct i s re a che d .

.
3 L e t u s ca s t a gl a n c e o n b o t h p o r t i on s of t h e d i a log u e .

The o bje ct i on s a g a i n s t t h e d octr i n e of i d e a s a re S i x i n

n umber or more co rre ct ly five s i n c e t w o of them a re o n ly
, , , ,

v a r i a t i on s of t h e s a me a rgumen t Th i s i s th e o n e w h i c h
.

A ri s t o t le d e s i gn at e s by t h e t e chn i c a l t erm t h e th i rd m an
i t w a s d u e t o t h e s o ph i s t P olyxen us a t h i n k er c l o s l y a ll i e d ,

t o th e M eg a r i a n c i rc le Ano ther a ll us i on to i t i s c on ta i ne d
.
I 52 GR E E K TH I N K E RS .

i n t h e t en t h boo k of th e Republ i c I f t w o p a r ti cu l a r
.

t h i ng s a a n d b o w e t he i r s i m i l a r i t y t o a form o r i d e a C i n
, , ,

w h i c h t hey bo t h p a r ti c i p a t e or from w h i ch t hey a r e bo t h

,

c op i e d w hen c e d oe s t h e S i m i l a r i ty w h i ch ob t a i n s be t w een
,

t h e form C a n d t h e t w o p a r t i cu l a rs d er i v e i t s ori g i n ? In
o r d er t o a c c o u n t for t h i s s i m i l a r i ty m u s t w e n o t a s s u me a
,

s e c o n d s u per i or fo rm D t h a t i s a t h i r d s t a ge i n t h e s c a le of
, , ,

en t i t i e s An d w h a t i s t rue of C i n rel a t i on t o a a n d b i s
a g a i n t r u e of D i n rel a t i on t o C a n d s o on a d z n m t u m
fi
' '

.
,

A n o t her d i ffi cu l ty i s c on t a i ne d i n th e qu e s t i on — H o w ca n “

t h e i n d i v i d u a l t h i ng s p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e i d e a s ? h o w c a n a n
i d e a be pre s en t i n m a ny i n d i v i du a l s w i t ho u t lo s s of i t s
“ ”
un i ty The d i ffi cu l t y re curs i n t h e l a t e di a log u e Ph i l e b u s ,

a n d a c c or d i ng t o A r i s t o t le P l a t o ne v er s a w h i s w a y c le a r
, ,

t hrough i t The a l tern a t i ve a s s u m p ti on i m i t at i o n i n s t e a d

.
w

of p a rt i c i p a ti on — i s a l s o pro p o un d e d a n d m e t by one of th e
v a r i e t i e s of th e fir s t a rgumen t w e h av e no t i c e d A fu rther .

O bj e c t i o n i s on e w h i c h m a y be t erme d t h e a n t i re a l i s t i c -

a rgumen t — H o w c a n t h e i d e a s ex i s t el s e w here t h a n i n o u r

c on s c i o u s ne s s P l a t o here bre a k s t hrough t h e a r ti s t i c fo rm

w h i c h h e h a s a d op t e d M a n i fe s t ly i t i s d i s t a s t efu l t o h i m
.

t o a llo w h i s h a t e d a d v er s a ry A n t i s t he n e s t h e a u thor of t h i s
, ,

obje c ti on (c f V o l I I p . . . t o b e r i gh t e v en for a momen t

. .

H e t herefore m ak e s P a rmen i d e s h i m s elf reply t h a t th e

no ti on s pre s en t i n o ur m i n d i f t here i s t o be a ny t ru t h i n
,

t hem m u s t be no t i on s o f s ome t/z z fl g ; t here m u s t ex i s t obj e c t s

'

c orre s pon d i ng t o t hem (I n t h

. e l a s t re s or t t h i s i s an a ppe a l

t o th e p ri m i t i ve u n a n a lyze d t ho u gh t w h i ch u n d erl i e s
l a ng u a ge I n a ny c a s e th e po s s i b i l i ty i s forgo t ten t h a t t h e
.

u n i v ers a l s here i n q u e s ti on m ay be a b s t ra ct e d from th e p a rt i

c u l a rs ) .Th e s eri e s c lo s e s w i t h t h e t w o a rgume n t s t o w h i c h
P l a t o h i m s elf a s s i gn s t h e gre a t e s t w e i gh t E v en gr a n t e d .

t h e ex i s t en c e of t h e i d e a s h o w c a n w e — here t h e re a d er i s
,

rem i n d e d of Gorg i a s c h a i n of t he s e s (cf Vol I p 4 84)

’
. . . .

h o w c a n w e c ome t o k no w t hem ? The t w o t erm s of a

rel a t i on a re a l w a y s on t h e s a me pl a ne To th e m a s t er .

t here c orre s pon ds t h e s l av e t o t h e s l a v e t h e m a s t er ; b u t

,

t o m as t ers h i p w e oppo s e s l a ve s h i p a n d v i ce ve r s é , Th us .

t h e re a l c orrel a t e o f t r u t h i n i t s elf o r t h e i d e a O f t r u th , ,
 G RE E K TH I NK E RS .

and t here fa ll a cy d el i ber at ely perpe t r a te d th e w a n t of

a ,

log i c a l t r a i n i ng c om mon t o th e w hole a ge a r e s ome of th e ,

fe a t ure s c omb i ne d i n t he s e d a z zl i ng b ut fa ti gu i ng r a t i o
ci n at i o n s . To th e l a s t cat ego ry belong a s a c omp a r i s on ,

“
w i t h o t her d i a logue s w i ll S ho w t h e c onfu s i on of , t o be
a s c op u l a w i t h t h e s a me w or d a s d eno t i ng ex i s t en c e t h e ,

c onfu s i on of i d en t i t y i n re s pe c t of a qu a l i ty w i t h n u mer i c a l

i d en t i t y a n d c e rt a i n i lleg i t i m at e c on v ers i on s of j u d g
,

men t s — t hree errors of t ho u gh t w h i ch P l a t o s h a re s w i th

Gorg i a s (cf V o l I pp 4 8 2 a n d
. . . . We ob s erve further , ,

a c onfu s i on betw een th e re a l i ty of a c on cep t an d th e

“
re a l i ty of al l th e obje ct s or t hough ts w h i c h c an
” “
pos s i bly be s u bor d i n at e d t o i t a n d a no ther c onfu s i on ,

”
be t w een j u d gme n t a n d th e c omp a ri s o n of c on c ep t s The .

t w o l a s t a berr a t i on s h av e been w ell i llu s t r at e d by a c o n

t empor a ry They a r e a rgumen ts s u ch a s th e follo w i ng
.

“ ’
Th e i d e a b i r d i s n o t i m a g i n a ry b u t h a s b e i ng ; th e
‘
,

gri ffi n i s a b i r d ; therefore i t h as be i ng An d a g a i n .

R i c h i s n o t h appy ; t h a t i s t o s ay th e id e a r i ch i s di ff eren t
,

from t h e i d e a h appy c on s eq u en t ly no r i c h m a n ca n be
‘

h a ppy . No a t t e m p t i s m a d e t o s ep a r at e t h e s oun d from

t h e un s oun d i n t he s e proofs a n d for P l a t o , as w e h av e ,

a lre a d y s een only a p a r t i a l s u c c e s s w a s a t t a i n a ble i n t h i s

,

d i re ct i on s u ch s ep a r a t i on s o fa r a s i t w a s po s s i b le a t t h e
,

s t a ge of log i ca l d e v elopmen t t hen re a che d i s left t o re a d er s ,

a n d pup i l s .To re tu rn t o our m e t a phor of t h e l a w c ourt ,

t h e pro c ee d i ng s a re a djourne d before a ve r di ct i s a rr i v e d a t ;

b u t for a n y one w h o k now s P l a t o t here c a n b e no d oub t
t h at t here w i ll be a re s ump t i on Th i s w i ll w e a r a tw ofol d
.

c h a r a ct er . An e a rne s t c omprehen s i v e an d profo u n d ex

, ,
’
a m i n a t i on of o t her men s m e t a phy s i c a l d o ct r i ne s w i ll a i m

a t t h e pre s en t a t i on i n s t r i ct er form of t h e i n d i re c t a rg u men t

for th e d o ct r i ne of i d e a s ; a n d th e d oub ts a n d d i ffi cu l t i e s by
w h i c h P l a t o s m i n d h as been r ack e d w i ll i m pel h i m t o
’

mo d i fy h i s o w n fu n d a m en t a l pr i n ci ple The firs t of the s e .

expe ct a t i on s i s s a t i s fie d by t h e The ae t e tu s a n d th e s e con d ,

by i t s c o n t i n u at i on t h e S oph i s t , .
 TH E I N TR OD U C TI O N TO TH E 1 55

C H AP T E R XV I .

TH E TH E/ETE TU S AND TH E C R ATY L U S .

I . TH E/ETE TU S ,
me i s men ti one d w i th h o nour i n t h e
w ho s e na

a nn a l s o f m a t hem a t i cs h as been w oun d e d befo re t h e w a ll s

,

of Cori n th an d more th a n t h at he h as been s t r i ck en by

, , ,

d i s e a s e i n t h e ca mp H e d e s i re s t o di e a t home a n d h a s
.
,

been con veye d by S h i p t o th e port of M ega ra w here he ,

h a s been m e t by E u c l i d e s The l att er s pe ak i ng t o h i s

.
,

fr i en d Te rps i o n w h o a l s o i s a p u p i l of So c ra t e s d eplore s
, ,

t h e i mpen d i ng lo s s of s o ex c ellen t a m a n Re ca ll i ng a n .

i n t ere s t i ng c on v ers a t i on i n w h i c h So c r a t e s o n c e t oo k p a r t
a lo n g w i t h t h e m a them a t i c i a n Theo d oru s of Cyrene a n d
’
t h e l a t t er s p u p i l The ae t e t u s he t a ke s ple a s u re i n re
,

m e m b e r i n g h o w a t t h a t e a rly d at e So c ra te s d i s c erne d
, ,

w i th t h e eye of a conno i s s eur t h e em i nen t g i fts o f th e

you th E u cl i d e s h a s a ccomp a n i e d h i s dy i ng fr i en d for a
.

port i on of h i s j ourney ; he i s t i re d w i th th e long w a l k ; a n d

Te rp s i o n w h o h a s re t u rn e d from t h e c o u n t ry i s i n l i k e
, ,

cas e . The l at ter h as long d e s i re d t o b ecome a cqu a i n t e d

w i th t h e c on ver s a t i on referre d t o a n d E u c l i d e s c ompl i e s
,

w i th h i s w i s h by c a u s i ng h i s o w n repor t of th e d i a log u e t o
be re a d a lou d by a s l a v e t o h i m s elf a n d h i s c omp a n i o n ,

w h i le they re s t P l a t o here i n t erpo s e s a rem a rk on t h e

.

s tyle of t h i s report i n w h i c h he expl a i n s

,
w i t h a d i re c t ,

n e s s un i q u e i n t h e w hole s er i e s of h i s w or ks o n e o f th e ,

mo t i ve s w h i ch g u i d e h i s a rt He m ak e s E uc l i d e s s ay
.

t h a t he h a s d i s ca r d e d t h e n a rr a t i v e form w i t h i t s w e a r i s o me ,

“ ” “ ”
repet i ti o n s o f s a i d he he a gree d a n d s o fo r th i n s t e a d
, , ,

of wh i ch he h as i n t ro d u c e d th e i n t erlo cu tors a s s pe a ki ng
 GRE E K TH I N KE RS .

i n t he i r pers on s Th i s el i m i n a ti on of th e ep i c elemen t
o wn .

n o w be c a m e a c on s t a n t fe a t u re i f o u r c hronolog i c a l a rr a n ge
,
’
men t i s c orre ct of P l a t o s w orks I n d ee d th e i n t ro du ct ory
, .
,

di alogue w h i ch s ome t i me s as here s er ve s a s prefa ce t o

, , ,

t h e d i a logue proper ne v er o cc urs a g a i n , I n h i s e a rl i er .

pro d uct i on s th e poe t ph i los opher h a d preferre d s ome t i me s

-

t h e one form s ome t i me s th e o ther

, To t h e n a rr a t i ve met ho d
.

w e o w e th e l i fel i k e vi vi d ne s s w i t h w h i c h th e P ro t a gor as
’
b r i ng s before o u r eye s th e d o i ng s i n t h a t s oph i s t s ho s t el ry ,
” “ ”
t h e hou s e of Ga ll i a s ; t h e Ch a rm i de s a n d L s ys i s t h e ,

d eme a no u r of t h e you t h s a n d boy s i n t h e gymn a s i u m ;

“ ”
th e Sympo s i u m t h e a m u s emen t s of a s ele ct por ti on of
,
”
At hen i a n s o c i e t y th e Ph ae d o th e l a s t ho u rs of So cr at e s
’

“ ”
l i fe ; th e Rep u bl i c t h e gr ac efu l fig u re of th e vener able
,

C eph a lu s P rob a bly i t w as pre ci s ely th e t e d i ou s w ork of

.

“ ”
w r i ti ng t h e Rep u bl i c w h i ch c a u s e d P l a t o t o re a l i ze
c le a rly th e i n con v en i en c e s of s t r i ct a d heren c e t o th e n a rr a t i v e

form An d i t m ay h av e been th e s a m e exper i en c e w h i ch

.

d e ci d e d h i m t o h av e d on e for th e fu t u re w i t h a ll s u c h
b y pl ay a n d hen c efor th t o employ ex c l u s i v ely t h e form
-
,

wh i c h h i ther t o h e h a d e m ploye d m a i nly i n h i s s h o rt er

“ “ ” “ ” ”
d i a log u e s (s u c h a s H i pp i a s L aches ,
E u th y p h r o , ,

”
Gr i t o ,
a n d only ex c ep t i on a lly i n long w or k s
“ “ ”
s u ch a s t h e Gorg i a s or P h ae d ru s Th i s d e ci s i o n w a s .

m a d e e a s i er for h i m by t h e i n c re as i ng pre pon d er a n c e i n

i n t ere s t of t h e m a t t er c on t a i ne d i n h i s d i a logue s by t h a t ,

t en d en cy t ow a r d s merely d i d act i c expo s i t i on w h i c h t h e

l o ng co n t i nue d pract i ce of t e ach i ng m us t h a v e bro ugh t
-

w i th i t p a r t ly a l s o perh a p s by a gr a d u a l d e c a y of a r ti s t i c
, , ,
“ ”
fer ti l i ty The Th e ze te t us i s a m i le s t one on t h i s p a t h
.

of d e v elopmen t We n o w t a k e o u r le av e n o t w i tho u t
.
,

regre t of t h e poe ti c a n d c re a t i ve gen i u s ; hen c efor th o u r

,

b us i nes s w i ll be a lm o s t en ti rely w i th th e a ut hor ben t on

g i vi ng i n s t r u ct i on for w hom th e d i a log u e be c ome s i n t h e
,

e n d a mere t re a t i s e va r i e d by s hor t i n t erl u d e s of r a rer a n d

r a rer o cc urren ce w h i le c ompen s a t i on i s s o u ght for th e

,

w e ak ne s s i n gen u i nely a r t i s ti c c on s t ru c t i on of h i s l a t e s t
w o rk s by a n i n c re a s i ngly s elf c on s c i o us a n d d el i ber a t e -

exh i b i t i o n of m a s t ery o ver l a ng u a ge .

 G RE E K TH I N K E RS .

perc ep t i o n w h i ch he no longer h a s he k now s i t (i n o n e s en s e )

,

a n d d oe s n o t k n o w i t ( i n a no t her) . No w th e i d en t i fi c at i on
,

of k n ow le d ge w i t h percep t i on m ay m e a n t wo t h i ng s — e i t her
t h a t t h e perc ep t i ve fa c ul ty i s t h e s ole fac u l t y employe d
i n k now le d ge (w h i ch w o u l d be a gro s s o v ers i gh t of s o
ob vi o us a fa cu l ty a s memory) or th a t t h e m a t eri a l of per
,

ce p t i o n i s t h e only m a t er i a l of k no w le d ge I t i s th e l atter
.

t h at i s m e a n t . Fo r by a s s ert i ng t h e fa ll ac i o u s c h a ract er
a n d u n t en a b i l i t y of t h e a bo v e obj e c t i on s w h i ch w o u l d
,

a pply w i t h re a l fo rc e t o th e i d en t i fi ca t i o n i n q u e s ti on i f
u n d ers t oo d i n t h e fir s t s en s e or t o a d efe ct i v e d i s c r i m i n a t i on
,

betw een d i ff eren t pro c e s s e s i nv ol ve d i n k now le dge he t ell s ,

“
u s c le a rly en o u gh t h a t t h e fo rm u l a ,
P er c ep t i on i s k no w
”
le d ge (prob a bly one o f h i s o wn c o i n i ng by t h e w ay) ,

rel at e s t o t h e m a t er i a l or c on t en t of k no w le d ge Al l i t .

a ffi rm s i s t h a t s en s e per c ep t i on i s t h e s ole s our c e of o ur

-

k no w le dge . B efore a tt a cki ng t h e t heory i n vol v e d i n t h i s

formul a he fr a n k ly c on ce de s a po i n t c on t en d e d for by
,

A r i s t i pp us a n d perh a p s e a rl i e r by P ro t a gora s th a t th e
, ,

s en s e s d o n o t d e c e i v e an d c a nno t b e c onfu t e d t h a t e a ch
,

i mpre s s i on a s i t a r i s e s h a s s ubj e c t i v e t r u t h B u t i t d oe s
.

n o t by a n y me a n s follo w a s he po i n t s o ut t h a t a l l O p i n i on s
, ,

a r e eq u a lly t rue l i k e a ll s en s e i mpre s s i on s

-
th e d i s t i n cti on
be t w een t h e w i s dom a n d u n w i s dom of d i fferen t s u bje c t s
rem a i n s i n t a ct an d m a n i fe s t s i ts elf mo s t c le a rly i n t h e
,

s u cc e s s fu l pre d i c t i on of t h e fu t ure .

Th i s n eg a t i v e c r i t i c i s m i s n o w i n t erru p te d by a n ep i s o d e
c on s i s t i ng i n a c omp a r i s on be t w een th e l i fe of t h e ph i lo

s o pher a n d t h a t of t h e pol i t i c i a n here i d en t i fie d w i t h t h e

,

ev ery day or d i n a ry m an A p i ct ure i s p a i n t e d i n t h e

-
.

s t ronge s t c olo u rs of t h e ph i lo s opher a s a s t r a nger t o t h e

w orl d . H e d oe s n o t e ven k now t h e w ay to t h e A gora

leg i s l a t i on d e c ree s of th e pe o ple elector a l c a mp a i gn s a re
, , ,

me a n i ngle s s t o h i m We can h a r d ly be w rong i n s ay i ng

.

t h a t P l a t o c o u l d n o longer h a v e w r i t t e n i n t h i s t one a ft er
h i s s e c on d S i c i l i a n j ourney H e w o u l d h av e expo s e d
“
h i m s elf t o t h e s cornfu l rem i n d er I f o n ly you h a d r é
,

m a i n e d t r u e to yo u r i d e a l h o w m a ny a b i tt er a n d hum i l i ati ng
,

experi en ce w oul d yo u h av e s ave d yours elf a n d o t hers !

 TH E S E N S UA LI S M O F H E RA CLI TUS . 1 59
” “
We no t i c e furt her a n e cho of th e Ph ae d o ( One m u s t s t r i v e
a ft er t h e S pee d i e s t po s s i ble e s c a pe from l i fe on e a rt h one
pl a i n a ll us i on t o th e d o ct ri ne o f i d e a s t h e c on t empl a t i on
of j u s t i c e a n d i nj u s t i c e i n t hem s el ve s ; l a s t ly t h e e n ,

t h u s i as t i c pre ach i ng of t h e s t r u ggle a ft er l i k ene s s w i t h th e

a b s ol u t ely j u s t D e i t y All the s e fe a tu re s a ffor d u s gl i mp s e s
.

’
of th e s ta t e o f P l a t o s m i n d a n d feel i ng s a t th e t i me w hen
“ ”
he w ro t e t h e The aet e tu s I n t h e m i d s t of t h i s ele va t e d
.

s t r a i n he d e s c en ds t o a s ome w h a t lo w er le v el i n a n a t t a ck

u pon A n t i s thene s I t i s po s s i ble t h a t t h e l a t ter i rr i t a t e d

.
,
“
by th e E u th yd e mu s h a d i n th e m e a n t i m e p u bl i s he d
,

“
h is S at hon a n d t h us
, ca lle d for t h a rej o i n d er i n th e
The ae te t u s (c f Vol I I p . . . .

B efo re So c r a t e s t a ke s h i s le a ve of t h e s en s u a l i s t i c t he o ry
of k n o w le d ge he cas ts a gl a n ce upo n t h e ph i lo s oph i c pr i n
,

c i p l e from w h i c h he bel i e ve s i t t o h a v e a r i s en — Her a c l i t i s m .

The l a tter he s ays i s i n con t r a di ct i on w i th i t s el f For by

, , .

i t s a s s u mp t i on of u n i v ers a l mo vemen t i t d e s t roy s n o t only ,

a l l re a l k no w le d ge b u t i f t h e m a t t er be v i e w e d r i gh t ly
, , ,

a l l per cep t i on a s w ell H ere w e m ay ob s erve t h a t P l a t o

.

perpe t ra t es a no table fa ll a cy H e d i s t i ng u i s he s t w o ki n d s .

of mo ti on — ch a nge of pl ac e a n d ch a n ge o f qu a l i ty H e .

goe s on to a ffi rm n o t only a s he m i gh t h av e d one w i th

, ,

perfec t j u s t i ce t h a t Her ac l i t is m exh i b i ts th e two a s pro

,

c e e d i n g h a n d i n h a n d thro u ghou t w i d e pro vi n c e s of n a t u re

- -

(c f Vol I p 6 6 s eq ) he a d ds th e a s s ert i on t h a t u n c e as i ng
. . . .
, .

movemen t i n s p a c e c a nno t be a llo we d t o t h i ng s w i tho ut a l s o

a llow i n g t o t hem u n c e a s i ng c h a nge of q u a l i t y
f or o the r w i s e
the con tr a d i ct i on w ou l d a r i s e of th e s o m e th i ng he i ng a t the
s o m e t i me a t r e s t a n d i n m ot i on H e t h us fa ll s i n t o th e .

s a me error w h i ch he h a d s a ti ri ze d s o b i tt erly i n th e
E u t h y de m u s t h e om i s s i o n of a re s t ri ct i v e qu a l i fi c at i on .

For t here i s no c on t ra d i ct i on i n s ay i n g th at i n one s en s e

a t h i ng i s a t re s t w h i le i n a no t her i t h a s mo t i on
, The .

v a r i a t i on of c o lo u r exh i b i t e d by m a n y s t a rs i s a mo v emen t

i n t h e s e c on d or d er i ve d s en s e Who w o u l d t h i n k of .

a s s ert i n g on t h a t gro u n d th a t th e s t a rs i n w h i c h t h i s
c h a nge o f c olo u r d o e s n o t occ u r m u s t rem a i n for e v er

s t a t i on a ry i n one pl a c e ? There i s d eeper me a n i ng i n t h e

 GR E E K TH I N K E RS .

d i s t i n c t i on be tw een t h e s en s e s a s th e i n s t r u men ts th r o ug h
w h i ch w e k no w a n d th e s o u l w i th w h i c h w e k n ow
, As .

o bj e c t s of o u r k now le dge g en e r a l n ot i on s ar e s pe ci fie d
, .

Th i s i s a re s u l t t o w h i c h S o c ra t e s g i v e s h i s a s s en t w i th
u n u s u a l w a rm t h . A mong t ho s e genera l n o ti on s a re be i n g ,

S i m i l a r i t y a n d d i ff eren c e un i ty a n d m u l t i pl i c i t y be a u t y a n d
, ,

ugl i ne s s goo d ne s s a n d b a d ne s s Sen s e percep ti on w h i ch

, .
-
,

t r a n s fer s t h e a ff e ct i on s of t h e bo d y t o th e s o u l i s g i v en ,

u s from b i rt h o n w a r d s ; t h e fa c t t h at w e a c q u i re only by

d egree s t h e fac u l t y of re a d i ng a n d i n t erpre t i ng s en s e

i mpre s s i on s i s here o v erloo k e d ; t h e k no w le d ge of t ho s e
genera l c a t egori e s on th e o t her h a n d i s th e fr ui t of lo n g
, ,

c o n t i n u e d a n d p a i nfu l t r a i n i n g .

3 A s e co n d a t t emp t a t d efin i t i on run s a s follow s

.

R i gh t c o n c ep t i on (op i n i on bel i ef) i s kno w le dge Con

, .

t r as t e d w i t h r i gh t op i n i on w e h av e fa l s e op i n i on or error
, , .

Th i s di s ti n c t i on a t on c e r a i s e s th e prel i m i n a ry que s ti on
H o w i s error p o s s i ble ? I t i s a que s ti on w h i c h w e h av e
a lre a d y m e t more t h a n on c e ( c f Vol I p 4 8 6 a l s o p 4 5 6 )
. . . .
,
.

P l a t o n o w eng a ge s i n a t horough d i s c u ss i on of i t a d i s ,

c uss i o n ,
ho w ev er wh i ch i s perh a p s more i n gen i ou s t h a n
, , ,

fer ti le Repe at e d on s l a u gh t s a re m a d e u pon th e problem

.
,

b u t no s ol u t i o n i s a rr i v e d a t w h i ch s a t i s fie s So cra t e s The .

ob vi o u s ly s oun d s u gge s t i o n i s m a d e t h at error c on s i s ts i n a

c omb i n a t i on of th e elemen t s of k no w le d ge w h i c h d oe s n o t

c orre s p o n d t o re a l i t y B ut t h i s t hough t a ft er re c e i vi ng a
.
,

mo s t ex cellen t i ll u s t ra ti on i s fin a lly d roppe d The o ver

, .

ex a ct i ng c r i t i ci s m here employe d— a c ri t i ci s m n o t w holly

free from p a lp a ble fa ll aci e s — m u s t be expl a i ne d by P l a t o s ’

a nx i e ty t o a ch i e v e t h e m a i n p u rpo s e o f th e d i a logue H is .

obj e ct i s to e s ta bl i s h t h e t ru th of th e d o ct r i ne of i de a s by
a n i n d i re c t proof ; a l l a tt emp t s t herefo re t o c on s t ru ct a
, ,

t heory of k now le d ge w i tho u t t h e help of t h a t d o ct r i ne m u s t

b e pro ve d i n a d eq u a t e to a ccoun t for a ny p s y ch i ca l facts
w h at e v er t h at be a r on t h e q u e s t i on th e po s s i b i l i ty of err o r
,

a m o n g t hem . Th i s port i on o f th e d i a logue i s by no me a n s

poor i n s ub tle d i s t i n ct i o n s a n d br i ll i a n t c omp a ri s on s The .

pos s es s i o n of k now le d ge i s c a refu lly d i s t i n g u i s he d from th e

ac q u i s i t i on o f know le d ge ( le a rn i ng) a n d i ts lo s s (forge tti n g) .
 GRE E K TH I N K E RS .

s elf c orre ct i on w i t h h i s polem i c a g a i n s t An ti s thene s

-
For .
,

“ ”
a c c or d i ng t o t h e M e n o r i gh t con cep t i o n o r o p i n i on i s
,

ele va t e d to th e r a n k of kn o w le dge i n t h e fu ll s en s e by i ts
a s s o ci a t i on w i t h c a u s a l expl a n a t i o n (c f V o l I I p 3 7 3 ) . an d . . .

”
i n th e Sympo s i u m r i gh t op i n i on i s re cogn i ze d a s a n i n t er
me d i a t e s t a ge be tw een k now le d ge a n d i gn o ra n c e only s o
l o n g a s i t i s u n a cc omp a n i e d by t h e pow er of expl a n a t i on
(c f Vol I I p
. . . . The c orre s pon d en ce i s here v ery c l o s e ,

a n d ex t en d s t o t h e form of expre s s i on Th i s rel a t i on s h i p

.

s u ppl i e s a n e w t e s t i mony i n fa v o u r of a po i n t o n w h i c h

d o u b t h as been ca s t n a mely t h e rel a t i v ely l a t e d a t e a t

, ,

“
w h i c h th e The ae t e tu s w a s c ompos e d For i f P l a t o h a d .

been eng a ge d u pon t h i s d i a logue w h i le he s t i ll re t a i n e d

t ho s e e a rl i er c on vi ct i on s he w o u l d c er ta i nly n o t h av e
,

om i tt e d t o d ra w a c le a r a n d pre c i s e l i ne o f d em a rc a t i on
be tw een h i s o w n d o ctri n e an d t h a t of A n t i s t hene s t o w h i c h ,

i t bore q u i t e a d e c ep t i v e l i k ene s s .

Fo r t h e re s t P l a t o doe s n o t t a k e t o o s eri o us ly h i s t a s k
,

o f c on t ro v er t i ng t h i s t h i r d a n d l a s t a t t emp t a t a d efi n i t i o n .

H e c on t en ds t h a t t h e Gree k wor d w h i ch w e h av e t ra n s l a t e d
“
expl a n a ti on (Ad yo g) a d m i t s of a t hreefo l d i n t erpre t a t i on
'
.

I t m ay me a n firs t ly t h e expre s s i o n of t hough t i n l a n g u a ge

, ,

so u n d er s t oo d expl a n at i on a d d s n o th i ng n e w t o ri gh t
,

op i n i on Se con d ly w e m ay un d ers ta n d by i t t h e or d erly

.
,

rehe a rs a l or enumer a ti on of t h e i n di vi d u a l elemen ts i n th e

object k no w n ; b u t w i thou t t h i s r i gh t op i n i on w o u l d n o t
be po s s i ble a t a l l L as t ly th e w ord m a y s ta n d — here o u r
.
,

expl a n at i on i s no longer a d equ at e — for th e s ta t eme n t of

t h e di s t i n ct i v e c h a r a ct er of a t h i n g ; b u t by t h i s no n e w
q u a l i fi ca t i on i s a d d e d to ri gh t op i n i on for th e op i n i on o nly,

be come s ri gh t w hen i t i n c l ud e s t h e a t t ri b u t e s by w h i ch t h e
o bj e ct t h o u gh t of i s d i s t i ng u i s he d from e v ery o ther obj e c t
“
H ere w e t h i n k a n a ppe a l l i e s fro m P l at o t o P l a t o
, ,
If a .

”
m an h a s r i gh t o p i n i on he m a k e s D i o t i m a s ay t o So c r a t e s
, ,

“
b u t c a n no t ren d er a n a cc oun t of i t d o you n o t k no w t h a t ,
”
t h a t i s ne i t her k no w le d ge n o r i gnor a n c e P Th us th e
a u t hor of t h e Sympo s i u m re c ogn i z e s a di s ti n cti o n w h i ch
”
th e a u t hor of t h e The ae t e t u s d en i e s s u rely w i tho u t ,

w a rr a n t . For i t i s one t h i ng t o pre s er ve i n t h e memory

 TH E GI S T O F P L A TO S
’
OB 7 E C TI ON S . 1 63

a t ru e c opy of t wo obj e ct s b u t qu i t e a d i fferen t t h i ng to

,

no te t he i r di s ti ng u i s h i ng fe a t u re s t o be c le a rly a n d c o m ,

p l e t e ly co n s ci ou s of t hem t o be a ble i n c on s eq u en c e t o
, , ,

g i ve a n a ppo s i te a n d exh a us t i ve a cco u n t o f t he i r a g reemen ts

a n d d i ff ere n c e s .

When w e s u rvey th e d i a log u e a s a w hole w e ob s erve ,

t hree m a i n a rg u men ts w h i ch P l a t o employs a g a i n s t th e

t he o r i e s of k no w le d ge re v i ew e d by h i m The w e a ke s t of .

t he s e a rgumen ts w e a re i n c l i ne d t o t h i n k i s t h a t co n ta i ne d
, ,

i n t h e referen c e t o m i s t a k e s m a d e i n d e a l i ng w i t h mere
n u mbers — m i s t a k e s a cc ord i ng to P l a t o w h i ch requ i re a n
, ,

expl a n a t i on of error d i ffere n t t o t h a t c on ta i ne d i n t h e

d o c t r i ne s he i s i mpugn i ng The a u t hors o f t h o s e t heor i e s
.

m i gh t h a v e repl i e d t o the i r c r i ti c s omew h a t a s follo ws

“
Y o u o v erloo k t h e fact t h a t t hes e n u mber a b s t ra ct i on s a re -

a l w a y s repre s en t e d i n o u r m i n d s by s ymbol s t a k en from

th e w orl d o f s en s e a n d t h at t h e m a n i pul a t i o n of t he s e
,

s ymbol s i s t h e u s u a l i n d ee d th e only s ourc e of errors i n

, , ,

t h i s fiel d w h i ch w o u l d be ex c l u d e d i f w e w ere a ble t o w o r k

,

w i t h p u re a b s t r act i on s The u npra c ti s e d a r i thmet i c i a n

.

wh o s ays 3 x 6 1 6 or c onfus e s 5 3 w i t h 3 5 or s u b s t i t u t e s
, ,

w h i ch he h a s i n h i s m i n d from a former c ol u mn of
n u mber s for th e 1 000 before h i m s u ppl i es u s w i th re a dy
, ,

ex a mple s o f s u ch m i s ta k e s none of w h i ch c an be c a lle d,

a neg a t i ve i n s t a n c e d i s pro vi ng t h e t heory of error u n d er

”
c on s i d er a t i on .

Of m uch gre a t er w e i gh t a re th e o ther t wo m a i n o b je c

t i on s : W i s d om o r k no w le d ge m a n i fe s t s i t s elf c h i efly by
“
ri gh t pre d i ct i on s of t h e futu re ; an d : The ge n era l n o ti o n s ,

or c a t egori e s of be i ng of l i kene s s a n d u nl i k ene s s of u n i ty

, ,

a n d pl u r a l i ty ,
of goo d an d b a d of fa i r a n d fo u l a re n o t , ,

g i ven w i t h s en s e perc ep t i on The firs t of the s e obj e c ti on s

-
.

i s re a lly a s ub va r i e ty o f th e s e co n d
-
For t h e po w er of pre .

d i ct i o n d epe n d s o u t h a t o f i n d u ct i on ; a n d i n d u c t i o n s re s t ,

i n t h e l a s t re s ort on co mp a r i s on s
,
The k ernel of t ru th .

c on t a i ne d i n t h e t w o a rg u men t s i s s i mply t h i s : We n o t

only re ce i ve a n d s t ore u p i mpre s s i on s of s en s e b u t w e h a v e ,

t h e fu rt her fa c u l t y of s ep a r a t i n g a n d c omb i n i n g t hem a s ,

a l s o o f a s c er t a i n i ng a greemen t s a n d d i fl e re nc e s be t w een
 GRE E K TH I N K E R S .

t hem (cf. p .The emo t i on a l s t i m u l i w h i c h a re re c e i ve d

i n a d di t i on t o s en s e i mpre s s i on s a n d i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h
-

t hem a n d w h i ch a re th e b a s i s of t h e j u d gmen t s of w or t h
,

b ro u gh t i n t o th e d i s cu s s i on by P l at o a r e a no ther i n s t a n ce ,

o f w h at w e m a c a ll w i t h a pprox i m a t e a c u r a cy t h e a ct i v e
y , c ,

re a c ti on s of th e s o u l We p a s s o v er t h e not i on of B e i ng
.
,

th e m a ny me a n i ngs of w h i ch w e s h a ll s oo n h ave a fi tt i n g
opportu n i ty fo r c on s i d eri ng To a v o i d u n ne c e s s a ry
.

leng th i ne s s w e m a k e u s e of t ra d i ti on a l form s of expres s i o n

,

i n h a n d l i n g t he s e s u bj e ct s I f w e d e s i re d t o a b s t a i n s t ri ct ly
.

from a l l me ta phor a n d a l l hypothe s i s w e c o u l d n o t for , ,

ex a mple s pe a k of a n ego w h i c h c omp a re s s en s ory i mpres

,

s i on s o r re a c t s u pon s en s ory s t i m u l i
; w e s ho u l d h av e t o
s a y i n s t e a d t h a t o u t of t h e s u cc e s s i on i n t i m e of tw o
s en s ory phenomen a t here emerge s a t h i r d phenomenon of

c o n s c i o u s ne s s w h i c h c on t a i n s t h e elemen t s c omm o n t o t h e

former t w o a s w ell a s t ho s e t h a t di v id e them .

4 Among th e w or ks w h i ch fr o m th e s t an dp o i n t of
.
,

ep i s temology belo n g t o a s t a ge prel i m i n a ry to t h a t of t h e

,

“ ” “
The ae t e t u s w e m u s t re c ko n a l o n g w i t h t h e M eno
, ,

”
an d th e Sympo s i u m th e C r a tyl u s Fo r i n t h i s d i a log u e
, .

t h e c onfus i on or i n t er c h a nge t he o ry of error i s bro u gh t

forw a r d w i thou t a ny q u a l i fica t i on an d w i t ho u t a n y h i n t of
t h e d i ffi c ul t i e s w h i ch h a v e j u s t been pre s en t e d t o o u r no t i ce .

The pers on s of t h e di a log u e a re only t hree i n n u mber

So c ra t e s ; h i s fa i t hfu l p u p i l H ermogene s w h o i s th e i m ,

o v e r i s h e d bro t her of t h e r i c h Ga ll i a s ; a n d C r a ty l u s t h e
p ,

H era cl i t e a n i n s t r uct or of P l a t o s y o u th (c f Vol I I p 2 5 2

’
. . . .
,

a n d Vol I I I p
. .Th i s w or k i s one of t h e mo s t prol i fi c o f
.

c on t rov er s y i n t h e w hole s er i e s w r i t t en by our ph i lo s o ph e r .

I t s p u rp o s e w e c on c e i ve t o be a s follo w s : An t i s t hene s a s ,

w as only t o be expe ct e d of a nom i n a l i s t h a d d e v o t e d t h e ,

mo s t c a refu l s t u d y t o l ang u a ge i n p a r t i cu l a r t o t h e me a n i ng
,

of w ord s a n d w e s ti ll po s s e s s a s ay i ng o f h i s to t h e effe ct
,

t h at t h e i n ve s t i g a t i on of w or d s s t a n d s i n t h e fo refro n t of
”
e d uca t i on No w P l a t o t h u s s u m s u p t h e re s u l t o f h i s
.
,

i nq u i ry a t t h e c lo s e of th e d i a log u e : Th i n g s m u s t n o t be
le a rn t from n a me s b u t m us t be s t u di e d a n d i n ve s ti g a t e d i n
,

t hem s el ve s I t i s n o longer po s s i ble t o k no w w h a t w a s

.
 GRE E K TH I N K E RS .

t r a n s forme d t h a t be tw een i ts fi rs t a n d i ts l as t s t a te there

y aw n s a ch a s m n o longer t o be br i dge d .

B ut e v en w ere i t o t herw i s e P l a t o con t en ds l a ng u a ge , ,

w oul d s t i ll be no a ppropr i a t e k e y t o open up for u s th e

n a t ure of t h i ng s E v en then i t w o u l d be prefera ble here
.
,

a s el s e where t o v i ew t h e t h i ng s t hem s el ve s r a t her t h a n

,

t he i r “
c op i e s A n d .w or d s — w h i ch i s t h e m a i n po i n t
c oul d a t be s t m i rror t o u s only t h e w orl d of phenomen a ,

t h e w orl d of B e c om i ng B ut t h e k no wle d ge of th e i d e a s
.
,

o r of en t i t i e s ex i s t i ng i n a n d fo r t hem s el ve s k n o w le d ge i n ,

t h e mo s t proper s en s e w o u l d n o t be fu rt here d i n t h e
,

s l i gh t e s t d egree by e v en th e profo u n d e s t c omprehen s i on of

th e m o s t pri mor d i a l w or d s Nor ca n P l at o refr a i n from

.

po i n t i ng o ut a c on t r a d i ct i on i nheren t i n th e theory he co n
t r o v e rt s . I t i s s a i d on t h e one h a n d (th e t ho u gh t i s i n
, ,

a n y ca s e mos t prob a bly An t i s th e n i c) t h a t r i gh t t h i n ki ng

, ,

i s con t a i ne d i n t h e r i gh t u s e of w or ds ; b u t on th e o the r ,

h a n d th e m a k ers of l a ngu a ge a re s a i d t o h av e di s pl aye d

,

r i gh t t h i n ki ng a n d d eep w i s d om i n th e w ork of as s i gn i ng
n a me s t o t h i ng s w h i le as ye t l a ngu a ge d i d n o t ex i s t
, .

We h av e n o w w e bel i eve g i v en i f n o t a n exh a u s t i v e

, , ,

a c c oun t y e t a fa i thfu l one

, a n d on e free from s u bje ct i v e
,

i mport a ti on s of t h i s rem a r k a ble d i a logu e r i c h i n fl a s he s of

, ,

gen i u s The C ra tyl us h as m a ny t hre a ds c onne ct i ng i t

.

“ ”
w i t h th e Theaet e t u s I n bot h d i a logue s A n t i s t hene s i s
.

a tt ack e d a n d h i s p a r a d oxe s d i s c u s s e d rel a t i ng t o t h e i m

,

po s s i b i l i ty o f c on t r a di ct i on a n d fa l s e s tat em en t i n both w e
fi n d t h e s a me i n t erpre ta t i on of t h e P ro t a gore a n propo s i t i on
t h at m a n i s th e me a s ure of t h i ng s ; i n bo t h re c ogn i t i on i s
g i v en to th e fa r re ach i ng c on s equ en c e s of t h e fun da men t a l
-

t ene t of H er ac l i t u s ; i n bo t h l a s t ly t h e pr oc e d ure of t h e
, ,

Neo H e r acl i t e an s i s gra ph i ca lly d e s c r i be d a n d gen i a lly

-

s a t i r i ze d .
 S OGRA TE S AS CH A I RM A N .

C H AP T E R X V I I .

TH E SO P H I ST AN D TH E S TATE S M A N .

“
1 . TH E con clu d i ng s en t en ce of t h e The ae te tu s prom i s e s
a c on t i n u a t i on So c ra t e s i n vi t e s h i s fell o w p a r ti ci p a n ts i n
.
-

th e d i a log u e t o mee t a g a i n on t h e morro w The mee ti ng .

“
t ak e s pl ac e a n d w i t h i t beg i n s th e d i a logue en t i t le d
,
The
”
Soph i s t i n w h i ch a n e w ch a r a ct er i s i n t ro d uce d a s t ra nger
, ,

from E le a I t h a s h a r dly g o t u n der w ay before a t h i rd

.

member of t h e cycle i s a nno u n c e d th e — “

S ta t e s m a n .

“ ”
I n dee d a fo u r t h t h e
,
P h i lo s opher
,
i s prom i s e d , B ut .

P l at o re s t e d s a t i s fie d w i t h t h e t ri logy i n s t e a d of c omple t i ng
t h e proje ct e d t e t r a logy The fact th a t he d i d n o t exp unge
.

t h e refere n c e t o h i s u nfulfille d pl a n i s perh a p s t o be ex

pl a i ne d by th e gro w i ng i n di ff eren c e to qu e s ti on s of l i ter a ry
fo rm w h i ch m a rk s th e l a s t ph as e of h i s a u thors h i p
, .

Ano ther s i m i l a r t ra i t i s h i s om i s s i on t o t a k e a cc o u n t i n t h i s ,

c on t i n u a t i on of th e c i r cum s ta n ce s pre s u ppo s e d i n t h e

,
“ ”
i n t ro d u ct i on t o th e Theae te t us ; n o th i ng i s s a i d of a n y
fu rt her re a d i ng a lou d of a w r i t t en repor t I n dee d P l a t o s .
,
’

ca rele s s ne s s i n t he s e m a tt ers goe s s o fa r t h a t i n a p as s a ge

“
of t h e S tate s m a n he m a k e s a n i n t erlo cutor a ll u de to th e
”
S o ph i s t as to a di a log u e i n a boo k .

I t i s a pe c u l i a r s i t u a t i on i n w h i c h w e fin d So c ra t e s i n
bo th d i a log ue s H e m ay perh a p s be d e s c r i be d a s th e
.
, ,

ch a i rm a n of th e d eb a t e H e open s t h e d i s cu s s i on i n th e
.

firs t d i a log u e open s a n d c lo s e s i t i n t h e s ec on d ; b ut i n

,

ne i ther doe s he t a k e a ny p a rt i n i t s progre s s The ch i ef .

re as on of t h i s w e i m a g i ne l i e s i n th e fact t h a t d oc t ri ne s
, ,

a r e here s u bje ct e d t o c r i ti c i s m w h i c h h a d been pre ache d i n

 GRE E K TH I N K E R S .

e a rl i er w orks thro ugh th e m ou th of So crat e s The a d .

v a n t a ge w h i c h P l a t o d re w from h i s a d op t i on of t h e d i a logue

form t h a t of n o t be i ng boun d by a ny of th e d o ct ri ne s pro

,

poun de d i n h i s w orks i s c on s i d era bly enh a n ce d by t h i s

,

w i t h d raw a l i n t o th e b a ck groun d of h i s ch i ef s pe a k er On .

t h e o ther h a n d t h e repl a c i ng of S o cr a t es by t h e E le a t i c
,

s t r a nger a m a n w h o h a s gro w n up i n t h e c i r cle of P a r

,

men i de s a n d Z eno y i el ds Pl a t o an a dva n ta ge i n a n e w

,

d i re ct i on The c ri ti ci s m of o ther s ys t em s i nclu d i ng th e

.
,
’
E le at i c w h i ch i t w as P l a t o s m a i n purpo s e i n t h e
,
Soph i s t
t o be s to w i s unu s u a lly gen t le an d re s pe ct fu l i n t one be i ng
, ,

p a rt ly t hrown i n to th e form of s elf corre ct i on on th e p a rt of -

t h e E le a ti c ; t h i s fe a t ure n o t only c orre s pon d s t o P l a t o s

’

pers on a l feel i ng b ut pro vi de s h i m w i t h a w el com e fo i l t o

,

t h e o t her polem i ca l m at t er c on t a i ne d i n th e d i a logue The .

Soph i s t con s i s ts of tw o a pp a ren tly qu i t e d i s p a r at e p a rt s

—an en clo s i ng “ hu s k ” a n d a n en c lo s e d “ k ern el ” The
, .

l i nk conne cti ng th e tw o ca n be in d i ca t e d only t o one w h o

i s a lre a dy fa m i l i a r i ze d w i t h th e c our s e follo w e d by th e
d i a logue a n d t h e m a tt er c on t a i ne d i n i t .

The o s ten s i ble a i m of t h e i n ve s t i g at i on i s a defin i ti on

of th e s oph i s t W i t h m u c h a pp a ren t i ngenuou s ne s s th e
.
,

gre at d i fli cul ty of th e s u bje ct i s re cogn i ze d a n d a pre ,

p a rat ory exerci s e propo s e d by w ay of pra ct i c e n a mely th e , ,

”
d efin i t i on of t h e a ngler The s e a rch t a ke s a ra ther w i d e
.

s w eep . The whole of a rt i s fi rs t d i vi de d i n t o th e pro

d u c t i ve a n d t h e a c q u i s i t i v e a r t s Ac qu i s i t i on d epen d i ng on
.

v olun t a ry ex ch a nge i s nex t c on t r as t e d w i th for c i ble a ppro

i t i o n D i s t i n ct i on s a re nex t d r a w n rel a t i v e to th e
p r a .

obj e cts of purs u i t th e m e a n s employe d a n d th e t i me of

, ,

d a y a t w h i c h th e purs u i t t a k e s pl a c e ; thu s t h e pro c es s of

di v i s i on gr a d u al ly d e s cen ds t h e s ca le t i ll th e a ngler i s
re ache d O f a s u dd en i t a ppea r s t h a t t h i s merely prep a r a
.

t ory exer ci s e a s i t w a s m e a n t t o be h a s con d u ct e d u s t o

, ,

t h e he a rt of th e m a i n i nqu i ry i ts elf The a ngler h as t o d o

.

w i t h fi s he s t h e s oph i s t w i t h men ; t o t h e s e as r i v ers a n d

, , ,

l a k e s i n w h i c h th e a ngler pl i e s h i s c ra ft t here corre s pon ds

“
t h e e a rth w i t h i ts
,
s t re a m s of w e a l t h a n d i t s luxur i a n t
“ ”
p as t u re s o f yo ut h from w h i ch t h e s oph i s t d ra w s h i s
,
 GRE E K TH I NK E RS .

a mere s por t I t c an h a v e no referen c e t o th i ng s them s el ve s

.
,

b u t only to t he i r c op i es Th u s th e pl a y or s port s p o ken

.

of be c ome s more ex a ctly d efine d a s a b r a n ch of th e m i

me ti c or i m i tat i v e art The l a tter a g a i n i s s u b di vi d e d
.
, ,

i n t o t w o a r ts one of w h i c h pr o d u ce s l i kene s s e s t h e o ther

, ,

d elu s i ve ph a n t om s The s oph i s t i s n o w re cogn i ze d as a n

.

a d ep t of th i s s e c on d s pe c i e s ; he i s a k i n d of j u ggler or

i ll u s i on i s t .

2 . H ere th e s e con d p a rt o f th e di a log u e i s j oi n e d on t o

th e firs t ; t h e s er i o u s i n v e s t i g a t i on s u ccee ds th e b i t ter
j es ti ng of t h e polem i cs t h e purpo s e of w h i ch a t on ce ,

be come s c le a r The t ra n s i t i on i s e ffe cte d by t h e q u e s ti on

.

h o w d e c ep ti on i s po s s i ble w he ther i t d oe s n o t i n v ol ve t h a t
,

a s s ump t i on of a No t B e i ng a g a i n s t w h i c h P a rmen i d e s of
-

o l d u tt ere d s u c h i n s i s t en t w a rn i ng s ( cf Vol I p . . . .

The s oph i s t i c opponen t —An t i s t hene s i s m e a n t— w i ll n o t

“
a llo w u s t o m a i n ta i n t h e ex i s t en c e of fa l s ehoo d i n p ro
”
po s i t i on s a n d o p i n i on s a n d th us t h e kno w le d ge of t h e
,

un k no w a ble of No t B e i ng Th i s m a ny fa c e t t e d problem
,
-
.
-

h a s a lre a dy pre s en t e d i t s elf t o u s m o re t h a n on ce (cf Vol . .

I p 4 5 4 ; Vol I I p
. . . I t w i ll be ne ce s s a ry for u s
. .

n ow to a ppro a ch i t s er i ou s ly o u rs el ves before we c a n

a dva n c e fur t her H o w d oe s i t c ome a bo u t w e h a ve a r i gh t
.
,

t o a s k t h a t w e a re a ble t o s pe a k o r t re a t of t h e unre a l t h e
, ,

non ex i s t en t ? W h a t i s th e e s s ence of th i s no t i on ? We
-

a n s w er t h a t i t d epen d s i n t h e l a s t re s or t on th e i d e a of
, ,

a b s en c e w h i ch i s only g a i ne d fro m j u d gmen t s of c o m

,

p a ri s on I d r aw tw o c i r c le s a n d m a rk t h e c en t re of one
. .

I c omp a re t h e c i r c le s a n d no t e t h e d i fferen ce t h e p o s ,

s e s s i on by t h e one c i r c le of a po i n t w h i ch th e o ther
l a cks The a b s en c e th u s d e t e ct e d t h e d efect or lo s s t h u s
.
,

a s c er t a i ne d of a po s i t i v e a lre a d y k no w n from a no ther s ourc e

,

— s uc h i s th e kernel of t h i s no t i on Neg a t i ve phenomen a .

,

neg at i ve raw m a t er i a l s of k no w le dge d o n o t i n fact ex i s t , , ,

e ach phenomenon i n i ts elf a n d a cc ordi ng to i ts o w n ,

i mme d i at e n at u re i s s ome t h i ng po s i t i ve
, The a ppe a ra n ce .

t o t h e c on t r a ry a ri s e s o u t of a c onfu s i on w h i c h l i e s c lo s e a t
h a n d Col d for ex a mple i s a po s i ti ve s en s at i on Why
.
, , .

d o e s i t a ppe a r t o u s a s th e neg a t i ve a n t i the s i s of he a t For

 TH E P R OB L E M OF N E GA TI ON . 1 71

no ot her re a s on s urely t h a n t h a t s uc h a n ti thes e s re a lly

, ,

o ccu r o n th e one h a n d i n th e s phere o f t h e ca u s e s by w h i ch

, ,

t he s e s en s a t i on s a re pro d u ce d a n d on t h e o t her i n t h a t o f , , ,

t he i r obje c t i v e a s w ell a s t he i r s u bj e ct i v e e ffe ct s (e g fire

'

.
,

no fire —b u m i n g no t b u rn i ng — pers p i r i ng n o t pers p i r i ng )

-
,
-
,
-
.

”
I n a n y c a s e th e a uthor of t h e Soph i s t c ome s ne a rer th e
re co gn i t i on of t h i s t ru t h t h a n H egel d oe s i n w ho s e d i a lect i c ,
“ ” ”
t h e p s e u d o c on c ep t of No th i ng t h a t fa n t as ti c hypo s t as y
-
, ,

a s Tren d elenb u rg c a ll s i t s t i ll pl ay s t h e p a r t of a n a c t i v e
,

pr i n c i ple a n d i n d ee d exer ts a w i der i n fl uen ce t h a n a n y

,

o t her a ct i v e pri n c i ple .

P l a t o free s h i m s elf from t h e n i gh t m a re of t h e non

ex i s ten t by re duci n g i t to t h e po s i ti ve n o t i o n of d i fferen c e .

No t be i ng h a s a l way s a merely rel a t i v e s i gn i fi ca n c e ; i t

-

a l ways d eno te s a be i n g o ther a s O ppos e d t o be i ng -

d e term i ne d i n s ome p a r t i c u l a r w ay The non ex i s t en t .

-

i n t h e provi n c e of be a u ty i s s i mply th e u gly i n t h at of ,

goo d ne s s th e b a d a n d s o forth The s e co n d s t ep of t h i s

, .

re d uct i on i s log i ca lly more a s s a i l a ble t h a n t h e firs t For .

,

s t r i ct ly S pe a k i ng t h e n o t be a u t i ful i s a l l el s e t h e be a u t i fu l
,
-
,

only ex c l u de d B ut i n re a l i t y ne i ther for practi ca l p u rpo s e s

.
,

n o r for t h e s i mple c o n v ey a n c e of i nform a t i on a re w e oft en

l e d t o t re a t of t h e t o t a l i ty of t h i ng s or of t h e elemen t s of ,

t ho u gh t w i t h one s ole ex c ep t i on
,
The neg a t i v e pre di ca t e .
,

a s a r u le a n d e s pe c i a lly i n t h e
,
d i a le ct i c a r t i c ul a t i o n or
s u b d i vi s i on of t h e m a t er i a l of k no w le dge s er ve s t o ex c l u d e ,

from a h i gher c l as s one of t h e s ub c l as s es w h i ch c ompo s e -

i t a n d t h u s t o d el i m i t i n d i re ct ly th e rem a i n d er of th e
,

c l as s .

B ut w hen t h e s pe ct re of a b s olu t e neg a t i on h a s been

t h u s exor ci s e d n e w pro blem s a t o n c e pre s s for s olu t i on
, ,

a n d i n t h e fo refron t of t hem i s t h a t w h i ch i nq u i re s t h e

n a tu re of th e oppo s i t e t o No t be i ng of B e i ng i ts elf Tw o -
, .

fu n d a me n t a l t heor i e s here c onfron t one a no ther i n i rre co n

c ilab le oppo s i t i on — t h e m a t er i a l i s t i c a n d t h e i d e a l i s ti c .

“
For th e former only t h a t i s re a l o r ex i s t en t w h i ch ca n
,

be gr as pe d w i t h t h e h a n ds a n d e ven t h e s o u l i s reg a rd e d
,

a s s ome th i ng c orpore a l ; by t h e repre s en ta ti ves of t h i s

t heo ry t h e a t om i s t i c phy s i c i s t s a re no d o u b t me a n t The i r .
 GRE E K TH I N K E R S .

opponen ts h av e v ery pru d en t ly t aken refu ge i n th e re a lm

of th e i n vi s i ble ; from t h e va n t age gro un d of t h e he av en s -

”
t hey w a ge t he i r w a rfa re a g a i n s t t h e e a r th born d e c l a ri n g -
,

no t h i ng el s e re a l ex c ep t i n corpore a l en t i t i es or a rche type s .

“ ”
B y t he s e fr i en d s of th e i d e as P l at o me a n t none o t her
t h a n h i m s elf a n d h i s a d heren ts — a s t ro k e of hum o u r n o t
i n tell i g i ble or c re d i ble t o al l P l a ton i c s t u d en t s We s h a ll .

t h e be t t er un d ers t a n d i t th e more c le a rly w e perc e i v e t h a t

th e Soph i s t i n t ro duce s fa r re ach i ng mo di fi cat i on s i n t o th e
-

d o ct r i ne of i d e as s o t h a t th e l a t ter i n i t s e a rl i er form h as
,

a c q u i re d a ki n d of obj e c t i v e a n d h i s t or i ca l c h a r a c t er for

i ts o w n a u thor B ot h t heor i e s a re s u bje ct e d t o i n ci s i v e

.

c r i t i ci s m .Ag a i n s t t h e m a t eri a l i s t i c vi ew t h e repro a ch i s

le velle d t h a t i t i s c ompelle d t o prono u n ce unre a l a n d non
ex i s ten t a l l t h at belong s t o th e s o u l i n cl u di ng th e h i ghe s t ,

a n d mo s t v a l u a ble of i t s qu a l i t i es s u ch as v i rt ue a n d ,

“ ”
j us t i c e The re v eren d a n d holy a rchetype s on th e
.
,

o t her h an d ex i s t i n g as t hey d o i n e t ern a l one m i gh t

, ,

a lmo s t s a y pe d a n ti c repo s e a r e d e cl a re d i n ca p a ble of

, ,

expl a i n i n g e i ther e ven ts i n th e w orl d of phenomen a or

t h e pro ce s s of k no w le d ge I n t h i s a rg u men t P l a t o fa ll s
.

i n t o s t r a nge errors K now le dge he s ays i s a cti ve to be

.
, ,

k now n i s t o be a ct e d u pon w h i ch i s i n con s i s t en t W i t h th e

,

c h a ngele s s i m mob i l i ty of t ho s e h i ghe s t obj e ct s of k now le d ge .

I t i s c h i efly i f n o t ex clu s i v ely by t h e form s of l a ng u age

, ,

t h a t he h as been here m i s le d The p a s s i ve vo i ce s ome ti me s

.

expre s s e s s u bj e ct i on t o an ex t ern a l i nfluen c e s ome t i mes ,

th e rel a ti on of a n a cti on t o an O bj e ct n o t i n th e le as t d egree

” “ ”
a ffe c t e d by i t The lyre i s s tru ck
. t h e c h i l d i s t a u gh t
, ,

“ ” “
a re ex a mple s of t h e fir s t type th e s u n i s s een th e p ic ,

t u re i s a d m i re d of th e s e con d S i m i l a rly th e m ateri a l i s t

, .
, ,

t hough he d en i e s th e i n d epen d en t ex i s t en c e of i mm a t er i a l
en ti t i e s i s n o t by a n y me a n s boun d to con tes t th e re a l i ty
,

of p s y ch i c phenomen a t h e s u b s i s t en c e of rel a ti on s th e
, ,

v a l i d i t y of l a w s B u t form a l c orr e ct ne s s i s here a s before

.
, ,

a m a t t er of s u b s i d i a ry i mpor ta n c e M oreover th e s urplu s

.
,

of me a n i ng w h i c h w e h av e j us t i n di ca t e d a s h avi ng been
“ ”
i mport e d i n to t h e w or d be i n g w as n o t u n no ti ce d by
P l a t o h i m s elf The neces s i ty of c le a r i ng u p t h i s no ti on
.
 GR E E K TH I N K E R S .

he o ffers of th e l a tt er d epen ds o n h i s t re a t men t o f t h e

former .

The q u e s t i on — H o w a re fa l s eh o o d error a n d de cep t i on

, ,

po s s i ble ? g i ve s pl a c e t o a s e con d a n d w i d er q u e s t i o n — H o w
i s a s s ert i on i n gener a l po s s i ble ? Th i s problem a lre a d y ,

fa m i l i a r t o th e re a d er a s t h at of pre d i c a t i o n (cf Vol I I . . .

p . i s a ppro ache d by P l a t o from i ts l i ng u i s t i c s i d e A .

pr o po s i t i on or s en t en ce pre s u ppo s e s t w o k i n d s of w or ds :
n a mes a n d w or ds i mply i ng a cti on (noun s an d verb s ) H e .

“ ”
w h o repe a ts ho w ever long a l i s t o f w or d s s uch a s w a l ks ,

“ ” “ ”
runs , s leep s w i ll n ev er pro du c e a n a s s er t i o n a n y more
, ,

“ ” “ ”
t h a n i f he s t ri ng s t o ge t her t erm s l i k e l i on s ta g , ,

“ ”
hors e a n d s o fort h
, I t i s o nly t h e c omb i n a t i on of t h e
.

“ ” “ ”
t wo eleme n ts a s i n , t h e m an le a rn s th e s ta g ru n s t h a t
, ,

m a k e s as s er t i on po s s i ble The a s s er t i on i s t hen t rue or

.

fa l s e a ccor di ng a s th e c omb i n a ti on d oe s or d oe s n o t
,

“ ”
c orre s pon d t o t h e re a l i ty Th e a t e t us i s s i t t i ng a n d
.

Th e aat e t us i s fly i ng a re ex a mple s i n po i n t Th i s e a rl i e s t
”
.

expo s i t i on of a t heory of propo s i t i on s or j u dgmen t s w a s by

no me a n s w i tho ut va l u e i n a n a g e w h i c h a s ye t po s s e s s e d
no log i c or fu lly d evelope d gra m m a r a n d i n w h i ch t h e ,

g r o un d h a d o nly re c en t ly been prep a re d c h i efly by ,

P ro ta gor a s for t ho s e d i s t i n ct i on s be t w een di fferen t p a r ts

,

of s pee ch a n d d i fferen t form s of w or ds w h i ch e ven i n

A r i s to t le s t i me w ere s t i ll i mperfe c tly d ra w n We s houl d
’
.

be gl a d t o le a rn th e rel a ti on s h i p bet ween t h i s theory of

“ ”
’
P l a t o s an d th at propoun d e d i n th e The ae t e t u s b ut
rej e ct e d a s i n a d equ a t e— a t heory w h i ch l i k ew i s e re d uce d
a ll t r u t h a n d a l l error t o c omb i n a t i on s an d w h i c h i s w i t h,

gre a t prob a b i l i ty as c r i be d t o An ti s thene s We s h a ll .

h a r d ly go w rong i f w e reg a r d t h a t rep u d i a t e d theory a s

t h e germ w h i ch w as c a rr i e d t o i t s fu ll d e v elopmen t by t h e
l a bour s of P l a t o I t w oul d n o t be t h e firs t t i me t h at th e
.

s u c c e s s or h a s loo k e d d o w n w i t h c on t emp t u pon th e fo re

r u nner by w ho s e S h o u l d er s he i s s upport e d .

I t i s t r u e t h a t P l a to d oe s n o t reg a r d th e fun d a
men t a l ep i s t emolog i ca l problem a s a lre a dy s ol ve d by th i s
l i ngu i s t i c a n a ly s i s I t follo w s fro m t h e pre s u ppo s i t i on s
.

by w h i c h h i s w hole t ho ugh t i s g o verne d t h a t t h e t ru e

 TH E C O M M UN I ON O F CL AS S E S .

s olu t i on ca n only be ob t a i ne d i n t h e pro vi n ce of o n t ology

by th e proof t h at th e comb i n a t i on s or connex i o n s referre d
t o o ccu r pr i m a r i ly i n t h e re a l b ac kgroun d of a l l phen ome n a ,

i n t h e w orl d of t ho s e en t i t i e s w h i ch ex i s t i n a n d for t hem

s el v e s t h e obj e ct i v e a rc he type s o r form s
, The d o ct ri ne of
.

i d e a s a s firs t fr a me d by i ts a u t h o r m a y be s a i d t o w e a r a n
, ,

E le a t i c a s pec t R i g i d i ty of con c ep ts i s hen c efo r th repl a c e d

.

by fl u i d i ty P l a t o n o w a ffi rm s t h a t i t i s a l toge t her u n
.

“
ph i lo s oph i ca l t o s ep a r a t e e v ery t h i ng from e very th i ng
” “
el s e t h a t t here c a n be no more u tt er a n n i h i l a t i on o f a l l
,

ra t i on a l d i s co u rs e t h a n th e d e ta chmen t of e ach i n d i vi d u a l
t h i ng from e v ery o t her H e pro cl a i m s h i s bel i ef i n th e
.

“ ” “
i n t erpene t r a t i on of t h e a rche type s a n d th e c ommun i on
”
of c l a s s e s by a d el i c a t e a r t i fi c e pl a c i ng th i s pro fe s s i o n of
,

fa i t h i n th e mo u t h o f th e E le a t i c s t r a nger a s i f th e l a tt er ,

were t h u s t a ken t o w i t ne s s th a t th e a b a n d on men t of E le a ti c

ri g i d i ty i n c on cep ts h a d beg u n i n th e m i n d of Pa rmen i de s
h i m s elf t h at P l at o a n d n o t s ay th e Neo E le a t i cs or
, , , ,
-

Meg a ri a n s a n d t he i r c ongener A n ti s t henes w a s th e t r u e ,

a n d r i gh t ful he i r o f t h e gre a t on t olog i s t The t heory d oe s

.

n o t d eny t h a t t here a re m u t ua lly ex c lu s i v e i d e a s a s i n ,

p a i rs of oppo s i te s l i ke re s t a n d mo ti on ; o ther i de a s h o w ,

e ver an d v ery m a ny of t hem a re ca p able of form i ng

, ,

p a r tners h i p s a mong them s el ve s i n vi r t u e of w h i ch th e p a rt i c i

t i n by one t h i g i plur a l i t y of i d e a s i s m a d e po s s i ble
p a o n n a .

I t i s t h u s t h a t a s ol u t i on i s con c e i v e d t o be fo u n d for th e
o l d r i dd le w h i ch a s ks h o w one t h i ng c a n h a v e m a ny
a tt r i bu t e s w h y i t s e s s en t i a l n a t u re i s n o t exh a u s t e d i n
,

t h e po s s e s s i on of a s i ngle a tt ri b u t e i n i ts a c c ep t a n c e of a
,

s i ngle pre d i c a t e O r r a ther a n a n s w er i s re tu rne d t o t h e

.
,

t w ofol d q u es t i o n — H o w c an on e s u bj e ct po s s e s s m a n y
pre di cat e s ? H o w ca n o n e pre d i cat e belong t o m a n y
s u bj e ct s ? The gro un d i s c ut a w a y from t h e ro ugh a nd -

t u mble di a le ct i c of t h e E u t h yd e m u s No s u ppor t
.

rem a i n s for s uc h s t a temen ts a s t h a t S o c rat e s s i ck i s a n

a b s ol ut ely di ff eren t m a n from So c r a t e s w ell or from ,

Soc ra t e s w h o i s w h i t e o r mu s i ca lly e du ca te d— th at fu rt her , ,

t w o en t i t i e s w h i ch h av e one q u a l i t y i n c ommon a re u n a ble ,

fo r t h a t re as on t o di ff er i n a ny o t her re s pe ct
,
A w ide
 GR E E K TH I N K E R S .

s p ace is ob t a i ne d for l i m i ta t i on s i n t erme d i a t e s ta t e s t r a n

, ,

s i t i o n s of e very k i n d The s e t a k e th e pl ace of th e o l d

.
,

h
s a rply efi
d n d e a l t er n a t i v e s of t ho u gh t s uc h a s — Wh o e v er ,

kn o w s a ny t h i ng h a s k now le d ge a n d m u s t t herefo re k no w ,

e v ery th i ng or There c an be n o s u c h th i n g a s op i n i o n or co n
,

s t e i th e r be k n o w n or n o t k no w n
j e c t u re
, s i n c e e v ery t h i ng m u .

.
3 H ere w e bel i eve w e h av e t o u che d t h e v i t a l nerve
, ,

of t h i s d i a log u e an d n o t of t h i s d i a log u e a lone

,
The .

’
ph as e of P l a t o s l a ter ye a r s th e S t Lu ke s s um mer of h i s , .
’

ph i lo s oph i c c a reer i s n o w pl a i nly re ve a le d t o u s

, The .

a ge d t h i n k er s h i v ers i n th e he a v en of h i s i d e as His .

m i n d a n d he a r t g a i n a s t ro n ger hol d on p a rt i cu l a r t h i ng s ,

p a r ti c ul a r en t i t i e s p a r ti c ul a r pro ce s s e s H e a ck no wle dge s

, .

t h e i n a d equ a cy of a l l a b s ol u t e t heor i e s Cr u d e one s i de d ne s s .

-

beg i n s t o repel h i m ; he t u rn s a w a y i n d i s gu s t from mere

b a l d nega ti on I n every qu a rt er he i s on th e look o u t for
.

c omprom i s e s H e ye a rn s t o re con c i le O ppo s i t e s ev en s u ch

.
,

oppo s i t e s a s tho s e of B e i ng a n d No t B e i n g J u s t a s i n th e -
.

“ ” “ ”
L aws he m i xe s c o n s ti t u t i on s s o i n t h e T i m ae u s he ,

“ ”
m i xe s pri m a ry s u b s t a n c e s a n d i n t h e P h i l e b u s s pe ci e s
,

of ple a s u re a n d w i s dom The n e w d ep a rt u re h a s a lre a dy .

been hera l d e d i f w e ex a m i n e th e m a tter c lo s ely i n th e

, ,

“ ”
open i ng por ti on of t h e P a rmen i d e s The rel at i vi ty o f .

s u c h no t i on s a s un i ty pl u r a l i ty a n d s o on h a s a lre a dy
, , ,

been s e t for t h t here a n d a pro s pe ct a t le a s t hel d o u t of

,

t h a t a tt emp t t o s ol v e t h e d i ffi cu l ti e s w h i c h i s m a d e i n th e
“ ” “ ”
Soph i s t . The w hole c o u r s e of th e P a rmen i d e s m ay
perh a p s be reg a rd e d a s go verne d by a s urm i s e t h a t a l l th e
hopele s s t a ngle of t he s e vi vi d ly d el i ne a te d a n t i n om i e s i s
du e s olely t o th e us e of s u c h no t i on s a s u n i ty be i ng a n d , ,

S O for t h c on c e i v e d a b s ol u t ely a n d a s i n ca p a ble of q u a l i fic a

,

t i on or c omprom i s e All t h i s i s c lo s ely boun d up w i t h t h e

.

c i rc um s t a n c e t h a t d i a le c t i c i s employe d more a n d more as

’
a n a i d t o w a r ds t h e c omprehen s i on of t h e u n i v er s e P l at o s .

a i m i s t o g a i n m as t ery o v er th e mo t ley v a r i e ty of phenomen a .

H i s me tho d i s t h a t of pro gre s s i v e s u b d i vi s i o n an d c l as s i fica

t i o n pro c ee d i ng by d i c ho t omy N a t ure h a s here po i n t e d
.

t h e w a y w i t h her s pe c i e s a n d v a r i e t i e s of pl a n t s a n i m a l s
, , ,

i n org a n i c form a ti on s To follow i n her foo ts t ep s t o

.
,
 GRE E K TH I N K E RS .

B ut w e m us t re t urn t o th e Soph i s t We h ave s t i ll to .

c on s i d er a c i r c um s t a n ce of n o l i t t le i mpor t a n c e P l at o s
’
.

pec u l i a r pronene s s t o t h e obj e c ti fy i ng of con c ep t s h a s

bro ugh t a bo ut a t r uly w on d erfu l re s ul t Ab s ol ut e neg at i o n .

h a d been repl ac e d by th e rel at i v e n o t i on of d i ff eren c e .

B u t t h i s i n i t s t u rn h as be come a b s ol ut e
, , Th a t w h i ch .

h a d b a rely been l i q u e fie d— w e m ay a lmo s t s ay— h a s i mme

d i a t e l y t urne d s ol i d a g a i n I t i s no mere fig u re of s pee ch
.

“ “ ”
i n w h i c h P l a t o repre s en t s th e o ther or d i fferen t i n to
w h i c h n o t be i ng h as been t r a n s forme d a s a n i n d epen d en t
-
,

pri n c i ple perva d i ng a l l t h i n g s I n s o d e c l a r i ng th i s n on

.

ex i s t en t to be ex i s t en t or re a l he throw s d ow n th e glov e ,

t o t h e c h a mp i on s of form a l s t r i ct ne s s of t ho u gh t t h e a n ci en t ,

H e r b ar t i a n s (c f Vol I I p
. . .w hom th e w hole c on t en ts
.

“
of th e d i a logue w ere c a l cu l at e d to pro vo ke We s h a ll n o t .

go u np u n i s he d We h a v e m a d e re a dy a fe a s t for grey
be a rd e d beg i n ners —i n s u c h ph ra s e s a s t he s e th e l as t ,

of w h i ch i s u nm i s ta ka bly a i me d a t A n t i s thene s P l a t o ,

expre s s e s a t on c e h i s expe ct a ti on of be i ng at tacke d an d

h i s c on temp t for h i s a s s a i l a n t s Here w e h av e th e k e y to
.

t h e me a n i n g of t h e d i a log u e a s a w hole We h a v e i n o u r .

h a n ds t h e bon d w h i ch c on ne cts i t s o u t er w i t h i t s i nner

p a rt P l a t o b ra n ds h i s opponen t s a s s oph i s ts p a rt i c u l a rly
.
,

h i s per s on a l enemy A n t i s t hene s w h o h ad re v i le d h i m i n

, ,

“
h is S a thon hen c e t h e d efin i t i on s propo s e d by h i m
d efin i t i on s w h i ch w h i le t o a ll a ppe a r a n c e s t r i ct ly s c i en t i fi c
,

i n c h a r a ct er a re i n re a l i ty i n s p i re d by th e b i t t ere s t av er s i on
,

—d ep i c t th e t y p e i n t h e mos t d e t e s t a ble c olo u r s t h a t

c a n be i m a g i ne d The So cra t i c con ten ti o us d i a lec t i ci a n s
.

w ere pre s en t t o h i s m i n d i n a fa r gre a t er d egree t h a n th e

S O c a lle d S oph i s t s of a n e a rl i er gener a t i on
-
P l a t o a t temp t s .

to di s g u i s e t h i s fact by l i n k i ng n o t wi t ho u t v i olen c e t h e
, ,

“
ne w s oph i s t s t o t h e ol d er po s s e s s or s of t h at n a m e B ut .

t h e t r u t h i s be t r a ye d by th e i mpor t a n c e a s s i gne d i n t h i s
d e s c r i p t i on to con t en t i ou s d i a le c t i c w h i ch on th e t e s t i , ,

“
mony o f P l a t o s o w n w o rks s u ch a s t h e
’
, H i pp i a s th e ,

“ ”
P ro t a gor a s a n d t h e
,
Gorg i a s w a s fore i gn t o t h e gre a t
,

s oph i s t s o f a fo rmer epo ch The di d act i c c on ten t of th e

.

“ ”
d i a log u e i s d i re ct e d a g a i n s t t ho s e ri g i d t h i n k ers t h e ,
 AN A TTA CK ON TH E M E G ARI A N S .

Meg a ri an s a n d t he i r clo s e a lly An t i s thene s w h i le P l a to

, ,

a n t i c i p a t e s t he i r reply by h i s d i s q u i s i t i o n s on t h e n a t u re

of th e s oph i s ts To t h e cunn i ng w i th w h ich t h i s i s d one

.

a pro d u c t i on of re c en t ye a rs o ffers a n a p t p a ra llel I .

’ “ ”
refer t o Z ollner s bo o k on The N a tu re of Come ts i n ,

w h i ch th e s ci en ti fi c t re a t men t of t h at s ubj e ct i s s upple

m e n t e d by c ert a i n s t u d i e s i n th e fiel d of p s y chology a n d
”
th e t heory of k no w le d ge w here i n un d er t h e pre t ex t of
, ,

di s c u s s i ng ob s t a cle s t o th e progre s s of s c i en c e v i olen t ,

pers on a l a tt a ck s a re m a d e on Tyn da ll Hofm a nn a n d , ,

’
o t her s . I n P l a t o s cas e h o w e v er i t i s s ome t h i ng more
, ,

t h a n a mere polem i ca l a rt i fic e t h a t w e h av e to d e a l w i t h .

H i s b i t t erne s s i s fe d by t h e d i s s a t i s fa ct i on w i t h w h i ch he
loo ks b a c k u pon errors o f h i s o w n yo u th Th at r i g i d i ty of .

t ho u gh t w h i c h he l a s he s i n h i s r i va l s h ad n o t a l w a ys been
a s t r a n ger t o h i s o w n m i n d The fer ti le d i a le cti c w h i ch he
.

n o w beg i n s t o pr a c t i s e t h a t i n s t rumen t by t h e a i d of w h i c h
,

he a n d t h e gre a te s t of h i s pup i l s a fter h i m s eek to m a s t er

t h e w hole bre a dt h a n d d ep t h of th e phenomen a l w orl d i s ,

s h a rply di v i d e d from t h e b a rren d i a lect i c by w h i ch a ll

a cc e s s t o th a t w orl d i s b a rre d The j us t er c ours e i s n o
.

d oub t t o re c ogn i ze a s s er i o u s an d s i gn i fi c a n t t h e d i ffi c u l t i e s
, ,
’
w i t h w h i ch one h a s one s s elf w re s t le d B u t i t i s p s y cho
.

log i ca lly i n tell i g i ble th a t a n i nq u i rer S houl d be a ngry w i t h

tho s e of w hom he k no w s beforeh a n d t h a t t hey w i ll rej e ct
th e help he i s a t l a s t a bl e t o o ffer t hem a n d c on t i n u e t o ,

grope i n th e o l d m a ze ; t h a t he s ho u l d d e s p i s e the i r
pers i s ten c e as s t i ff ne ck e d ob s t i n acy ; th a t a pre vi o u s ly
-

ex i s t i ng a n tagon i s m s ho ul d be enh a n ce d a n d ca rri e d t o

th e he i gh t i n d i ca t e d by t h e d efin i t i on of t h e s o ph i s t w h i ch
i s p i e ce d t oge t her a t t h e c lo s e of t h i s d i a logue .

“ ”
4
. The fr u i t s prom i s e d i n t h e Soph i s t a re g a there d
“ ”
i n th e S t a te s m a n . A re v u l s i on from t h e a b s t ra ct to
t h e c on c re t e a c le a r i n s i gh t i n t o t h e c ompl i c a t i on of
,

re a l i ty a con s equ en t repu d i a ti on of prem a ture genera l i z a

,

t i on s a n d h a lf or i mperfe ct t r u t h s — s u c h a re s ome o f th e
c h a r ac t er i s t i c fe a t u re s of t h i s w ork W i t h the s e s i gn s of
.

fu ll m a t ur i ty i s a s s oc i a t e d a n i n c re a s e d prol i x i ty s ym p
t o m at ic of a dva n c i ng a g e
’
P l at o s w e a l th of i d e as i s t h e
.
 GR E E K TH I N K E RS .

sa me a s e v er b ut h i s m as t ery o v er h i s t ho u gh t s i s gr a du a lly
,

lo s i ng i n s t r i c tne s s I f a n ex a mple i s employe d by w ay

.

of i ll u s t ra t i o n an ex curs u s i s a ppen de d on t h e e s s en t i a l
,

n atu re of ex a mple s i n ge n era l ; a q u e s t i on a s t o th e t o o

m u ch or t oo l i ttle of d i s cu s s i on le a d s t o a n i n ve s t i g a t i on of
-

“ ”
t h e i d e a of me as ure The cu l t of met ho d t o o d oe s i ts
.
, ,

p a r t i n i mp a i r i ng th e u n i ty of t h e w ork a n d i ts a r t i s t i c
c h a rm a s w el l ; w h i le t h e my t h i ca l s t ory of c o s m i c beg i n

n i ngs i n c re a s e s th e fa s c i n at i o n of th e d i a log u e at t h e
expen s e of i ts c oheren c e .

The d i s cu s s i on i n w h i c h a p a rt i s t a ken by y e t a no ther

,

new c h a r a c t er — th e yo u nger So c ra t e s — s ta rts from t h e

no t i o n of s c i en c e or k no w le d ge Th i s i s d i vi d e d i n to .

t heore t i c a l a n d pr a c t i c a l Th e l att er s po k en of a l s o a s
.
,

m a n u a l a r t h a s t o d o only w i t h th e pro d uc t i on o f m at er i a l
,

O bj e ct s ; s o t h a t t o o u r s urpr i s e t h e k i n gly a r t i s s o u gh t
, ,

fo r w i t h i n t h e fir s t c a t egory B y s u cc e s s i v e di v i s i on s t h e
.

a rt of t h e her d s m a n i s re a che d a n d i t i s v ery rem a r k a ble

t o s e e h o w i n h i s d e s i re n o t t o be m i s le d by j u d gmen t s o f
,

va l u e a n d i n h i s obe d i en c e t o h i s n e w a n d S e v erely s ci en t i fi c
,

me t ho d P l ato a b s t a i n s fr o m d efin i ng m an by s pec i fi c a lly

,

p sych i c a t t ri b u t e s s u ch a s h i s re a s on or h i s w ors h i p of th e
.

go ds an d prefers t o d i s t i n g u i s h h i m s tep by s tep fro m

,

a l l o t her a n i m a l s by p u rely e x t ern a l m a r ks s uch a s h i s ,

p o s s e s s i on of t w o fe e t a n d h i s l a ck of horn s or w i ng s .

Ag a i n s t t h e i d en t i fi c a t i o n d u e a s i t w o u l d a ppe a r t o
,

An t i s t h e ne s of th e k i n g w i t h t h e herd s m a n i t i s urge d t h a t
, ,

t h e c a re of t h e l a tter fo r t h e members of h i s fl o ck ex t en ds
t hro u gh t he i r w hole l i fe a n d i n c l u d e s t he i r n u t ri t i o n ,

w here a s a k i ng s w ork l i e s i n a n a rro w er s phere

’
It i s at .

t h i s po i n t t h a t P l a t o i n t er ca l a t e s t h e s t r a nge my t h a lre a d y
a ll u d e d t o ,
i n w h i c h t h e follo w i ng t ho u gh t s a r e g i v e n
c o n c re t e expre s s i on : M en a r e n o lo n ger a s i n t h e beg i n ,

n i ng u n d er t h e i mme d i a t e g u a rd i a n s h i p of t h e De i ty I n
,
.

a l t ern a t i n g per i o d s t h e l a tt er mo v e s t h e u n i v er s e a n d t hen

a g a i n l e a v e s i t t o i t s o w n mo t i on The h u m a n ra ce a l s o
.

t h e t h o ugh t i s wo r k e d o u t i n a fa n c i fu l a n d e v en fa n t a s t i c
m a n n er — h a s b e co m e i n d epen d en t l i k e i t s d w ell i n g pl ac e -
.

A t a t i me w hen for l a c k o f d i v i n e gu id a n c e i t w a s o n t h e
, ,
 GRE E K TH I N K E RS .

mo s t d i ver s e a r e bro u gh t to ge t her un d er t h e un i ty of a

c ommon purpo s e : t h u s c lo t he s mo s t s orts of a rm s a n d
, ,

a gai n c i ty w a ll s t o ge t her form t h e c l a s s of pro t e ct i v e

,
’
i n s t ru men t s Ne a rer t o t h e s t a t es m a n s a rt b ut s ti ll only
.
,

rel a t e d t o i t a s s u bor d i n a t e pro ce s s e s come th e a rt of t h e

,

genera l a n d th e s ome w h at i ron i c a lly h a n d le d s ervi c e s of th e

s oo t h s a yer a n d th e pr i e s t There follow s a d i s cu s s i on on
.

t h e form s of t h e S t a t e of w h i ch t hree a r e men t i o n e d : t h e

,

rule of one th e rule of fe w a n d t h e r u le of m any or

, , ,

d emo c r a cy . The econom i c s t a n d po i n t w h i ch pl aye d s o ,

gre a t a p a r t i n th e c orres pon di n g p a rt of th e Rep u bl i c i s ,

n o w a b a n d one d a n d d e c l a re d i n a d eq u a t e The momen t ou s .

q u e s t i on i s n o t w he t her r i ch or poor men b ut w he ther wi s e ,

or i gnor a n t a r e to rule th e S t a t e Th at know le d ge ca n ever

,
.

b e i mp a r t e d t o a ny c on s i d erable number i s ro u n d ly d en i e d , .

I n no Gree k c i t y ar e t here t o be foun d a s m a n y a s fift y goo d

pl ayers a t d ra ugh t s l e t a lon e s o m a ny goo d s t a te s men
, .

Nor i s i t a d i s t i n ct i on of gre a t i mport a n c e t h a t d epen d s on

w he t her rule i s exerc i s e d w i t h t h e fre e c on s en t of t h e r u le d
or a g a i n s t t he i r w i ll The on e d e ci s i ve s t a n da r d i s t h a t of
.

k no w le d ge or w i s d om w i t h w h i ch th e goo d w i ll i s r e p re
,
”
s en t e d a s i n s ep a r a bly un i t e d j u s t a s i n t h e
, Republ i c th e
figure of th e ph i lo s opher i s fi n a lly fu s e d i n t o one w i t h th a t
of th e j u s t m a n .

There n o w follo ws th e i n ve s t i g a t i on wh i ch form s th e

k ern el of t h e d i a logue n a mely a t re a t men t of th e ques t i on
, ,

w he ther l a w s a r e ne ce s s a ry an d s a lu ta ry
'

At firs t i t i s .

d en i e d t h at t hey a r e S o I t i s urge d as a repro a c h a g a i n s t

.

l aw s t h a t t hey c an no t do j u s t i c e t o th e d i v ers i ty of S i t u a t i on s
a n d c as e s . I t i s i mpo s s i ble t h a t w h a t i s perfe ct ly s i mple
”
c a n be a da p t e d t o t h a t w h i c h i s ne v er s i mple I m a g i ne a .

phys i ci a n s e tti ng o ut on a j o u rn ey a n d le av i ng h i s p a t i en t
w ri tt en d i re ct i on s t o c o v er t h e per i o d of h i s pr o je ct e d
a b s en c e i f he re t urn s e a rl i er t h a n he expect e d a n d fin d s ,

a c h a nge i n th e w e a t her or o t her c i r cum s t a n c e s a ffe ct

i n g he a l t h— w h a t a fool he w o u l d be i f he w ere t o t h i n k
h i m s elf boun d by h i s former pres cr i p ti on s i n s t e a d of ,

t ak i ng th e a l t ere d S i t u at i on i n t o a c co u n t ! B ut t o be s ure , ,

“
when perfe ct w i s dom i s a b s en t t hen l aw s w h i c h a re
, th e
,
 P L A TO RE VI S E S H IS P OLI TI CA L I DE AS . 1 83

fr u i t of long exper i en ce a n d t h e w or k of e s t i m a ble

”
c o u n s ellor s ,
pre s en t t hem s el ve s t ho ugh s ti ll only a s a ,

S e co n d be s t e t n cc ep t a ble s ub s ti t u t e They a re
y, a s a a .

ru le s w h i ch reno u n c e a l l finely gr a de d i n d i vi dua l t re a tmen t ,

of p a r ti c u l a r c a s e s an d re s emble t ho s e m a x i m s w h i ch a re
,

g i ven pr i ze figh t ers by t ra i ners a nd w h i ch pre s cr i be i n , ,

bro a d ou t l i ne s a mo d e of l i fe a da pt e d t o th e m ajori ty o f
,

pers on s a n d t o a v era ge c i rcum s tan c e s P l a t o s pe ak s here .

”
of a s e con d j o u rney of a n e w que s t for th e perfe ct S ta te
,
.

I t i s a jo u rney t h a t w i ll t a k e h i m from th e ph i lo s oph i c

a b s olu t i s m of t h e Republ i c i n w h i ch n o th i n g i s fi xe d by
,
”
ru le to th e leg i s l a ti on o f t h e L aw s i n w h i ch every t h i ng
, ,

i s fixe d by ru le The S ta te s m a n i s a h a lf w ay ho u s e on
.
-

t h e ro a d . O r perh a p s w e s ho u l d s ay t h at th e m i n d of t h e
a u t hor h a s a lre a d y re a che d t h e n e w h a v en w h i le h i s he a r t ,

s t i ll c l i n g s t o t h e o l d s hore The my t h t a u gh t u s t h at w e
.

n o l o nger l i v e i n t h e gol d en a g e t h a t w e m u s t reno u n c e ,

t h e hope of perfe c t i on P l a t o w e s e e i s i n th e e a rly s t a ge s

.
, ,

of pe s s i m i s m b ut h i s progre s s i n renu n ci at i on i s a s y e t fa r
”
s hort of w h at i t w i ll be i n t h e L aw s H i s he a rt i s full o f .

b i tterne s s ; a n d t hrough t h e m i ds t of th e a pp a ren t c a lm

a n d O bje ct i vi ty of h i s expo s i t i on t here bre a k fort h from

t i me to t i me no t e s of d eep feel i ng i n v e ct i ve s a g a i n s t t h e ,

“ ” ” “
c horu s of s a t yrs a n d c e n ta ur s th e j u gglers , t h e mo s t ,
”
s oph i s t i c a mong t h e S oph i s ts H i s emb i tt ermen t h o w
.
,

ever i s no longer d i re ct e d firs t an d foremo s t a g a i n s t

,

d emo c r acy for w h i c h h i s feel i ng i s n o w one of c on temp t

,

ra ther th a n h a t re d H e reg a r d s i t as t h e mo s t i ne ff e ct i v e
.
,

a n d t herefore t h e w or s t of t h e t hree form s of go vern men t

,

i
f t he s e a re a ll e x erci s e d a ccor di ng t o l a w i n t h e c on t ra ry
ca s e ,
i ts w e a k ne s s m a ke s i t t h e be s t be c a u s e t h e le a s t
i nj u r i ou s
. O f mon a rchy th e ex act oppos i t e hol ds on e a c h
,

s u ppo s i t i on w h i le t h e i n t erme d i a t e form a r i s t o c r a cy , ,

occu p i e s a m i dd le po s i t i on bo th for goo d a n d for e vi l .

Th i s rev i s e d e s t i m a t e of d em oc r a cy h a s a m an i fe s t co n
n e x i o n w i th t h e d e ca d en c e a n d en feeblemen t of P l at o s o w n
’

d emoc r a t i c fa t herl an d— t h a t At hen s w h i ch t h e eloq u en c e ,

of a Demo s thene s ca nno t ga l va n i ze i n t o more th a n a n

occ a s i on a l fit of pol i t i ca l acti vi t y th at on c e prou d m i s t re s s
,
 I 84 G RE E K TH I N K E RS .

of th e e a s w h i ch h as been t r a n s forme d (t o u s e th e phr a s e o f

s
“
t h e or a t or De m a d e s ) i n t o a gru el s i pp i ng o l d w om a n t h at
-

” ’
c reep s a bo u t i n S l i pper s P l a t o s mo s t v i olen t i n ve ct i v e s
.

n o w a ppe a r t o be d i re c t e d a g a i n s t o t her s t a t e s a n d o t her

s t a t e s men The t ho ugh t n a tu ra lly o cc u rs t h a t i t i s by th e

.

e ven ts i n S i ci ly t h a t h i s k e ene s t i n t ere s t a n d h i s b i t t ere s t

a n t i p a t hy a re n o w a rou s e d ( cf p . .

The di a logue doe s n o t c lo s e w i thou t recor di ng a nota ble

p i ec e of s elf c orrect i on The s u bj e c t t o w h i ch i t rel a t e s i s
-
.

no th i ng le s s t h a n t h e So cra ti c d o c t ri ne of t h e u n i ty o f
v i rt ue t o w h i ch P l a t o s o long rem a i ne d fa i thful The .

o cca s i on for th i s c orre ct i on i s pl a nne d w i th s ome c a re .

O ne of th e ch i ef t a s ks i n c u mben t on th e go vernor of a
s t a t e i s m a i n t a i ne d t o be t h a t of j o i n i ng t oge t her d i s s i m i l a r

n a t ure s i n m a rr i a ge a n d s o provi d i ng for t h e s moo th i ng

,

d ow n of oppo s e d ex t reme s of t emper a men t W i th t h i s .

c o u n s el he j o i n s a s t a t emen t w h i c h he d e s i gn at e s a s
“ ” “ ” “
s t ra nge ,
a s t on i s h i ng a n d as a v en t u re
,
w i th i n
v i rt ue i ts elf he s a y s t here i s a k i n d of d i s t i n c t i on or r a t her
, , ,

a s h a rp c on t r a s t — t h a t be tw een s elf m as t ery ( a wr

pp o a fivn
)-

a n d c o u r a ge Th i s moreo ver i s only a p a r ti c ul a r c a s e of

.
, ,

a more gener a l a n t i the s i s w h i c h i s a l s o fo u n d i n th e phy s i c a l

,

w orl d i n k no w le d ge a n d i n mu s i c
, ,
I n a l l t he s e s phere s
.
,

a cu t ene s s v ehemen c e a n d qu i ckn e s s on t h e one h a n d a re

, , ,

opp os e d to gen t lene s s s te a di ne s s an d s low ne s s on th e o ther

, , .

O ne s i d e d ex a gger a t i on of t h e firs t n a me d qu a l i ti e s le a ds
- -

t o v i olen ce e v en t o m a d ne s s ; of th e s e con d t o S l a ck ne s s
, ,

P l a t o s d re a d o f w h a t m ay b e t erme d th e
’
a n d co w a r di ce .

i n b ree d i ng of th e t empera men t s

- i s not e w ort hy enough
more no t e w or thy s ti ll i s th e H era c l i t e an bre a d th of vi s i on ,

as we m a y ca ll i t w i t h w h i ch he t r ac e s t h e a n t i t he s i s
,

t hro u gho u t t h e tw ofol d re a lm of n a t u re a n d m i n d a n d ,

i n s i s ts on t h e ne c e s s i ty for t h e c oex i s t en c e a n d re c o n cil i

a t i on of t h e opp o s e d q u a l i ti e s Wh at i s mo s t no te w orthy
.

of a l l how e ver i s h i s bre ach w i th So crat i c i n t elle c tu a l i s m

, ,

a bre a c h w h i c h h a s oft e n been fo r e s h a do w e d w h i ch h a s ne ver ,

been ca rri e d t o i ts u l ti m at e con s equence s b ut w h i ch i n t h e , ,

pre s en t p a s s a ge re ac he s a gre a t er d ep t h t h a n e ver before or

,

a ft erw a r d s The s elf corre ct i on a ppe a rs i n t h e gu i s e of a n

.
-
 GRE E K TH I N KE RS .

C H AP T E R X V I I I .

’
P L ATO S P H I LEB U S .

1 . TH E Ph i l e b us is
lo s ely rel at e d t o th e S oph i s t a n d
c
”
th e S t at es m a n .We h av e e v i d en c e of t h i s firs t of a l l i n
a l i t t le pe c ul i a r i ty of s tyle w h i ch o cc urs s p a r i ngly i n th e
,
’
genera l r un of P l a t o s w orks more frequen tly i n t h e ,
”
Theae t e t u s b ut w i t h gre a t profu s i on i n e ach of th e three
,

d i a logue s n a me d I refer t o s u c h tu rn s a s :
. We a re n o w
” ”
m e t b y t h i s a rg u men t Wh i ch ? . The follow i ng
” “ ”
d i fferen c e re s u l ts Wh i ch d o you me a n ?
. The d i a
logue form h as be come a mere ex t ern a l mech a n i s m t h e ,

a i d of w h i c h m i gh t e a s i ly be di s pen s e d w i th Th e long .

“ “
d i d acti c exerci t a t i on s of th e T i m ae us a n d th e L aw s
a r e n o w i n pro s pe c t The pers on al i ty of t h e i n t erlo cu tors
.

i s a cc or d i ngly a lmo s t d e s t i t u t e of pronoun ce d i n d i vi d u a l

fe a t u re s I t i s a s i gn i fi ca n t fa ct i n t h i s c onnex i on t h a t
.

Ph i l e b u s wh o ple a d s t h e ca u s e of H e d on i s m or t h e t heory
,

of ple a s ure i s repres en te d e a rly i n t h e d i a logue a s be i ng

,

t i re d for w h i ch re a s on he re t i re s i n t o th e b a ck groun d t o
,

m a k e w ay for th e colourle s s P ro t a rch u s To h av e a s s i gne d .

h i m a more a cti ve p a rt i n th e d i a logue w oul d h av e been t o

i mpre s s upo n i t t h e ch a r ac t er of a re a l c onfl i ct of O p i n i on ,

for w h i ch th e a u thor l a ck e d th e i n cl i n a t i on perh a p s s t i ll

more t h a n th e s t rengt h H e therefore ca u s e s So cr a tes to
.

d el i ver w h at i s pr ac ti c a lly a monologue w h i le P r o ta rch us , ,

“ ”
l i k e th e younger So c ra t e s i n th e S t a t e s m a n merely ,

pre s s e s h i m t o c on ti n u e a n d a s k s for expl a n at i on s

,
.

B ut i t i s n o t merely i n po i n t of form t h at th e Ph i l e b us
a pprox i m a t e s t o t ho s e o t her tw o d i a log u e s Tho s e o ld .
 P LE AS ORE VE RS US WI S D O M . I 87

diffi c ul t i e s h i ng t o th e problem of pre di ca t i on t h e

a t ta c ,

“ ”
s ol ut i on of w h i ch h a d been fo u n d i n t h e Soph i s t a re ,

n o w reg a r d e d as d one wi th t hey e v en s po k en of a s

; a re
“ ”
ch i l d i s h exh i b i ti on s a n d h i n d r a n ce s t o i nq u i ry H ere .
,

t o o a s t here t h e s elf ex i s t en t i d e a s a re n o t
, ,
-
i n d ee d , ,
’
a b a n d one d b u t c on s i gne d t o t h e b a ck groun d
, P l a t o s s en s e .

”
of re a l i ty i s as s t rong i n th e Ph i l e b us a s i n th e o t her
t wo d i a logue s an d h i s c h i ef i n s t r u men t for t h e ac qu i s i t i on

of t r ut h i s a ga i n c l a s s i ficat o ry d i a le cti c—a m et ho d w h i ch ,

“ ”
a fter t h e pre c e d en t of t h e S t a t e s m a n a b a n don s th e ex ,
”
e l us i v e u s e of d i c ho t omy pra c t i s e d i n th e Soph i s t w h i ch ,

“
g ua rds a g a i n s t th e o verle a p i ng of me d i a t e no t i on s
( m m ) d
’
w hereby w e a re rem i n d e d of B a c on s ax i o a ta e d i a a n ,

w h i ch i s ex t olle d i n u n a mb i g u o u s l a n gu a ge a s t h e b a s i s of
al l s c i en t i fi c d i s cov ery S uch i n t ru t h i t w as for P l at o a s
.
, , ,

well a s for A ri s t o t le For th e i n s i gh t of t he s e t h i n k ers

.

i nt o ca u s e s wa s fa r i n t h e re a r of t he i r hol d u pon th e
ord ere d c oex i s t en c e s of t h i ngs The c h i ef s chool i n w h i c h
.

th e k no w le d ge of c a u s e s i s g a i ne d phy s i ca l i n ve s t i g a t i on , ,

w as c lo s e d t o them No t only w a s th e a r t of exper i men ta

.

t i on b ut l i t t le d e v elope d a s y e t w h a t t here w a s of i t P l a t o
,

i n p a rt i cu l a r d e s p i s e d a s a me ch a n i ca l c r a ft w h i le bo th ,

th i n k ers w ere p a rt e d by w i d e re a c h i ng d i fferen c e s of op i n i on

-

from th e foremo s t phys i ci s t s of th e d ay th e a tom i s ts I n , .

“ ”
th e Ph i l e b u s ,a s i s w ell w or t h rem a r k i ng t h e w or k of ,

c l a s s i fi ca t i on i s s uppor t e d by w h a t a lone ca n m a k e i t fru i t ful

a n d t ruly v a l u a ble — b y a bun da n t a n d a c u t e ob s er va ti on .

Nor i s t h e Ph i l e b us w i tho u t i ts prel i m i n a ry d i a le ct i ca l

“ ” “
exerci s e The pl a ce of th e a ngler a n d t h e
. a rt of

w e a vi ng (c f pp 1 6 8 a n d 1 8 1 ) i s t a k en by t h e elemen t s of
. .

phone ti cs ; th e di ff eren t s pee ch s o u n d s a re di vi d e d i n to -

s pe ci e s ,
n a mely m ut e s s on a n ts a n d fri cat ives The re a l
, , , .

s ubje ct i s t h e n a t u re of t h e goo d or r a t her of t h a t w h i ch , ,

“ ”
i n a l ater a g e w as t erme d t h e
,
h i ghes t goo d The .

m a nner of s t ati ng th e q u e s t i on m a y w ell s urpr i s e u s A s .

“ ”
th e t w o c ompe t i t ors for t h e h i ghe s t pr i ze ple as ure a n d ,
“
k no w le dge a re i n t ro d uce d j u s t a s i n a p a s s age of th e
,
”
Rep u bl i c . I t i s an ob vi o u s obj e ct i on t h a t k now le dge ,

a p a r t from a ll i t s s u b s i d i a ry s er v i ce s t o t h e c a u s e of ple a s u re ,
I 88 GR E E K TH I N K E RS .

i s i t s elf a s o u rc e o f ple a s u re (a s no one k new be tter th a n

P l a t o h i m s elf) a n d c a nn o t t herefo re b e r i gh t ly o ppo s e d t o
,

pleas ure i n genera l B u t th e i d en t i fi c ati on of k now le d ge

.

w i th th e goo d w as a d o ct r i ne t h a t h a d been a ct u a lly t a ugh t

by th e S o c r a t i c E u c l i d e s w h o w a s follow e d i n th i s by t h e
,

Cyn i cs a n d P l ato w e aken s th e e ffec t of th e fa l s e a n ti the s i s

a t a n e a rly s ta ge by propo s i ng a c omprom i s e s u c h a s fi t t e d

i n w i th th e i n c l i n a t i o n s of h i s a d va n ci ng ye a rs Ne i ther .

ple a s u re nor k now le dge s o he s u gge s ts c a n a lone pro cure

, ,

“ ”
h a pp i ne s s ; t h i s i s a l w a y s th e fru i t of a m i x t u re H ere .
,

a t t h e v ery ou t s e t of t h e d i s c u s s i on w e no t e t h e pe c u l i a r i ty
,

of th e m e tho d w h i ch i s th e s a me a s t h at a dop t e d i n th e
,

s e c on d boo k of t h e
“
Republ i c (c f p 6 2 )— th e e x p e ri
”
. .

men ta l me t ho d o r me tho d of d i fferen c e

, I n t ho u ght
.

P l a t o s t ri p s from t h e l i fe of ple a s ure e v ery a d m i x t u re o f

i n t ell i gen ce from t h e l i fe of i n t ell i gen ce e v ery a d m i x t u re
,

of ple a s ure a n d t hen comp a re s t h e tw o l i ve s i n t hem s el ve s

, .

The i n s u ffi c i en cy of t h e mere l i fe of ple a s ure i s pro ve d by

th e a rgumen t t h a t w i t h t h e lo s s of memory a n d e x pe c
t a t i o n tw o i mport a n t s ource s of ple a s ure a r e d r i e d up .

A g a i n a be i ng of th e k i n d c on s i d ere d w oul d by re a s on
, ,

o f i ts d efi ci en t c on s ci ou s ne s s of s elf be i n ca p able of a ny
,

o t her ple as ure s t h a n tho s e s u ch as oy s t ers a n d o ther s i m i l a r

s e a cre a t ure s
-
enjoy The o t her a l t ern at i ve th e p u rely
.
,

i n t elle ct u a l l i fe t ou c he d by no bre a t h of ple as u re or p a i n

, ,

i s d e s i gn at e d perh ap s w i t h referen c e t o t h e Cyn i c i de a l a s

, ,

a p a t hy ; i t i s no t s u bj e ct e d t o a ny profoun d a n a ly s i s b u t ,

s i mply rej e c t e d as un s u i t e d t o m a n .

The ne c e s s i ty for m i x t u re h a vi ng been a d m i tt e d a ,

que s t i on a ri s es as t o th e propor t i on a l va lue of th e t wo

i ngre d i en t s . The a n s w er i s n o t foun d on t h e s urfac e The .

i n v e s t i g a t i on s t r i k e s b ack t o t h e firs t pri n ci ple s of th i ng s ,

a n d a t th e ou t s e t d i s co ver s tw o of t hem — t h e U nl i m i t e d

a n d th e L i m i t .I n t h i s P l at o i s e vi d en t ly i nfluen c e d by th e
P y th a gore a n s a n d a t th e s a me t i m e by P h i lol a u s a co n
, ,

t empor a ry (prob a bly a yo u n ger c on t empor a ry ) of So cr at e s .

Wh at ever po s s e s s e s d egree s of i n t en s i ty i s referre d to th e

U nl i m i t e d— o b vi ou s ly be ca u s e the s e d egree s c on s ti t u t e a
con t i nuum w h i ch i s c a p a ble of i nfin i t e di vi s i on All m e a s ure .
 GRE E K TH I N K E R S .

t h i rd po s s i b i l i ty Th i s l as t i s i den t i fie d w i t h t h e p u rely
.

i n t elle ct u a l l i fe w h i c h m a y v ery w ell be t h a t of t h e go d s

, ,

a n d w h i ch a mong men
, m u s t h a v e a t le a s t th e s e con d
,

pri ze a w a rd e d t o i t There follow s ome s u b t le p s ycho

.

log i ca l re a s o n i ng s The ple a s u re w h i ch i s of th e s oul a lone

.

i s c on d i t i one d by memory B ut t h e obj e c t of memory

.

c a nno t be t ho s e i m pre s s i on s w h i ch a ff e ct only t h e bo dy ,

w h i c h fa d e aw a y before t hey re ac h t h e s o u l Th a t obj e ct .

m u s t r at her be s uppl i e d by t ho s e vi bra ti on s w h i ch q u i ve r

t hrough bo th bo d y a n d s o u l a n d w h i c h a r e n a me d by u s
,
“ ”
s en s at i on s . The s e a re s t ore d up i n th e memory ; a s
re c olle ct i on s t hey a re th e s o u rce of a purely p s y ch i c ple as u re
,

w h i c h P l a t o s t r i ct ly di s t i ngu i s he s from t h e ple as ure re s t i ng

on d e s i re s I t i s t ru e t h at a p u rely p s ych i c elemen t en t ers
.

i n t o d e s i re n a mely t h e expe ct a t i on b a s e d on memory

, , , ,

rel a t i v e t o w h a t i s d e s i re d W i t h t h i s i s c o u ple d ple a s ure

.

or p a i n a cc or di ng a s th e fu lfilmen t of d e s i re w a s hope d
,

for or d o u b t e d b ut i n a ddi ti on t here i s a l w ays an elemen t

, ,

of p a i n i n d e s i re c orre s pon d i ng t o t h e phy s i ca l pri va t i on

, .

A t t h i s po i n t th e que s ti on a ri s e s w he ther t here a re

“
t rue a nd fa l s e ple a s ure s a n d p a i n s The problem .

i s e vi d en t ly one w h i c h h a d a lre a dy been mu c h d eb a t e d .

Th i s a ppe a rs n o t only from t h e q u i ck ne s s a n d c er ta i n ty

w i t h w h i c h a n s w er follow s upon q u e s t i on b ut a l s o from ,

th e c i r cum s t an c e t h at th e you thfu l P ro t arch us a ppe a l s t o

“ ”
w h at he h as he a rd on t h e s u bj ect The i n a ppl i ca b i l i ty
.

“ ” “
of th e pre di c a t e s t rue a n d fa l s e i s firs t of a l l prove d
by ex c ellen t a rg u men t s w h i ch w e m ay w ell a s s ume ori g i
,

n a t e d i n he d o n i s t i c c i rcle s I t i s n o t t o th e emo ti on s
.

t hem s el v e s t h at t ho s e pre di ca t e s s ho u l d be a ppl i e d b ut ,

t o th e no t i on s or op i n i on s w h i ch g i v e r i s e t o t h e emo t i on s
or a re a ccomp a n i e d by t hem O n t h i s po i n t t h e s c i en ti fi c
.

t h i n k er i n P l a t o i s a t fe u d w i t h t h e mor a l en t hu s i as t ,

an d i s in th e e n d o v er c ome by h i m The d i s t i n ct i on
.

u n d er c on s i d er a t i on i s m a i n t a i ne d n o t w i t hou t s ome
,

v i olen c e i n t h e t ee th of t h e obj e c t i on s u rge d a g a i n s t i t ;

,

“ ”
as fal s e ple as u re s a re nom i n at e d t hos e experi en c e d i n
d re a m s a s w ell a s t h a t enh a n c emen t of ple a s u re w h i ch i s
,

c on d i t i on e d by a pre vi o u s p a i n of s ome m a gn i t u d e We .
 “
TH E E NE M I E S O F P H I L E B US ”
CRI TI CI Z E D . 1 9 1

nee d n o t d w ell on t h i s fa ll a cy th e s ourc e of w h i ch i s a

,

t en d en cy of P l a t o n o t no t i c e a ble here only t o a t t emp t th e

, ,

w i t h d ra w a l of e t h i ca l a n d ae s t he t i c va l u a t i on s from th e
s phere of s ubj e ct i v e feel i ng a n d t he i r e s t a bl i s hmen t on
,

t h e b as i s of s u ppo s e d obje ct i v e c r i t er i a J u s t a s l i ttle nee d

.

w e t ro u ble o u rs el ve s a bou t th e c onfus i on a lre a dy no t e d ,

” “
i n th e Gorg i as be tw een t h e goo d i n th e e th i c a l s en s e
, ,
“
a n d th e goo d i n t h e s en s e of a goo d t h i ng or a
va lu a ble po s s e s s i on We th i n k i t prefera ble t o d ra w i n t o
.

prom i nen ce th e mo s t i mport a n t o f th e pene t ra ti ng o b s e r

v a t i o n s a n d w ell foun d e d d i s t i n ct i on s w h i c h a re s uppl i e d
-

’
i n profus i on . There i s h a r d ly a ny o t her p a r t of P l a t o s
w or ks i n w h i c h th e gen u i n ely s ci en t i fi c s p i r i t s ho w s i ts elf
“ ”
s o a ct i v e a n d fru i t ful a s i n t h e Ph i l e b u s The m a n i .

p u l a t o r of c on c ep ts i s here s u ppor t e d by t h e p s y c ho
l o g i s t ; h i s n i mble a n d s u pple d i a le ct i c i s n o w exer ci s e d
u p o n a w e a l t h of t h e m a t er i a l w h i c h exper i en c e s u ppl i e s .

Th i s d eeply e a rne s t en d e av o u r a ft er u nprej u d i ce d obj e ct i vi ty

s ho ws i t s elf a mo n g i t s o t her m a n i fe s t a t i on s by t h e w a y i n
, ,

w h i ch P l a t o t u rn s th e s h a ft s of h i s polem i c a g a i n s t c er t a i n
“ ”
enem i e s of Ph i l e b u s t h at i s opponen ts of H e d on i s m
, , .

The s e t h i n ker s for w hom he ob v i ou s ly h as c on s i d era ble

,

s ymp a t hy ye t s eem t o h i m t o h a v e o v er s ho t th e m a r k by
,

d eny i ng ple a s ure a l t oge t her a n d a s s ert i ng t h a t w h a t p a s s e s

,

for s u ch i s a mere neg a t i v e free dom from p a i n We h a ve

, .

n o me a n s of i den t i fyi ng th e men here referre d t o a n d

“
d e sc r i be d as th e repre s en t a t i v e s o f a n o t i gnoble fas t i
”
d i o u sn e s s , a n d a s h i ghly s u cc e s s ful s t u d en t s of n at ure .

B ut t hey c an h a r d ly h a v e been o t her t h a n Pyt h a gore a n s

pers on a lly k no w n t o P l ato an d our t ho ugh t s n at ura lly t urn
,

firs t t o A rchy t as .

. 2 We p a s s on to th e m a i n res ul t s of th e i n ve s ti g a t i on .

W i th gre a t vi vi dne s s of d e ta i l a n d w i th w h a t w e m ay c a ll
,

terr i ble t ru thfulne s s t o l i fe a d e s c r i p t i on i s g i ven w h i ch i s

, ,

a t t h e s a me t i me a c on d emn a t i on of ex ce s s i n th e mo s t
,

v i olen t ple a s u re s or t ho s e w h i c h a r i s e o u t of t h e s t ronge s t

,

i n s t i n cts
. P l at o expre s s ly gu a r d s here a g a i n s t t h e s uppo
s i t i o n t h a t t he s e s t r i ct ure s a r e i n t en d e d for Ph il e b u s — t h a t

i s th e H e don i s ts repre s en t e d by h i m
, An d i n d ee d they
.
, ,
I 9 2 GRE E K TH I N K E R S .

“
st o o d i n n o nee d of s uch i n s t ruc t i on The ex cep t i on a lly .

”
a u s t ere E u d ox u s a n d t h e ple a s u re lovi ng A r i s t i pp u s w ere
-

ne i ther of t hem i n cl i n e d t o co m men d t h a t bl i n d fu ry of

d e s i re w h i c h P l a t o p a i n t s i n s u ch rep u l s i v e c olo u rs or t o ,

ex tol th e s w a y w h i ch s en s u a l p a s s i on exert s o ver th e m i n d

a n d s oul of men The a dheren ts of the s e t h i n k ers coul d
.

not po s s i bly as s i gn a ny v ery ex a l te d ra n k t o a n i m a l

ple a s u re s e ven i f they s i mply me a s u re d t hem by t h e
,

r a t i on a l s t a n da r ds of i n t en s i ty d u ra t i on a n d free dom from

, ,

a d m i x t ure or p u r i t y ho w e v er l i tt le t hey m a h a v e c a re d t o
, y
help P l a t o s moo th th e w ay for a s c e ti ci s m by one s i d e d -

d el i ne a t i on s of th e a bnorm a l i t i e s here i n q u e s t i on .

A m i x t ure of ple a s ure a n d p a i n i s a l s o re c ogn i ze d i n t h e

p u rely p s y ch i c s phere i n th e emo ti on s of a nger ye a rn i ng , ,

p i ty a n d s o fort h Atten ti on i s d r aw n t o re v enge w h i ch

, .
, ,

“ ”
a ccor d i ng t o Homer i s s w ee t er t h a n honey
,
a n d a l s o to ,
“ ”
t h at t e a rfu l joy w h i c h t r a ge dy a ffor d s E v en c ome dy .

i ts elf i s s a i d t o be n o t free from s u ch m i x t ure ; for th e

fau l ts a n d th e w e ak ne s s es a t w h i ch w e l a ugh s om et i me s a t ,

t h e expen s e of fr i en ds a re n o t per ce i v e d a l t oge ther w i t ho ut

,

“
p a i n L as tly i n th e t he a t re of re a l i t y i ts elf th e t ra ge dy
.
, ,
”
an d t h e c ome dy of l i fe t he s e m i xe d feel i n g s h a v e
,

y e t a no t her s ourc e Thes e m i xe d pro d u cts a re c on t ra s t e d

.

w i t h t h e p u re an d un m i xe d ple as ures ; before a l l t h e ,

elemen t a ry a s th e ti c feel i ngs w h i ch a r e here for th e firs t

t i me bro u gh t t o l i gh t I t i s n o t p a r ti a l a n d rel at i ve
.

be a u ty b u t l a s t i ng c omple t e a n d i n t ri n s i c be a u ty t h at
, , , ,

a t t a che s t o c ert a i n l i ne s a n d form s t o c ert a i n c olo u r s a n d ,

t one s l as t ly e v en t o o d ours w h i c h t ho u gh s t a n d i ng t o
, , ,

s ome ex t en t on a lo w er le v el a re y e t r a nge d ,
i n t h i s

c a t egory be ca u s e of t he i r a b s olu t e free d om from p a i n .

There follo w tho s e ple as u rable feel i ngs w h i ch a ccomp a ny

s c i en t i fi c k no w le d ge I t i s n o t w i t ho u t a c ert a i n bol d ne s s
.

c h a lleng i n g c on t r a d i ct i on t h a t t h e a b s olu t e pur i t y or free

do m from p a i n o f t he s e ple a s ure s i s as s ert e d P l at o s eem s .

t o forge t t h e d i ffi cul ti e s of le a rn i ng a n d t h a t hunger for ,

po s i ti v e s ol ut i on s w h i c h he h as h i m s elf s o vi vi d ly d e s c ri be d
“ ”
i n th e M eno a s w ell as t h e d i s comfort pro du ce d by
,

c ro s s ex a m i n a t i on
-
H e goe s further ; he m a i n tai n s th a t
.
 1 94 GR E E K TH I N K E RS .

was a n o t her a n s wer w h i ch they m i gh t h ave g i ven n a m ely , ,

t h at t he i r t he o ry o n ly rel a t e d t o th e a ct u a l w orl d a n d
a ct u a l h u m a n n a t ure a n d t h a t i t w a s a l t oge t her i rrele v a n t
,

t o a ppe a l t o a hypo t he t i c a l perh a p s n o t e v en po s s i ble , ,

ex i s ten c e—a n ex i s t en c e w h i ch i n a n y cas e mu s t be un k n o w n

t o u s a n d u n k no w a ble s u c h a s t h a t l i fe free from hunger
'

, ,

t h i r s t an d a l l o t her nee d s
,
L a s t ly w e no t i ce on c e more
.
,

t h a t o l d c o n fu s i on be t w een goo d a n d goo d nes s w h i c h

c u lm i n a t e s i n t h e a s s er t i on t h a t for t h e H e d on i s t e v en t h e
, ,

be s t m an of a l l mu s t be reg a r d e d a s b a d w hen he i s i n
p a i n a n d ev en t h e w or s t as goo d w hen he feel s ple as ure
, .

Thes e log i ca l v i olen ce s a re i m me di at ely follo w e d by a

w av e of s t r i ct ly S ci en t i fi c re a s on i ng A ft er t h e s ev ere .

s c r u t i ny t o w h i c h ple as u re h a s j u s t bee n s u bj e ct e d w i s d om , ,

t h e m i n d a n d k no w le dge w i ll n o t be s p a re d ; here t o o i t
, , ,

i s of i mport a n ce t o s e a r ch o u t a n d c u t aw a y w h at e v er i s
ro tten o n ly w h a t i s pure s t m a y rem a i n a n d be c omp a re d
w i t h t h e p u re s t p a rt s of ple a s u re .

Th at w h i ch c ome s nex t i s no t h i ng les s t h a n t h e firs t

c le a r d efin i t i on of ex a ct s c i en c e — a s k no w le d ge b a s e d on

co u n ti n g , w e i gh i ng an d
, m e a s uri ng O ur re a d ers w i ll .

’
rem ember a c a s u a l a llu s i on t o t h i s no t i on i n P l a t o s
E u th yp h r o (cf Vol I I p . . w h i c h i s p a r a llele d by a
. .

“
p a s s a ge i n th e Rep ubl i c ; they w i ll a l s o remember t h e
c om pl a i n t of a refle ct i n g phys i ci a n t h a t me d i ci n e m us t
reno u n c e m e a s ure w e i gh t a n d number a n d b e c on t en t
, , ,

“
w i th b o di ly s en s a t i on (cf Vol I p . The t hree . . .

me a n s of ex a ct k n o w le d ge h av e a lre a dy a ppe a re d t oge ther

i n a v ers e of Sopho cle s w h o t erm s t hem th e i n v en t i on of
,

P a l a me d e s t h e gre a t hero of ci vi l i z a t i on w h i le h i s pre

, ,

d e c e s s or IE s c h yl u s h a d a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e fr i en d of m a n ,

t h e T i t a n P rome t he u s s i mply th e i n ven t i on of n umber

,
“ ”
as th e mo s t i ngen i o u s of a ll a rt i fice s Wi th ex act .

or qu a n t i ta t i ve k no w le dge t here i s con tr as t e d i n t h e ,

”
P h i l e b us t h a t emp i r i c i s m w h i c h re s t s upon
, t h e s chool
i n g of th e s en s e s —a p as s age i n w h i ch mere practi c e or
ro ut i ne i s n o l o nger t re a t e d w i t h t h e s a me c on t emp t a s
Aft er t h i s t h e pr act i ca l a rt s a r e d i v i de d
”
i n th e Gorg i a s .

fro m e ach o ther a cc o r d i ng a s t hey u s e or d o n o t u s e

 TH E TW O S O UR C E S OF H A P P I NE S S . 1 95

i n s t ru men t s of pre c i s i on s u ch a s th e r u ler th e c omp a s s t h e

, , ,

me a s u r i ng l i ne a n d s o forth
-
,
A d eeper d i s t i n ct i on one
.
,

a lre a dy fo u n d i n t h e Rep ubl ic ex i s ts a mong t h e ex a ct ,

s c i en c e s t hem s el ve s The a ri t hme ti c for ex a mple w h i ch

.
, ,

“
d e a l s w i t h u nequ a l un i t s —S a t w o he a d of ca tt le o r t w o
y , ,

a rm i e s — i s one t h i ng a n d t h a t w h i c h d e a l s w i t h u n i ts n o t
,

d i ff er i ng i n t h e s l i gh t e s t d egree i s qu i t e a no t her The , .

s a m e hol d s of geome t ry I n th i s w h o le pr o v i n c e pure or

.
,

a b s t r ac t s c i e n c e i s t hu s c on t ra s t e d w i t h t h e k no w le d ge
w h i ch rel a t e s t o t h e t h i n g s of s en s e ; t o t h e firs t i s a t t ri
b ut e d t h e h i ghe s t d egree of s t r i ct ne s s a n d a ccura cy an d ,

for th e obj ect of i t w e a re referre d t o t h e i mm ut a ble s elf ,

ex i s t en t en t i ti e s .

.
3 B efore th e d i s cu s s i on i s s u mm a r i ze d a gl a n c e i s cas t
b ackw a rd s u pon th e c o u rs e o f th e d i a logue Ph i l e b u s .
,

t h e c h a mp i on of th e H e d on i s ts h a d re co gn i ze d i n ple a s u re,

t h e a ppropr i a t e e n d of th e act i on s o f a l l l i v i ng c re at u re s ,

an d h a d t h us i d en t i fie d i t w i t h t h e goo d I t w as So c r a t e s .

wh o h a d fir s t m a i n t a i ne d t h a t t h e t w o d o n o t c o i n ci d e a n d ,

t h a t k no w le d ge w h i ch o t hers (E u c l i d e s a n d th e Cyn i cs )
,

pl ac e d i n th e forefron t h a d a gre a t er s h a re t h a n ple a s u re

,

i n th e n a tu re of t h e goo d I t h a d fu r t her been a d m i tt e d

.

t h a t ne i ther mere ple a s u re nor mere k now le dge i s s u ffic i en t

for h a pp i ne s s b ut t h a t a m i x t ure i s nec e s s a ry Th i s m i x tu re
,
.

i s n o w performe d We h av e s o t o s pe a k tw o s o u rc e s th e
.
, , ,

“ ”
one of t hem flow i ng a s i t w ere w i t h honey th e o t her ,
“
An d our t as k i s t o m i x
”
w i t h s ober a n d br a c i ng w a t er .

from t hem i n th e ri gh t proport i on s th e d r i n k w e req u i re

, , .

F i rs t of a l l t h e d i fferen t s pe ci e s of k no w le dge a r e ble n d e d

,

t oge t her t h e p u re s t a s w ell a s th e m o s t c lou d e d ; n o t

,

t ho s e only w h i c h rel a t e t o t h e u n ch a nge a ble a n d s el f

ex i s t en t b ut t ho s e t o o w h i ch h av e for t he i r obj e c t th e
, , ,

w orl d of be c om i ng an d d e c a y The ne ce s s i ty of n o t p ro
.

c e e d i n g here i n t o o e c le c t i c a fa s h i on i s i ll u s t r a t e d by a
“
forc i ble phr a s e °
O therw i s e n o t one of us w o u l d e ven
”
k now h i s w a y home I t i s o t herw i s e i n re s pe ct of
.

”
ple a s u re s ; on t he s e i n t elle ct a n d k now le d ge
, m us t
“
them s el v e s d e c i d e The i r v erd i ct i s t h a t only t h e t rue
.

”
an d p u re s pe c i e s of ple a s u re a r e a d m i s s i ble ; n o t t h o s e
I 9 6 GRE E K TH I N KE RS .

w h i ch ra i s e m a d mu t i ny i n o ur s ou l s w h i ch often i mpe d e ,

o u r gr o w t h a n d a re for t h e mo s t p a rt r u i no u s t o o u r
‘

o ffs pri ng : Th u s th e m i x t u re i s c omplet e d t o t h e s a t i s

fact i on o f th e i n t erlo cu t ors Se a rc h i s nex t m a d e for t h e
.

pri n ci ple s govern i ng t h e m i x t ure Fi rs t of a ll me a s u re a n d .

,

r i gh t proporti on a re re cogn i ze d a s th e pri n ci ple w i tho ut

w h i ch no a ppropr i at e m i x t ure c o u l d e v en be m a d e w i thou t ,

w h i ch i n dee d t here c o u l d be no re a l m i x t u re at a l l b u t a t
, , ,

bes t a c on fus e d c h a o s B ut on a ll h a n d s me a s ure a n d

.

pr o port i on a re reg a r d e d as be a u ty a n d v i rt u e a n d t h u s t h e ,

n a t u re of th e goo d of w h i c h w e a re i n s e a rch h a s e s ca pe d
i n t o t h e pro vi n ce of be a u ty W i t h th i s i s j o i ne d t ru t h
.
,

w h i c h a l s o h as gone i n t o th e m i x tu re The goo d therefore

.

i s a pprehen d e d n o t i n o n e b ut i n t hree form s n a mely a s

, , ,

be a uty t ru th a n d proport i on
, , .

The que s ti on a ri s e s on c e more w he ther ple as u re or

“
k now le d ge i s th e ne a rer a k i n t o th e be s t i n go ds a n d
” ”
men as th e goo d i s here t erme d We k now w h a t th e
, .

a n s w er w i ll be W i th a n emph as i s w h i ch rem i n d s u s of
.

“ ”
t h e mo s t emph a t i c p a s s a ge i n t h e Rep u bl i c (cf p . .

P ro t a rch u s i s i n vi t e d t o pro c l a i m fa r a n d w i d e th at ple a s ure

i s n o t th e fi rs t of po s s e s s i on s nor ye t th e s e c on d ,
The .

firs t pl a c e i s on th e c on t ra ry o ccup i e d by m e as ure

, , th e
“
s e con d by th e be a u t i fu l th e propor t i on a t e t h e c omple t e
, , ,
” “
a n d s u ffi c i en t t h e t h i r d by
,
i n t elle ct a n d k n o w le d ge
“
th e fo u r th by s c i en c e a rt s an d r i gh t op i n i on s
, ,
t h e fift h
by t ho s e s pe ci e s of ple as u re w h i ch a re free from a ll
a d m i x t u re of p a i n th a t i s pure
, , (Wi th a pprox i m a t e
.

a c c ur acy w e u n d er s t a n d by (I ) th e obj e c t s of m a t hem a t i cs

by (2 ) th e re a l i z a t i on of t hem i n th e w orl d of a ppe a ra n c e ;

by (3 ) th e i n t elle ctu a l fa cu l ti e s w h i ch a pprehen d t hem by
(4 ) t he i r a ppl i cat i on t o th e d om a i n of obj e ct i ve facts ; by
()5 t h e emo t i on a l e ffe c t s w h i c h t hey pro d u c e t hrough t h e

a gen cy of t h e elemen t a ry ae s t he t i c feel i ng s re s t i ng a s t hey , ,

d o i n a prepon d er a t i ng d egree on rel a t i on s of form ) , B ut .

i n t h e s i x t h gener a ti on as i s s a i d i n a ll u s i on t o a l i ne of
,

“ ”
O rph i c v ers e o u r s ong m ay be mu t e
,
On ce a g a i n th e
.

c o u r s e o f th e i n v e s t i g a t i on i s s u mm a r i ze d a n d an i nj u n c t i on ,

“
a dd e d t o u t le s s t ru s t i n t h e t e s t i mony of a ll c a t t le
p
 G RE E K TH I N K E RS .

“ ”
as be a uty ; i t i s t herefore e i ther i den ti ca l w i t h th i s
, ,

q u a l i ty or el s e rel a t e d t o i t a s one s pe c i e s to a no t her

s pe c i e s log i ca lly h i gher or lo w er t h a n i t s el f I n ne i t her .

c a s e i s i t a d m i s s i ble t o c o or di n a t e i t w i t h be a u t y ; a n d
-

“
ye t t h i s i s w h at P l at o d oe s w he n he s pe ak s of th e t hree
form s of th e goo d .

“
The d i a log u e a s a w hole i s n o t s o mu ch d a r k a n d
pon d ero u s — t h e c urren t j u d gmen t— a s c on t r a d i ct ory In .

t h e beg i n n i ng of i t P l a t o i s i n s p i re d by th e mo s t l i vely
z e a l t o d o fu ll j us t i c e t o t h a t t heo ry w h i ch s t a rts from
th e s t r u ggle for ple a s ure a s a pr i m i t i ve phenomenon i n
t h e hum a n a n d a n i m a l w i ll a n d u s e s i t a s a b a s i s on
,

w h i ch t o c on s t r u ct a rule of l i fe Acc or d i ngly he t a k e s

.
,
“ ”
ple a s ure i n t h e w i d e s t s en s e a n d i n s t e a d of t h i s w or d
,

w i t h i t s n a rrow i ng a n d d eb as i ng a s s oc i a ti on s he u s e s o t hers , ,

“ ” “ ”
s uc h a s j oy a n d s a t i s fa c t i on H e e ven men ti on s t h e
.

“
ple a s ure of th e mora l m a n i n h i s mora l i ty or of t h e ,

re as on able m an i n th e exerc i s e of h i s re a s on W i th th e .

s t r i ct ly s ci en t i fi c i n v e s t i g a t i on he goe s on t o c omb i ne a n

a tt a ck upon t h e l i fe of ple a s u re i n t h e v u lg a r s en s e of t h e

w or d ; he be c ome s le s s a n d le s s a ble t o k eep th e t wo

que s t i on s a p a r t O nly t ho s e ple as ure s w h i ch a r e w holly
.

w i t hou t m i x t ure a n d t h u s en t i rely remo ve d from t h e

,
’
d om a i n of nee ds fi n d favour i n P l a to s eye s ; th e n at ura l
,

i n s t i n cts on t h e o t her h a n d on w h i ch re s t s t h e c on t i n u a n c e
, ,

of t h e i n d i vi d u a l a n d of th e ra ce a re n o t merely releg a t e d
,

by h i m t o t he i r a ppropr i a t e pl ac e ; he r a t her i den ti fie s

t hem w i t h t he i r ex t reme m a n i fe s t a t i on s a n d t hu s a t l a s t ,

r i s es t o a n i n v e ct i ve w h i ch doe s n o t s hr i n k even from

po u ri ng o u t s corn on s ci en t i fic H e don i s m rega r de d a s
a dv o ca t i ng t h e l i fe of ple as ure .

There i s ye t a no t her c i rc um s t a n c e w h i ch d e t ract s bo th

from t h e t ra n s p a ren cy of th e re s ul ts a n d from th e c ert a i n ty
of t h e proo f No t h i ng i s more c h a r act er i s t i c of th e peri o d
.

of P l a to s o l d ag e t h a n th e enormo u s w i de n i ng of h i s hori zon

’
.

We h av e a lre a dy h a d o cca s i on t o w on d er a t t h e w i d t h of
”
v i s i on w h i c h i n t h e c on c lu d i ng s e c t i on of t h e S ta t e s m a n
exp a n d s hum a n i n t o c o s m i c t en d e n c i e s I t i s th e s a me i n.

”
th e P h i l e b us
. The t re at men t of a n e th i ca l problem le a d s
 A FE A TUR E O F P LA TO S
’
L A TE P E RI OD . 1 99

to a q u e s t i on pr i mordi a l pri n ci ple s E ven t h e

t ou c h i ng .

“ ”
goo d t o t h e n at u re of w h i ch th e i nq u i ry rel a t e s i s no
, ,

longer merely t h e pri n ci ple of h u m a n w elfa re b ut embrac e s ,

t h a t of t h e c o s mo s a s w ell The q u e s ti on i s a ccor di ngly

.

s o ex t en d e d th a t t h e a n s w er ca n only be foun d i n t ho s e

a b s t r a ct i on s w h i ch though c er t a i nly po s s e s s i ng t h e h i ghe s t

,

d egree of c omprehen s i v ene s s a r e for th a t v e ry re a s on poor

,

i n c on t en t . The va gu ene s s of th e s ol u t i on s a n d th e fa l s e
, ,

or a t a ny r a te m i s le a di ng a n a logy a re t h e s h a dows cas t by

,

t h a t l i gh t w h i c h m ay be d e s c r i be d a s H er a cl i t e a n d ep t h a n d
w i d th of v i s i on . I n th e l as t ph a s e of t h e d oct r i ne of i de a s
— t h at of i n c re as i ng P yt h a gore a n i s m — w e s h a ll s oon se e
t h i s t en d en cy re ach i ts c u lm i n a t i ng he i gh t ; b ut before th a t
, ,

w e s h a ll en cou n t er i t i n t h e d oc t r i ne of th e m i c roc o s m an d
th e m ac ro c o s m w h i ch oc cup i e s s o g re a t a s p ac e i n t h e
”
T i m aeus .
2 00 GR E E K TH I N K E RS .

C H AP T E R XI X .

“
TH E TI M IEU S AND TH E C RI TI AS .

1 . A N h i s t ori ca l nov el a n d a s cien t i fi c fa i ry t a le—i t i s t h u s

t h a t w e m a y d e s c r i b e t h e c on t en t of t hes e t w o d i a logue s ,

w i t ho u t bre a c h of th e re v eren c e d u e t o P l at o A c on s i d er
.

“
a ble t i me a ft er t h e c omple t i on of t h e Rep u bl i c i ts a u thor
,

g athere d u p t h e t hre a ds h e h ad a llo w e d to d rop a n d s e t ,

a bou t i n c re a s i n g by a n ex t en s i on a w or k w h i c h w a s a lre a d y

of no m e a n m a gn i tu d e The s a me en de av o u r a fter s ys
.

t e m a t i c c omple t ene s s s ho w n i n t h e exp a n s i on o f a w ork

,

ori g i n a lly c re a t e d w i t ho ut a n y t ho ugh t of c on t i nu ati on i s ,

”
m a n i fe s t here a s i n t h e c on ti n u a t i on of th e The ae te t us .

The a n a logy goe s fu r ther I n bo t h ca s e s P l at o pl a nne d a

.

t e t r a logy of w h i c h t h e l a s t member i s l ack i ng i n t h e exe

c ut i o n . I n t h e pre s en t c as e t h e perform a n ce h as l agge d
s t i ll fur t her beh i n d th e i n t en t i on for e v en t h e t h i r d p a r t
,

o f th e t r i logy — t h e C r i t i as — rem a i ne d i n comple t e in

fa ct i t bre a k s o ff i n th e m i dd le of a s en t en ce
, .

The T i m ae us a n d t h e C ri t i a s a re c emen t e d t o t h e
”
R ep ubl i c by the i r m a tt er b ut n o t by the i r form
, Ne w .

c h a r a c t ers a ppe a r i n t h e d i a logue : be s i d e s I s o c r a t e s th ere ,

i s t h e T i m ae u s wh o g i v e s h i s n a m e t o th e fir s t of t he s e tw o
d i a log u e s a c i t i z en a n d s t a t e s m a n of Lo c ri i n Lo w er I t a ly
, , ,

a m an here pr a i s e d for h i s ph i lo s oph i c t r a i n i ng a n d a lmo s t ,

’
c ert a i n ly a per s on a l fr i en d of P l a t o s The l a tter m a k e s
.

h i m t h e mo u t hp i e c e o f h i s o w n t heor i e s of n a t ure po s s i bly ,

a s an expre s s i o n of gr a t i t u d e t o T i m ae u s h i m s elf a n d o t her

repre s en ta t i ve s o f th e Pyth a gore a n s chool The th i r d

.

c h a r a ct er , wh o i s a l s o th e ch i ef s pe a k er i n t h e s e c on d
 202 GRE E K TH I N K E RS .

of a ff e cti on fo r a fat herl a n d w h i ch he h ad s o oft en fel t

h i m s elf c ompelle d t o c en s ure Tru t h a n d fi ct i o n w ere
.

blen de d i n t h i s n a rra ti v e ; b u t t h e fi c ti on w as n o t w holly

a rb i t r a ry a n d a c on s i d er a ble m e a s u re of s elf d e cep t i on -
,

pre ce d e d th e d e cept i on pra ct i s e d on o thers P l a to bel i ev e d .

t h a t h e h a d d i s co v ere d s ome of t h e e s s en t i a l fe a t ure s of h i s

pol i ti ca l i d e a l i n t h e d i m beg i nn i ng s of h i s n a t i v e ci ty .

We h ave a lre a dy h ad more t h a n on e o cc a s i on t o no t e t h e

s h i ft i ng s o f h i s h i s t or i ca l per s pe c t i ve ; an d w e h av e s een

h o w he c a m e h a lf i n v ol u n t a r i ly t o fi n d t h e i m a ge of t h e
, ,

fu t ure m i rrore d i n t h e p a s t (cf pp 9 1 a n d . . I n s p i re d by

t h i s bel i ef he foun d i n t h e fa ct s of h i s t ory or i n w h a t w e re
, ,

c omm only a c c ep t e d a s s u ch a po i n t of s u ppor t for th e

,

t r u e my t h form i ng facu l ty w h i ch c olours s u pplemen ts an d

-
, , ,

el a bora t es t h e h a lf k now n i n a ccord a n ce w i t h emo t i on a l

-

nee ds P l a t o s g u a rd i a n s — t h a t rul i ng c l a s s free d from

.
’

a ll petty c a re s a n d i gnoble a s p i r a t i on s ex t en di ng t he i r ,

fa therly gu i d a n ce a n d pro te ct i on t o t h e gre a t m as s of t h e

people — w ere by no m ea n s unl i k e a gen u i ne a r i s to c rac y ,

e s pe ci a lly t h at t ra n s fig ure d i m a ge of i t w h i ch i s ch eri s he d

i n t h e t ra d i t i on s of o l d a n d noble fa m i l i e s The s i m i l a r i ty .

w a s he i gh t ene d i n t h e m i n d of one w h o c re di t e d th e w hole

of pri m i t i v e Gree ce w i t h t ho s e c us t om s a n d i n s t i t u t i on s of
Sp a rt a w h i ch i n cl i ne d t ow a r ds pract i ca l c omm un i s m an d ,

t r a n s ferred t hem t o t h e s o i l of preh i s t or i c At hen s E ven .

t h e ca s t e l i k e s ep a r a t i o n of c l a s s e s w a s n o t qu i t e w i t hou t
-

i t s pre ce d en t i n t h i s l at t er qu a rt er There w a s a t t h e le a s t
.

a w i d e s pre a d b el i ef t h a t i n former a ge s s u c h a s h a rply

m a r k e d d i vi s i o n h a d ex i s t e d Thu s Ar i s t ot le i n h i s Con
.
,
”
s t i tu t i o n of t h e A t hen i a n s s pe a ks of t hree c l a s s e s : t h e
,

E up at r i d ae or noble s ; t h e a gr i cu l t ur a l pe as a n ts ; an d t h e
,

a rt i s a n s — t hree s e c ti on s of t h e people e a ch w i th i ts o w n
,

pol i t i ca l ri gh t s a n d i ts proport i on of vo t e s i n th e elect i on

of t h e t e n a rchon s Eve n s o r a s h a n i nno vat i on a s th e
.

em a n ci p a t i on of w omen w a s n o t ne ce s s a r i ly for P l at o a , ,
“ ”
pro d uct of th e S oc ra t i c t h i n k i ng s hop a s A r i s t oph a ne s-
,
”
c a lle d i t no t Clou d c u ck oo t ow n b u t th e At he n s of h i s
- -
,

a n c e s t or s ,
w a s i n h i s bel i ef t h e or i g i n a l home of t h i s
, ,

“
pr a cti ce The gu a r di an go d de s s of th e c i ty At he n e t h e
.
,
 W H Y TH E R E CA P I TUL A TI ON IS I N C OM P L E TE . 2 03

Defen der w h o w i t h S h i el d a n d s p e a r kep t w a tch on th e

,

he i ght of th e Ac ropol i s w a s i n t h i s i n s ta n c e t h e gu a ra n t or
,

of h i s fa i t h She s u ppl i e d h i m w i t h a proof th a t a t on e

.

ti me t h e b u s i n e s s of w a r h a d bee n th e c ommon c on cern of

me n a n d w ome n a n d i f t h i s w ere t h e c as e w i th t h a t

mo s t u nfem i n i ne of oc cup at i on s w h y n o t w i t h a l l o t her s

,

Tw o i nferen ce s follo w from w h at h as j u s t been s a i d .

In th e reca p i t ul a t i on of h i s pol i t i ca l i d e a l s w i t h w h i ch P l a t o
p ref a c e s h i s p a r a llel s from preh i s t or i c A t hen s t ho s e fe a t ure s ,

are ne c e s s a r i ly a b s en t of w ho s e ex i s t en c e i n t h e pr i m i t i v e

a e he c o u l d per s u a d e ne i t her h i m s elf nor h i s re a der s H e

g .

wa s t hu s obl i ge d t o bre a k o ff t h at re ca p i t ul a t i on a t t h e
po i n t w here he w oul d o t herw i s e h av e tou che d on th e
”
s c i en t i fi c e d u ca t i on of t h e gu a r di a n s t he i r c ro w n i ng s t u dy
,

of d i a le ct i c th e theory of k now le dge by w h i ch a ll t ho s e

,

requ i remen ts w ere j u s t i fie d a n d i n v e s t e d w i t h a d eepe r

me a n i ng S econ d ly th e p a r t i c i p a n ts i n t h e pre s en t d i a logue
.
, ,

an d t herefore a l s o i n t h e e a rl i er one repre s e n t e d as h a vi ng ,

pre ce d e d i t w ere ne ce s s a ri ly d i ff eren t from t ho s e of t h e

,
”
Republ i c a n d s u ch as w ere be tter s u i t e d to th e p u rpo s es
,
’
o f t h e c on t i n u a t i on Th u s i n p a rt i cu l a r P l a t o s younger
.
, ,

brot hers Gl a u con a n d Ad e i m a nt us a re repl ace d by h i s

, ,

gre at u n cle Cri t i a s t h e repre s en ta t i ve of a n e a rl i er genera

-
,

t i on w h o repe a t s h i s t a le of preh i s tor i c A then s as h avi ng

,

been t ol d h i m i n h i s e a rly boyhoo d by h i s a ge d gra n d fa t her .

The l a tter w h o w a s a l s o n a m e d C ri t i a s h a d i n h i s t urn

, ,

he a r d i t from a c lo s e fri en d of h i s fa t her D ro p i de s th e fa r ,

t r av elle d an d h i s t or i c a lly le a rne d leg i s l a t or a n d poe t Solon .

2 . The qu as i h i s tori ca l v eri fica t i on i s a cc omp a n i e d by

-

a q u a s i exper i men t a l one — a s t r a nge proc ee d i ng w h i c h i t i s

-
,

n o t t oo e as y for u s t o u n d er s t a n d I m me di a t ely a ft er t h e
.

re ca p i t u l a t i on t o w h i c h w e h av e a llu d e d So c ra t e s le ts fa ll ,

t h e rem a rk t h a t he feel s l i k e a m a n loo ki ng a t a fine

p a i n t i ng ; he i s s e i ze d a s s u c h a m a n m i gh t be w i t h a
, ,

long i ng t o s e e th e fig u re s on w h i ch he h as been fe as ti n g
h i s g a ze— no t only a t re s t b ut i n act i ve mo ti on , H e w oul d .

l i k e t o he a r of th e c onfl i c t s s u s ta i ne d by t h e p att ern S t a t e ,

of i t s rel a t i o n s w i t h o t her s ta t e s of t h e fa mou s a c t i o n s

,

pe rfo rme d by i t s c i t i zen s Th i s i s th e cu e for w h i ch C r i t i a s

.
2 O4 GR E E K TH I N K E RS .

i s wa i t i n g, i n or d er t o reg a le h i s au d i e n c e w i th th e n a rr at i ve
on c e t o l d by S olon o n t h e a ut hor i ty of E gyp t i a n pr i e s ts
,

a n d by t hem d er i v e d from t h e s t u dy of pr i m ae va l re c or d s .

H ere beg i n s t h e m a rvello u s t a le of th e c i ti zen s of At hen s

i n t h e d i m preh i s t or i c a g e P l a t o i s n o t c o n t en t w i t h
.

’
a t t r i b u t i ng t o h i s o w n a n d h i s fell o w c i t i zen s forefathers-

i n s t i t u t i on s re s embl i ng i n e s s en t i a l s t ho s e d e v i s e d by h i m
“
s elf i n t h e Rep u bl i c nor d oe s he re s t s a ti s fie d w hen he
”
h a s repelle d t h e c h a rge of E gyp t i c i z i n g by m a k i ng t h e
E gyp t i a n s t hem s el v e s t h e borro w er s H e goe s on to .

re co u n t t h e gre a t d ee ds of t ho s e At hen i a n forefa thers more ,

p a rt i c u l a rly t he i r w on d erfu l v i ct ory g a i ne d n i ne t ho u s a n d

,

ye a rs a go o v er th e i nh a b i ta n t s of At l a n t i s a n i s l a n d i n th e
, ,

We s t ern s e a w h i ch h a d a ft erw a r d s s u n k bene a t h t h e s urfac e .

”
The n a rrat i v e i s beg u n i n t h e Ti m ae us a n d c on t i n u e d i n ,
”
th e C r i t i a s b u t n o t c on c l u d e d Wh a t w e a re i n c l i ne d t o
, .
,
’
a s k w a s P l a t o s purpo s e i n t h i s o ver bol d fi ct i on
,
-

No d oub t th e ple a s u re of rom a n ci n g w a s i n i ts elf no

s m a ll a ll u remen t t o t h e p o e t ph i lo s opher ; i n h i s l at er
-

peri o d he w a s n o longer s a t i s fie d a s w hen he w rot e t h e ,

” ” ”
Sympo s i u m th e P h ae d ru s th e Gorg i a s o r t h e P r o
, , ,

”
t a go ras ,
w i th th e opp o rt un i t i e s a ffor d e d h i m i n th e c o n
s t r u c t i on o f th e d i a logue i n t h e w or d p a i n t i ng of t h e
,
-

s cenery ,
i n t h e r i c hly c olo u re d ch a ra ct er i z a t i on of t h e
dr a ma ti s p e r s on a i n t h e a l t ern a t i on of h i ghly d i ver s i fie d
,

s tyle s of d i s co urs e We c an w ell u n d ers t a n d t h at t h i s

.

’
p a rt i c ul a r t en d en cy of P l a t o s m i n d h a s n o w c a r ve d o ut a
s ep a r a t e c h a nnel for i t s elf a n d be come a n i n d epen d en t
,

elemen t i n h i s w ork B ut w h i le w e m ay h a v e here di s

.

c o v ere d a pre d i s po s i n g ca u s e t h e t rue gro u n d a n d mo t i v e

,

of h i s p u zzl i ng pro c e d ure i s s t i ll t o s eek No t e ven i n th e .

d ay s of h i s o l d a g e d i d P l at o be c ome a mere t eller of

s to r i e s
. B eh i n d h i s rom an ci ng w e h av e m o s t c er t a i n ly t o
look for a d i d act i c p u rpo s e a n d t h e n at u re of i t i s i n di ca t e d
t o u S i n no u n c ert a i n m a n n er by t h e w i s h of So c r a t e s t o
“ ”
s e e t h e i d e a l fig u re s of t h e Rep u bl i c s e t a s i t w ere i n , ,

mot i on The v i a b i l i ty of t h e s e fi g u res h a d been ca lle d i n

.

qu e s t i o n ; obj e ct i o n s h a d been r a i s e d bo th by o t hers a n d ,

i n P l at o s m i n d (c f p a g a i n s t t h e pr a c t i c a b i l i t y a n d
’
. .
 GRE E K TH I N K E RS .

awa re of i t s i llu s ory h a ra cter Thu s w h a t w e h ave before

c .

u s i s n o t t h e e d i fi c e a s t h e a r ch i t e c t d e s i gne d i t b u t only ,

th e ve s t i bule by w h i ch i t w a s to be a ppro ache d : t h e

d e s c r i p t i on of t h a t m i gh t y emp i re w h i ch w a s fo u n d e d by
P o s e i d on a n d r u le d by h i s po s t er i ty t e n a ll i e d ki ng s i n
,

e ach genera t i on — a n emp i re w h i ch s u rp as s e d al l reg i on s of

t h e e a r t h i n t h e ex c ellen c e of i t s c l i m at e a n d th e fru i t ful
ne s s of i t s s o i l i n i ts a bun da n c e of pre ci o us me t a l s i n t h e
, ,

m agn i fi c en c e of i ts a que duct s a n d t h e s plen do u r of i t s

t emple s an d p a l a c e s — a n emp i re w ho s e po w er ex t en d e d
over a n i s l a n d l a rger t h a n Afri ca a n d As i a t a k en t oge t her ,

o v er o ther i s l a n ds ly i ng b eyon d i t a n d o ver p a r ts of th e

,

We s tern Con t i nen t i ts elf w h i ch by forc e of a rm s h a d

,

p u s he d i ts a u thori ty a s fa r a s t h e b or d ers of E gyp t i n

A fri ca a n d t ho s e of I t a ly i n E urope .

’
We s ho u l d b e gl a d t o k now h o w fa r P l at o s fi ct i on i s
b as e d on popul a r legen d h o w fa r th e bel i ef i n a n ex t en s i v e
c oun t ry i n t h e We s t re s t s on t h e pre s uppo s i t i on of a n o t

w holly un s ymme t r i ca l di s t r i b u t i on of l a n d be tw een th e

E as t ern an d We s t ern hem i s phere s ; h o w fa r th e fa ct n o w ,

a tt e s t e d by d o c umen t a ry e v i d en c e of a n i n curs i on i n t o
,

“ ”
L i bya a n d E gyp t m ad e by conqueri ng s e a n at i on s c om i ng -

from th e Wes t B ut on a l l t he s e po i n t s w e a re left t o

.

un cert a i n conj ect u re .

3 B e t h a t a s i t m ay t h e h i s t ori ca l rom a n c e merely

.
,
’
s u ppl i e s a fr a me w or k for P l a t o s t heor i e s of n a t ure To .

g ive an a cc o u n t of t he s e i s n o t t h e mo s t d ele ct able of

t a sks . The i r fru i t fu lne s s s t a n ds i n i n v ers e r a t i o to the i r
“
ob s c uri ty . The c on t en ts of t h e T i m ae u s h av e a l w ay s
been reg a r d e d a s en i gm a ti c s o mu c h s o t h a t t h e co n
,

t ro ve r s y o ver t he i r i n t erpre ta t i on beg a n i n t h e s e c on d

generat i on of t h e P l a t on i c s c hool a n d h as l a s t e d d o w n
,

t o t h e pre s en t d ay . I t w a s n o t t i ll l a t e i n l i fe t h a t th e
ph i lo s opher a ppro ache d th e i n ve s t i g a ti on of n a t ure ; t h i s
p a rt of h i s s y s t em w a s t herefore s u bj o i ne d by w a y of
”
a ppen d i x t o t h e Rep u bl i c a w or k a lre a dy c omple t e i n
,

i t s elf i n w h i ch a ll t h e o ther d i vi s i on s of h i s ph i lo s ophy

,

w ere c on t a i ne d . E ven then t h e s t u d y of n at u re w a s for

h i m as he t ell s u s expre s s ly a l a bo u r of s e c on d a ry
, ,
 P L A TO A S A N A TURE - P H I L OS OP H E R .

’
i mpor t a n c e, a ki n d
of p a s ti me The l i m i ta t i on s of P l a t o s
.

en d o w men t a re here pl a i nly d i s c ern i ble a n d i t i s s t i ll more

,

e vi d en t th at by h i s d i s da i n of t h e mo s t e ffe cti v e me a n s of
purs u i ng t he s e i nqu i r i e s he h a s c lo s e d a g a i n s t h i m s elf t h e
,

p a th s w h i ch m i gh t h av e l e d t o va l u a ble re s u l t s I n dee d .
,

t h i s a n ta gon i s m t o t h e experi men t a l me tho d i s e v en more

“
pronou n ce d i n th e Ti m a us t h a n i n th e ” “
Republ i c
w h a t he h a d r i d i cu le d i n t h e e a rl i er d i a log u e (c f pp 8 4 . .
,

8 5 a n d 1 8 7 ) he c o n d emn s i n t h e l a t er
, A llu d i ng t o an
.

experi men t prob a bly c on d u cte d by a t om i s t s a n d be a r i ng

. ,

on a q u e s t i on i n th e t heory of c ol o u r he d e s cri bes s u ch ,

proc e d u re as a t re s p as s i n g on t h e di vi ne do m a i n as ,

rebell i o us pre s u mp ti on of th e h u m a n i n t elle ct Th us th e .

mo s t i mpor ta n t a u x i l i a ry i n t h e i n ve s ti g a t i on o f n atu re i s
n o longer m erely d i s d a i ne d b u t pro s cri be d a s a n i mp i e ty
, .

“
From t h e rom a n c e of At l a n ti s P l a t o p a s s e s t o h i s
”
,

t heor i e s of n at u re by a t r a n s i t i on w h i c h i s ex t ern a l i n
c h a r ac t er a n d n o t a l i t t le v i olen t The n a rr a t i ve m u s t
.

n o t pro cee d he s ay s t i ll th e or i g i n of m an h a s been

, ,

d e s c r i be d a n d t h i s pre s u ppo s e s t h e or i g i n of th e w orl d

, .

B ut t h e bon d by w h i c h t he s e tw o p a r ts of th e w or k w ere
’
c onne c t e d i n t h e a u t hor s m i n d w a s m u c h c lo s er a n d
s t ronger . I t w a s from t h e n a t ure of j u s t i c e t h a t t h e
”
i n v e s t i g a t i on i n t h e Rep u bl i c h a d s e t o ut ; i n t h e
T i m aeu s he re turn s t o th e s a me po i n t by a w i d e ci rc u i t .

H e s u ppl i es e t h i cs w i t h a co s m i c fo u n d a t i on The w hole .

of n a t ure i s e t h i ci ze d a n d i n th e follo w i ng m a nner The

, .

a n a logy be t w een i n d i vi d u a l a n d S t a t e i s no longer s u ffi c i en t

’
for t h e bro a dene d r a nge of P l a t o s t ho ugh t i t i s exp a n d e d
i n t o a n a n a logy be tw een m an a n d t h e u n i vers e J us t ice .
,

a s t h e re a d er w i ll remember h a d been d efine d as t h e r i gh t

,

rel a t i on a mong t h e d i ff eren t p a r ts of t h e s o u l To t hi s .

there c orre s pon d e d t h e r i gh t rel a t i on a mong th e t hree

’
c l a s s e s O f th e i d e a l S ta t e B u t : P l a t o s s u rv ey i s n o w
.

i mme a s u r a bly enl a rge d .The t hreefol d d i vi s i on i s n o w

ex te n de d t o th e w orl d s oul ; a n d on t h e d u e proporti on
-

of i ts t hree p a rts t h e c on ti n u a n c e of th e un i vers e i s m a d e

,

t o d epen d . Wh i le j u s t i ce w as previ o u s ly reg a rd e d as th e

fo u n d a t i on of h u m a n h app i ne s s i t i s n o w a ckn o w le d ge d
, ,
208 GR E E K TH I N K E RS .

“ “
l i ke th e goo d of th e Ph i l e b u s a s e s s en t i a l t o t h e ,

w elfa re of t h e c o s m o s The w hole org a n i c w orl d i n i ts

.
,

v a ri o us t ra n s form a t i on s i s s i m i l a rly c on d i t i on e d by t h e
,

a sc en d a n cy o r t h e d e c l i n e of j u s t i c e The s e t ra n s form a t i o n s .

form a d e s ce n d i n g s ca le M a n w h o i s c re a t e d fi rs t s i n k s
.
, , ,

a s a re s u l t o f mor a l d e t er i o r a t i on fir s t i n t o w om a n t hen , ,

i n t o br u t e form a n d c on t i n u i ng h i s d ow n w a rd progre s s
, ,

from t h e h i gher t hro ugh t h e low er a n i m a l s be com es a t ,

l a s t a pl a n t S u ch i s th e k ern el of t h e P l a ton i c the o ry o f

.

d e s cen t — a d e s c en t w i t h e v ery r i gh t t o th e n a me w here a s ,

o u r mo d ern d o c t r i n e of t h e d er i v a t i on of s pe c i e s s ho u l d

r a t her be ca lle d a t heory of a s c en t a s i nvol vi ng a pro ,

gre s s u p w a r d s O ne r u le a ppl i e s bo th t o th e i n di vi d u a l
.

“
a n d t h e ra c e B y t h e lo s s a n d g a i n of w i s d om a n d
.

”
u nre a s on , t h e h i gher s i n k t o t h e lo w er a n d th e lo w er ,

a g a i n s ome t i me s r i s e t o t h e h i gher i n v i r t u e of t h e t r a n s ,

“
m i gra t i on of s ou l s The O rph i c d o ct r i ne of t h e fa ll o f
.

t h e s o u l by s i n i s here blen d e d w i t h th e Py th a g o re a n
met emp s yc ho s i s a n d th e t w o toge t her exp a n d e d i n to a
,

t heory w h i ch emb r a c e s t h e w hole u n i v er s e O rph i c .

,

Py t h a gore a n a n d So c r a t i c elemen t s u n i t e t o pro d u c e a

,

c on c ep t i o n of t h e c o s mo s th e gre a t n e s s a n d s u bl i m i t y of
,

w h i c h i s w or thy of a t h i n k er a n d poe t i n w hom t h e ,

e t h i ca l i mp u l s e s w ere s u preme w h i le a t t h e s a m e t i me i t s ,

l a c k of fo u n d a t i on i n fa ct mo v e s o u r a s t on i s hmen t B u t .

t h i s a s t on i s h men t m a y be le s s ene d by t h e fo llo w i ng co n

s i d er a t i on s. Se vere d a s h e w a s from t h e a tom i s ts by th e
rel i g i ou s t emper of h i s m i n d a n d t hu s d epr i v e d of th e only ,

s chool t hen a c c e s s i ble i n w h i ch he m i gh t h a v e le a r n t t h e

t r u e w ay t o u n d er s t a n d n a t u re P l a to h a d no o t her c ho i c e ,

t h a n t o fo llo w Py t h a gore a n t e a cher s w h o c o u l d v e ry w ell ,

t e a c h h i m t o req u i re r i go u r i n d e d u ct i on a n d t o a ppre c i a t e
or d er a n d h a rm o ny b u t n o t t o e s chew th e a rb i t r a ry a s s um p
,

t i on of fu n d a men t a l prem i s s e s H e h i m s elf w a s a d e d uct i v e

.

m a them a t i ci a n n o t by a ny m e a n s a n i n d u c t i v e phy s i ci s t
, .

H i s phy s i cs i n d ee d a s h a s been ri gh t ly ob s erve d w ere

, , ,

b i olo gy a n d h i s b i o l o gy a p s ychol o gy t i nge d w i th e t h i cs

, .

There t h u s a ro s e i n h i s m i n d a p i ct u re of t h e w orl d w h i ch
fas ci n at e s by i ts c on s i s t en cy w i th i n i t s elf by i t s n umeri ca l ,
2 1 0 GRE E K TH I N K E RS .

i mpl i e s l i m i t a t i on of t h e d i vi ne pow er P l a t o d oe s i n fa ct
a .
, ,

“
s pe a k of a pr i n c i ple n a me d here , Ne ce s s i ty w h i ch i s i n ,

c onfl i c t w i t h t h e goo d w h i c h m ay b e a ppe as e d or s i len c e d

,

by re a s on b ut n o t o v erc ome I n a d d i t i on t o t he s e t w o
, .

pri n ci ple s of ne ce s s i ty a n d rea s on he recogn i ze s ye t a ,

“ ”
t hi rd th e, c a u s e of di s o r de d mo t i on w h i c h ori g i n a lly
,

preva i le d i n th e w orl d of s p a ce an d w as c on vert e d i n t o

,

or d er by t h e De i ty Th i s i s th e po i n t a t w h i ch w e en c ou n ter
.

th e firs t gre at d i ffi c ul ty of i n t erpre t a t i on We a re t ol d

.

fu rt her on t h a t s i m u l t a neou s ly w i th th e he aven s or w orl d ,

bo dy ti me c a me i n t o ex i s t en ce— a though t i n w h i ch w e ca t ch
,

a t le a s t a fa i n t e cho of th e O rph i c c o s mogon i e s ( cf Vol I . . .

p . H o w i s t h i s d i ct um t o be re con ci le d w i t h t h e
a s s ert i on of t h at d i s ord erly mo t i on w h i ch pre ce d e d t h e
w orl d a n d w h i ch m u s t h av e been a pro c e s s i n t i me
,
Th i s
d i ffi c ul ty w as a gre a t s t u mbl i ng blo ck t o t h e a n ci en t ex
-

p o s i t o rs O
. ne i ngen i ou s a t t emp t t o s ol v e i t i s a s o l d a s

Ar i s t o t le Acc or di ng t o t h i s vi ew P l a t o S pea ks of t hos e

.
,

mo t i on s m u ch i n t h e s a me s p i r i t a s a t e a cher of geome t ry
s ho ws h i s pup i l a figure c on s t ru ct e d p i e c e by p i e c e for ,

t h e s ak e of c le a rne s s a n d n o t i n ord er t h a t an or i g i n i n
,

t i me or rel a t i on s of s u cc e s s i on m ay be a tt r i b u t e d t o w h a t
i s re a lly c oex i s t en t (
.D r a w s u c h a n d s u c h a l i ne d r a w ,

a no t her mee t i ng i t a t a g i v en a ngle a n d s o on ) , A ri s t o t le

.

r i gh t ly c on dem ne d t h i s w a y o ut of t h e d i ffi c ul ty a s i n a de
qu at e There i s more pl a u s i b i l i ty i n a s econ d a n ci en t
.

s olu t i on w h i ch m a y be repro d u c e d b ri efly a n d i n mo d ern

, ,

t erm i nology as follo w s : P l a t o i s n o t th i n k i ng of mo t i on s

,

a ct u a lly performe d before t h e c re a t i on b u t a ten de n cy a n , ,

e ver pre s en t re s i s t a n ce t o or d erly mo t i on ; i t i s merely for

-

th e s a k e of gre a t er v i vi d ne s s i n expo s i ti on t h at he s pe ak s
of t h i s a s a n i n d epen d en t factor t h a t h a d on c e m a n i fe s t e d
i ts elf w i t h u n t r a m melle d free d om We s houl d be gl a d t o
.

re s t c ont en t w i t h t h i s expl a n at i on I t i s b a rre d how e ver

.
, ,

by th e c i rcum s t a n ce t h a t ex a ct ly th e s a me as s ert i o n of a
“
c h a o s pre c e d i ng t h e c o s mo s i s fo u n d i n t h e S ta t e s m a n
a n d i t i s i mprob a ble i n th e h i ghe s t d egree t h a t a n a u t hor

s ho u l d h a v e u s e d t h e s a me figur a t i v e a n d m i s le a d i ng form

of expre s s i on tw i c e a n d i n t w o qu i t e di fferen t con tex ts .

 M O TI ON A N D P R I M A R Y M A TTE R .

T u rn a n d t w i s t t h e m a tter a s w e w i ll t here i s no a c qu i tt i ng ,

P l a to of h avi ng c on fu s e d ti me i f no t w i t h t h e me a s ure of
,

t i me — t h e he av en s w i t h t h e s u n
,
moon a n d s t a rs a re , , ,

reg a rd e d by h i m a s s u ch a me a s ure — ye t w i t h th e ti me ,

w h i c h t hereby be ca me me a s u ra ble .

4
. We h a v e been s pe a k i ng of t h e d i s or d erly mo t i on
w h i c h pre ce d e d th e beg i n n i ng of t h i n g s Wh a t t hen w as .
, ,

i t t h a t mov e d ? Th i s i s a po i n t w h i c h P l a t o h a d n o t ex
pl a i n e d w i t h perfe ct c l e a m e s s Are w e t herefore t o j o i n
.

t h e n umber of t ho s e mo d ern i n t erpre t ers w h o c re d i t h i m

w i t h t h e a b s ur di ty of a s s u m i ng a mo t i on w h i ch i s a mo t i on
of no t h i ng ? O u r vi e w i s r a ther t h a t P l a t o re cog n i ze s as ,

s ub s t r a t um of t h i s mo ti on a n d of a l l pro c e s s e s of be c om i ng ,

a ki n d of pri mor d i a l m a tt er ori g i n a lly w i thou t form or

,

“ ”
qu a l i ti e s w h i ch he t erm s s ome t i me s t h e nurs e a n d a g a i n
, ,

“ ” “ ”
th e w omb or t h e mo t her of a ll be c om i ng B ut t h i s
, .

d a rk an d d i ffi c ul t s ome w h a t d e s ti t u t e of re a l i t y i n th e
,

fulles t s en s e of t h e w or d i n fa c e of w h i ch he c onfe s s es
,

h i s perplex i ty w i t h equ a l c a n d our a n d emph a s i s i s i n h i s ,

m i n d s o fa r from be i n g i d en t i fie d w i t h i ts s e a t — mere
s p ac e —t h a t on th e c on t r a ry he a ffi rm s th e as s ump t i on of
, ,

emp ty s p a c e t o be i lleg i t i m a t e an d b a n i s hes i t en t i rely ,

from h i s p i ct u re of th e un i vers e .

Thu s t h e c re ati ve act d oe s n o t for P l a to me a n a c rea t i on , ,

o ut of no th i ng .The c o s mos or w ell ord ere d un i vers e i s

,
-
,

c re a t e d i n t h e s en s e t h a t t h e Dem i urge or a rt i fic e r i mp a rt s , ,

form to t h e formles s ord er a n d regul a ri ty to t h e di s ord erly

,

a n d i rregul a r . B efore w e p as s on l e t us s ay a w or d on ,

th e D em i urge h i m s el f S i n ce h i s be i ng con s i s ts s olely i n

.

goo dne s s i t i s n at ura l to a s k w hether an d h o w he i s t o b e

,

d i s t i ngu i s he d from t h e i d e a of th e goo d t o w h i ch th e fore ,

mo s t pl ac e w a s as s i gne d i n th e Rep ubl i c ”

An a n s w er a .
,

w ell co n s id ere d a n s w er t o t h i s q u e s t i on i s t h a t t here i s no

-
,

di s t i n ct i on a t a ll The follow i ng are th e groun ds w h i ch s erve

.

t o j us t i fy t h i s c on c lu s i on I f t h e Dem i urge w ere n o t i d en t i c a l

w i t h th e i d e a of th e goo d he w oul d ne c e s s a r i ly p a r t i ci p a t e
,

i n i t or be cop i e d from i t ; he w o u l d t herefore o ccu py a

,

lo w er po s i t i on t h a n t h at i d e a w h i c h i s con t r a ry t o h i s
,

s t rongly emph a s i ze d r a n k a s S upreme D e i ty The comple t e .

 GRE E K TH I N K E RS .

i d e n t i fi ca t i o n of th e
Dem i u rge w i th th e i de a o f t h e go o d
t h u s s eem s u n av o i d a ble B u t i t i s open t o a n obj e ct i o n
.

w h i c h i s w o rt h c on s i d er a t i o n I t i s t ru e t h a t t h e i de a o f
.

“
t h e goo d h a s a lre a dy been repre s en t e d i n t h e Rep ubl i c
as a n a c t i v e pr i n c i ple n o t a n i nert p a t t ern by a n enh a n c e
, ,

men t of i ts n a t u re w h i ch w e do n o t fin d a ccor de d t o th e
“
o t her i d e a s t i ll w e re ac h th e Soph i s t B ut i t i s q u i t e .

c er t a i n t h a t P l a t o i s fu lly i n e a rne s t w hen he s pe a k s o f t h e

fa br i cat i o n of t h e w orl d by t h e Dem i u rge Th a t t h e w orl d .

“
h as be c om e a n d h a s n o t ex i s t e d from e tern i t y i s a t he s i s
, ,

w h i c h he a ffirm s a m i d d o ub t s a n d re s er va t i o n s on o ther
,

m at t ers i n a t one of dogm a t i c c er ti t u d e H o w t he n — w e

, .
,

a r e d r i v en t o a s k— c a n t h i s w or k o f c re a t i on w h i ch i s a n ,

i s ol a t e d a ct n o t a c o n ti n u o us i n fluen ce be a s cr i be d t o a n
, ,

i d e a t h a t i s t o a n hypo s ta s i ze d qu a l i ty e ven t ho u gh i t
, , ,

w ere t h e h i ghe s t of a l l q u a l i t i e s W e k no w of no a n s w er
b u t t h e foll o w i ng : The enh a n c emen t or t ran s fig u ra t i o n o f
t h e i d e a s more a ccu r at ely t he i r d e i fic a t i o n h as m a de fu rt her
, ,

“
’ ”
a n d fu rt her pr o gre s s i n P l a t o s m i n d I n th e T i m ae u s .

h e ro u n d ly t erm s th e i d e a s e t ern a l go ds b u t th e n a me s
” “ ” “ ”
a u t hor ,
gener a t or fa t her a re as w e h av e a lre a dy
, , ,

ob s erve d to b e fo u n d i n th e Soph i s t a n d S ta t es m a n
, ,

“
a n d d o n o t mee t u s i n t h e T i m aeu s for th e fi rs t t i me .

The s e n a me s w e n o w v en t u re t o s ay d eno te i n a l l t he s e
, ,

“ ”
d i a l o g u e s t h e s a m e pr i n c i ple w h i ch i n t h e Rep ubl i c
“ ”
a ppe a r s a s t h e i d e a of t h e goo d I t i s n o t for th e s a k e
.

of d i s g u i s i n g h i s t ho u gh t o r of merely pre s en t i ng i t i n a
,

n e w d re s s t h a t P l a t o c hoo s e s t he s e n a me s ; he d oe s s o
,

be ca u s e i n h i s o w n c on s ci o us ne s s t h at s upreme a n d d i vi n e
pr i n ci ple h a s be come i n ve s t e d w i t h a gre at er d egree o f
pers o n a l i ty a n d h as t hereby g a i ne d as w e le a rn from th e
, ,

Ti m aaus i t s elf a n d i ts d o ct r i ne of c re a t i on w h a t w e h av e ,
”
c a lle d i n a no ther c onnex i on an a llo w a n c e of free a ct i on

c f Vo l I p
( . . . .

L i k e t h e gre a t n a t ura l fe ti s he s of th e o l d H elle n i c

’
rel i g i o n P l a t o s i d e a s h a ve o utgrow n t hem s el ves I t i s
,
.

t h u s n o c o n s ci ou s a ccommo d a t i on t o pop u l a r t heology th a t

w e h av e t o pre s u ppo s e P l a t o h as i n d ee d s ome t h i ng t o
.
, ,

“
k eep b ac k a s i s S h o w n by h i s s a y i ng th a t t o d i s co ver th e
,
 GR E E K TH I N K E RS .

goo dne s s The l att er c oul d be s u p po s e d a b s ol u t e only i f

.

t here w ere l i m i ts a n d h i n d r a n ce s t o t h e re a l i z a t i o n of t h e
d i vi ne p u rpo s e s The m a t urer experi en c e of a dd e d ye a rs
.

a n d t h e gr a d u a l lo s s of t h e op t i m i s m n a tu r a l t o s a ng u i n e

you t h h a d d o ub t le s s c on t r i bu te d t o m ak e th e po w er of e vi l
’
loom l a rger i n P l a to s o ut loo k W i t ne s s th e d o ub ts to .

w h i c h u t t er a n ce h a d a lre a d y been g i v en i n th e c lo s i ng
“ ”
po rt i on of t h e Rep u bl i c a s t o th e po s s i b i l i ty of re a l i z i ng
t h e s o ci a l i d e a l port ra ye d i n t h a t d i a logue — d o ub t s w h i ch
”
fi n d s t ro n ger expre s s i on i n th e S t at e s m a n a n d th e ,

“ ”
s t ronge s t of a l l i n t h e L aw s No th i ng t hen c oul d be
.
, ,
’
more n at ura l t h a n t h at w i t h P l a to s v i e w of l i fe d a rk e n e d
,

by s a d experi en ce s s ome t i nge of t h a t bl ack nes s s ho u l d

,

a ppe a r i n h i s p i ct ure of t h e u n i vers e ; t h a t t h e pow ers

ho s ti le t o th e goo d or th e s a me t h i ng for h i m t o or d er
, , ,

a n d regul a r i ty s ho u l d bo t h fill a w i d er s p a c e a n d t en d
,

t o be c ome c on c en t ra t e d i n a s i ngle pr i n ci ple I n th e .

”
Th e a t e t us e very goo d h a d i ts c omp a n i on e vi l a t t ache d
,

to i t l i k e a s h a dow . B u t t h a t only a ppl i e d t o l i fe on t h e

”
e a r th n o t t o co s m i c ex i s t en ce I n th e
, . S tat e s m a n ,
“ ”
peri o ds of un i vers a l d i s or d er a l t ern a t e w i t h or d erly

peri o ds i n w h i ch th e di vi ne goo d ne s s re i gn s w i t ho ut l i m i ta
“
t i on or che c k I n th e
. T i m ae u s e vi l a ppe a r s a s a r e s t ra i n e d
b u t e ver a ct i v e pow er s t i ll be a r i ng m a ny n a me s a n d n o t
-
, ,

e t c omprehen d e d un d er t h e un i ty of a s upreme p r i n c i ple

y .

I n acc or d a n c e w i t h th e t en d en c i e s of P l a t o s l at er ph a s e
’

s u c h a pr i n ci ple w o u l d ne c e s s a r i ly be of t h e n a t ure of s oul ,

a n d i t i s no t h i ng t o be s u rpr i s e d a t i f i n t h e l as t of h i s

w or ks he t oo k t h e fin a l s tep d em a n d e d by t h e w hole c o u rs e
,

of h i s d ev elopmen t a n d pro vi d e d th e goo d w orl d s o u l w i th

,
-

’
i ts m a n i fes t c o u n t erp a r t I t s ho u l d b e a dd e d t h a t P l a t o s
.

pe s s i m i s ti c t en den cy i s m u ch more prom i nen t i n h i s t re a t

men t of v a ri ou s s ubord i n at e m a t t ers t h a n i n h i s pre s en ta ti on
of th e m a i n t heolog i ca l a n d me t aphys i c a l t he s i s For wh i le .

t h e e vi l w orl d s oul i s s po k en of a s le s s po w erful t h a n t h e

-

goo d a n d th e c orres pon d i ng pr i n ci ple s a ppe a r i n th e

,
”
Ti mmu s as di s t u rb i ng elemen ts n o t a s pre d om i n a n t ,
“ ”
forc es by w h i ch t h e go o d i s o verpo w ere d t h e Z oogony , ,

on t h e o t her h a n d or t heory of d e s c en t t o w h i ch w e h ave

,
 C OM P OS I TI ON OF TH E W OR LD -S O UL .

a lre a dy referre d exh i b i ts m a n ki n d as con ti nu a lly S i n ki ng to

,

lo wer a n d low er pl a nes of ex i s te n c e a n d w e a rs a n as pe c t ,

of t horough go i ng pe s s i m i s m The gl o omy o ut loo k more

-
.
,

o v er ,
i s n o t rel i e v e d (ex cep t i on a l cas e s a p a r t) by a n y
p ro s pe ct of fu t ure re s tora t i on s uch a s h a d been hel d o ut i n
“ ”
t h e O rph i c d o c t r i ne of t h e fa ll of th e s o u l by s i n of ,

w h i ch t h e i nfluen c e i s here a pp a ren t .

To re t urn t o t h e w orl d s o u l w e n ot e th a t i t t o o i s n o t -
, , ,

c re a t e d o u t of no th i n g I t c ome s i n t o be i ng by a pro ce s s
.

w h i c h i s s t r i ct ly s pe a ki ng n o t s o m u c h one of c re a t i on a s
, ,

of co mpo s i t i on s u ch a s w e h a ve a lre a dy he a r d of i n th e
,

“ ”
Ph i l e b u s We a re here bro u ght i n t o c on ta ct w i t h th e
.

m o s t a b s t r act w e m ay perh a p s s ay th e mo s t a b s t ru s e p a rt
, ,

of P l a to s ph i lo s ophy AS obj ects of th e m i x i ng pro ce s s

’
.
,

w e h av e t w o pr i m a ry s ub s ta n c e s ; a n d t he s e a r e m i xe d
firs t w i th e a ch o ther s e con d ly w i t h th e pro d uct of t h e firs t,

m i x i n g Thes e pr i m a ry s ub s t a n ce s a re n o t wholly n e w t o
.

“ ”
t h e re a d er I n th e P h i l e b us
. t hey a ppe a r un d er t h e
“ “ ”
n a me s of l i m i t a n d t h e unl i m i t e d I n th e Ti m mus .

“
t hey a re ren a me d a n d w e n o w k no w t hem as , t h e s a me
“ ”
an d th e o ther t h e s e c on d of w h i c h a ppell at i on s rem i n ds
,
“ ” “
u s of t h e Soph i s t Y e t a g a i n t hey a re t erme d
. th e
, ,
” “ ”
di vi s i ble
’
and th e i n di vi s i ble a n d P l a t o s pup i l s s po k e ,

“ ” “ ”
i n th i s connex i on of u n i ty of th e gre a t a n d t h e s m a ll , ,

“ ”
or of d u a l i ty The s e a re P l a t on i c d e velopmen t s o f
.

Pyt h a gore a n t hough ts a n d rem i n d u s of th e t a ble of c o n

,
”
t ra r i e s . W i t h t h e s ub s ta n ce o f t h e w orl d of i d e a s i s
c on t r as t e d th e s ub s t a n c e of t h e phy s i ca l w orl d O n t h e .

o ne s ide we h ave th e pri n ci ple of go o d u n ch a nge a ble , ,

un i fo rm reg a rd e d a t t h e s a me t i me a s th e l i m i t i ng form i ng
, , ,

comprehen d i ng u n i ty Oppo s e d t o i t i s t h e pr i n ci ple of

.

e vi l w h i c h i s l i ke w i s e th e pri n c i ple o f ch a nge of d i ff eren ce

, , ,

of d ivi s ion a n d d i s membermen t We s ho u l d n o t a t t h i s .

po i n t lo s e s i gh t en t i rely o f Pl a t o s pol i t i ca l an d e t h i ca l ’

t e a ch i ng To e fface a l l d i vers i t i e s to re a l i ze un i ty i n a
.
,

me as u re fa r t ra n s cen di ng th e b a re n ec e s s i ti e s of c i vi c pe a c e
s u ch as w e h a v e a lre a d y s een w as t h e
-
, obje ct p u rs u e d ,

wi th s i n gle m i n d e d e a rne s t ne s s i n P l at o s s o c i a l s c heme

’
-
.

On ce more w e not e t h e bo un d le s s ex ten s i on of th e a ge d

2 1 6 GR E E K TH I N K E R S .

’
ph i lo s opher s i n telle ct u a l hori zo n ; th e gre a t fa ct ors i n
h u m a n w e a l a n d w o e h a v e fo r h i m be c ome merge d i n
c o s m i c pri n c i ple s a n d t he s e
,
a g a i n a re t r ace d t o t he i r
s o u rc e i n t h e d om a i n of t h e s u pern a t u r a l The d o ct r i ne .

p reva i le d i n e a rly a n t i qu i ty t h at l i k e i s k no w n by l i ke ;
a n d i n a cc or d a n c e w i t h t h i s t h e un i t a ry pr i n ci ple of th e
w orl d s oul a s w e m ay S hort ly t erm i t be come s t h e s ubje ct
-
, ,

of ra t i on a l k n ow le dge th e d ua l pri n ci ple th a t of op i n i on ;

,

t h e obj e ct of t h e h i gher k no w le d ge i s t h e i d e as of t h e ,

low er th e t h i ng s per cep ti ble by th e s en s e s M u ch t h e .

h a r d e s t to un d ers t a n d i s t h e en t i ty pro d u c e d by t h e m i x t ure

of t h e tw o o ri g i n a l s ub s ta n c es S u ch be i ng i ts ori g i n i t
.
,

m us t n ece s s a ri ly be i n t erm e d i at e i n ch a ra cter a me a n ,

be tw een tw o ex t remes No w t h i s po s i t i o n o f i n t erme d i a ry

.
,

be tw een i d e a s an d t h i ng s w as a s cri be d by P l a t o i n th e
”
Rep ubl i c t o m a them a t i ca l form s S ome of h i s follow er s .

h a v e a ccord i ngly s u pp o s e d th a t w h a t i s here me a n t i s t h e

t o t a l i t y of s u c h form s B u t t h e d e s i gn a t i on of t h i s i n t er
.

“ ”
m e d i at e s ome th i ng a s s u b s t a n c e o r O ti o fa p a r e x ce ll e n ce
,

a n d t h e n a t u re of t h e m i x i ng i n t h e Ph i l e b u s (cf p . .

i n c l i ne u s ra t her t o d e s cr i be i t i n u n P l at on i c t erm i nology

,
-

i t m u s t be a d m i t t e d as th e re a l i z a t i on of form i n m a t t er
, ,

or r a ther t h e pr i n ci ple of s u ch re a l i z a t i on
, .

The s o u l s O f th e he av enly bo di e s a n d of t h e be i ng s
re s i d en t o n t h e e a rth w ere forme d of th e s a m e elemen t s a s
t h e w orl d s oul -
M a n w as th e firs t of a n i m a l s to be c re a t e d
.
,

or r a ther c ompo u n d e d o u t of t h e m a t er i a l elemen t s ; a n d

t o t h e i m mor t a l s oul w i t h i n h i m t h e fir s t home of w h i c h
,

h a d been o n s om e fixe d s ta r t here w ere n o w j o i ne d tw o

,

o t her mort a l s oul s Th i s t r i a d— th e ra t i on a l or hea d s o ul

.
-
,

t h e S p i r i t e d or bre a s t s oul a n d t h e a ppe t i t i v e or a b d om i n a l

-
,

s oul — h as a lre a dy bee n bro u gh t t o o u r no t i c e ( c f pp 3 8 . .

and Wh a t i s n e w i s t h e d e t a i le d p a ra llel i s m be tw een

t h e m i c ro c o s m a n d t h e m a c ro co s m O ne p o i n t d e s erv e s
.

’
S pe ci a l men ti on a s ch a ra ct eri s t i c of Pl a t o s poe t i ca lly
c on s t ru c t i ve me tho d Where w e c omp a re he i d en ti fie s
. .

We t o o m i gh t be i n cl i ne d t o c omp a re t h e s ta rs t ravell i ng
, , ,

i n t he i r a ppo i n t e d p a t h s w i t h c h a ngele s s equ a ble mo t i o n , ,

t o w ell or d ere d r a t i on a l t hought s

-
u n t r o uble d by a n y
,
 2 I 8 GRE E K TH I N KE RS .

’
s ome t i me s v ery un s t a ble The o ther c a non o f P l ato s
.

me tho d i n n a t ur a l ph i lo s ophy w a s of more fa t a l co n

s eq u en c e .H e a dop t e d i n d e a d e a rne s t t h e po s t ul a t e of
”
th e t do t h at a l l i n ve s t i g a t i on s ho u l d be c on du ct e d
,
“
from t h e s t a n dpo i n t of th e be t t er ; a n d he employe d
t h i s t eleolog i ca l pri n ci ple n o t only w here th e be t t er w a s
s i mply t h e more regul a r b ut w here i t w as t h e more
,

prefera ble j u dge d by t h e genera l hum a n or t h e s pec i

,

fica l ly Gree k s t a n da r d or e v en by h i s o w n per s on a l

,

t as te . H i s i n s t rumen t here a s before i s d e duc ti o n a

, ,

i i w h i h i t h be s t c a s e t a k e s a n a rb i t r a r i ly s ele c t e d
p r or ,
c n ,
e ,

p i e c e of exper i en c e a n d t hen c e s p i n s i ts far re ach i ng

,
-

t hre a d s .

The un i vers a l be i ng — s uch ro u ghly i s h i s a rgu men t

, ,

i f i t w a s t o m a n i fe s t i ts elf w a s un d er th e n e c e s s i ty of
,

becom i ng vi s i ble a n d t a n g i ble V i s i b i l i t y d em a n d e d l i gh t

.
,

t a ng i b i l i ty e a rt h B u t t he s e t w o eleme n t s w er e n o t eno u gh
. .

I n or der t h a t t hey m i gh t be c omb i ne d i n t o a u n i ty t here ,

w a s n ee d of a proport i on a l rel a t i on ; a n d t h i s i mpl i e d t h e

ex i s t en ce of i n t erme d i at e t erm s M oreov er tw o s u ch
.
,

t erm s w ere n e ce s s a ry for i n t h e d om a i n of cu b i c or s ol i d

numbers s uc h proport i on s — t h e re a s on of t h i s i s a h i ghly
“
c o n t ro v er s i a l problem i n t h e expo s i t i on of t h e Ti m mus
c a nno t be e ff e ct e d by one m i d d le t erm b u t requ i re t w o , .

The s cheme c o u l d n o t be a b h c b ut mu s t be a 5 ,

B y t h i s d e d u ct i v e p at h P l a t o a rri ve s a t th e E mp e d o
c le a n qu a t ern a ry o f elemen t s w a t er a n d a i r s u pply i ng t h e
,

requ i re d i n t erme di a t e s A s w a t er i s rel a t e d t o e a rth S O i s

.
,

fire t o a i r an d t h e s eri e s e a rt h w a t er a i r fire exh i b i t s a

, , , , ,

pro g re s s from t h e le a s t t o th e h i ghe s t d egree of mob i l i ty .

The s pe ci fi c n atu re of t h e fo u r fu n d a m en t a l s ub s ta n c e s i s
d e du c e d from t he i r pr i m a ry c on s t i t u en ts a n d u l t i m a t ely ,

t h e geome t r i ca l proper t i e s of t h e l a t t er I n th i s P l ato i s .

s a i d t o h av e follo w e d P h i l o l a u s w h o w o u l d a ppe a r t o h av e
,

c o n s t r uc t e d a Py t h a gore a n a t om i s m i n r i va lry t o t h a t of
A b d er a Fo u r of t h e reg u l a r s ol i ds w ere a s s i gne d a s th e
.

fun da men ta l form s of t h e fo u r elemen t s t h e cu be a s t h a t

o f e a r t h ; t h e t e t r a he d ro n o r pyr a m i d a s t h a t of fire ; t h e
, ,
 TH E C OS /MOS A LI VI N G S P H E RE . 2 1 9

o ct a he d ro n a s th a t of a i r t h e i co s ahe d ron a s t h a t of w a t er .

The rem a i n i n g reg u l a r s ol i d th e d o de ca he d ro n h a d bee n

, ,

as s oc i a t e d by Ph i lol a u s w i t h t h e he a v e n ly fire o r e t her ;

P l a to prob a bly rel u c t a n t t o o v er s t ep t h e n u mber of four

,

pro p o rt i o n a l t erm s perh ap s t o o w i th t h e obj e ct of a vo i di ng

, , ,

t h e pe n t ag o n s o f t h e d o d e ca he d ro n om i tt e d t h i s eleme n t ,

a l t oge t her t ho u gh he a d m i tt e d i t a g a i n i n h i s l a t e s t ph as e
,
.

I t i s h a r d ly n e c e s s a ry t o s ay t h a t t h e t a per i ng t o n g u e o f
fl a me s u gges t e d t h e pyra m i d a s t h e form of t h e pr i m a ry
c o n s t i t u e n t s of fire w h i le t h e c u be w as a s s i g n e d t o t h e
,

e a rt h elemen t o n t h e gro u n d of i t s co mp a ra ti ve i mm o b i l i ty
-
,
.

No w e a ch o f t h e S i x s i d e s of a c u be c a n be di v i d e d i n t o
,

t w o r i gh t a ngle d i s o s cele s t r i a n gle s

-
on t h e ot her h a n d th e ,

fa ces of t h e o ther t hree fu n da men t a l s o l i d s a re c ompo u n d e d

of r i gh t a n gle d s ca lene t ri a ngle s of w h at w as c on s i d ere d
-
,

t h e mo s t perfe ct fo rm : hen c e w a s expl a i ne d t h e t r a n s

m ut a b i l i ty o f t h e c o rre s po n d i ng elemen ts (w a t er a i r fire ) , ,

i n t o e ac h o t her w h i le e a r t h w i th i ts r a d i ca lly di fferen t

, ,

t r i a n gle s o ccu p i e d a po s i t i on a p a rt
, The e n i gm a t i c qu e s t i on .

w he t her P l a t o c on c e i ve d t h e i n t er i or of h i s pr i m a ry s ol i d s
t o be emp t y o r w i t h w h a t he i m a g i ne d t hem fille d can
, ,

h a r d ly a d m i t a ny o t her a n s w er t h a n t h at t ho s e s m a lle s t
t r i a n gle s en c lo s e d formle s s u l t i m a t e m att er t h e a s s u mp t i o n ,

of w h i c h i s d em a n de d by s ev era l o ther problem s i n s ol u ble ,

”
w i t h o u t i t i n t h e phy s i cs of t h e
, T i m ae u s The pr i m a ry .

t r i a ngle s t hem s el ve s ho w ev er w ere reg a r d e d as exemp t

, ,

from a l l mo t i o n a n d pl a ye d t h e s a m e p a r t i n th e P l a to n i c
,

phys i cs w h i ch Le u ci ppu s a n d Demo cr i t us h a d res er ve d for

t he i r a t om s P l a t o s rel a t i on t o th e a t om i s ts w e m a y
’
.
,

rem a rk i s n o t a l i t tle pe cu l i a r H e k no w s t he i r t heor i e s he

, . ,

borro w s a n i s ol a t e d hypot he s i s from t hem he re a n d t here ,

b u t on th e w hole he i s u n c omprom i s i ngly hos t i le t o t he i r

co n cep t i on of t h e u n i v er s e a n d he i s n o t a b o ve a tt a c ki n g
,

t hem w i t h r i d i c ule a n d pl a ys u pon w or d s Th us i n .

c omb a t i n g th e i nfin i t y of t h e u n i v er s e he m a k e s freq u e n t

u s e of t h e tw ofol d me a n i n g born e by a Gree k w or d w h i ch

“ ”
m ay s i gn i fy e i t her i nfin i t e or i gn or a n t .

The elemen ts h avi n g been con s t ru ct e d a pr i or i t h e ,

c o s mo s i s n o w c on s t ru ct e d o u t of t h e elemen t s S i n c e t he .
2 20 GRE E K TH I N K E RS .

s phere i s th e mo s t perfe ct of form s t h e un i vers e t h e mo s t

, ,

perfect o f phy s i ca l ex i s t en ce s m u s t b e s pher i ca l J u s t i fi

, .

c a t i o n i s t h u s fo u n d for w h a t a gl a n c e a t t h e va ul t of
he aven t e a che s t h e eye o f th e behol der I n t h i s port i on of
.

t h e d i a log u e re a s one d a n t hropomorph i s m a n d t h e a rt i fi ci a l

ret urn t o th e n ai ve i d e as of n a tu re en ter t a i n e d by pr i m i t i v e
m a n re ach t he i r c u lm i n at i ng he i gh t .P l a t o exp o u n d s i n ,

a l l s er i o u s ne s s t h e re a s o n s w h y t h e c o s mo s t ho u gh a l i v i ng
, ,

be i ng i s a ble t o d i s pen s e w i t h ex t rem i ti e s a n d a mo uth :

,

t h e fi r s t be ca u s e of a l l po s s i ble mo t i on s only th e m o s t
,

perfe ct i s v o u ch s a fe d t o i t n a mely ro t a t i o n i n i t s elf ; t h e

, ,

S e con d be c a u s e t h a t w h i c h i n c l u d e s e v ery t h i ng i n i t s elf c an

,

re ce i ve no n ut r i men t from w i thou t w h i le i t s c on t i n u an c e

,

i s en s ure d by t h e fa ct t h at i t i s n o t l i k e o t her be i n g s
, ,

t hre a t ene d w i t h d i s e a s e a n d i nj ury by ex t ern a l agen t s .

Cog n a t e tho u gh ts h a ve been expre s s e d i n our o w n day by

G u s ta v Theo dor Fech n er b u t m at ure s ci en c e m ay i n d u lge
i n a h a lf s er i o u s s por t w i t h hypo t he s e s w h i c h a t a n e a rl i er
-
,

s t a ge i s far from profi t a ble .

.6 I t i s n o t t h e obj e ct of th e pre s en t w or k to reg i s t er a l l

th e erroneou s O p i n i on s of e ven gre a t m i n ds O nly s o m u ch
.

nee d fin d a pl ac e here a s s erve s for th e c h a ra cter i z at i on of

a n a ge or i llu s t r a t e s t h e grow t h of s ci en c e To t h i s c at egory
.

’
belong s t h e r ud i men t di s c ern i ble i n P l a to s a s t ro n om i ca l
,

t e a c h i ng of th e t heory O f th e c ele s t i a l s phere s — a t heory

,

w h i ch w a s s oon t o rec e i v e a mple d e v elopmen t a n d w h i ch , ,

t h u s el abor a t e d s ur vi v e d for c en t ur i e s n ay m i llenn i a a n d

, , , ,

w a s n o t en ti rely a b a n d one d e v en by Copern i cu s Comp a re d .

w i t h t h e a s t ronomy of P h i lol a u s t h i s t heory m ay be t erme d

,

a t on c e re t rogr a d e a n d pro gre s s i v e I t w a s re t rogr a d e

.

be ca u s e i t atta che d th e he avenly bo di e s to s ol i d s uppor ts ,

a n d t hu s d ep a rt e d fu rt her from th e t ru t h t h a n t h e d o c t r i ne

of t ho s e Py th ag ore a n s w h o h a d a lre a dy le a rn t t o reg a r d

t h e s ta rs a s freely s u s pe n d e d i n S p ac e At th e s a me t i m e
.
,

t h e s phere t heory c on t a i n e d a n elemen t of progre s s s i n c e

-
,

i t pro vi d e d a m e a n s ap p ro p r i ate i n i ts elf a n d ca p a ble of

fi

c on s i d er a ble i mpro v emen t — for t h e fa i t hful a n d a c c ur a t e

repre s en t at i on of th e for c e s a cti ng upon th e he a v enly

bo d i e s Th i s theory a n d th a t of P h i lol a u s bo th s e t o u t
.
2 2 2 G RE E K TH I N K E RS .

for a s i n gle c a u s e u n d erly i ng t he s e phenome n a a n d i f t h e

q u e s t en d e d i n c omple t e fa i l u re t h i s w a s t h e n at u ra l ,

re s u l t o f i g n ora n c e t o uch i ng t h e o n e c i rcu m s ta n c e w h i c h

a ffor d s a s a t i s fa c t ory expl a n a t i o n I n s t e a d of t h e d a i ly
.

r o t a ti o n of th e e a r th a d a i ly ro ta t i on of th e c ele s t i a l v a ul t
,

w a s a s s ume d The i mpul s e t o w a rd s a n a mpler d evelopmen t

.

of hypo the s e s c a me to P l a to from t h e i rreg u l a ri t i e s no ,

d oub t v ery i mperfe ct ly k no w n t o h i m w h i c h c h a r a ct er i z e t h e ,

mo vemen t s of th e s ev en bo d i e s n a me d pl a ne ts or wa n d eri ng
s t a rs : t h e s u n t h e ,m o on a n d t h e five pl a ne ts v i s i ble t o
,

th e na k e d eye We c a ll t o m i n d th e s c re w l i k e w i n d i ng s
.
-

of t h e s u n w h i c h a re exh i b i t e d t o th e eye a s t h e re s u l t of
h i s c omb i n e d d a i ly a n d ye a rly mo t i on s (c f Vol I p . . . .

Th a t t he s e mo ti o n s t o o m u s t be a b s o l ut ely regul a r a n d
, , ,

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,

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,

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, , .

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,

pre ce d en c e a mong c u r ve s as t h e s phere enjoye d a mong

c ogn a t e s ol i d s The a tt emp t t o s ol ve th e problem t hu s
.

pre s en t e d g a v e r i s e t o t h e t heory of t h e c ele s ti a l s phe re s .

I t w a s req u i re d t o d e v i s e a c omb i n a t i on of c i rc ul a r
mo t i on s w h i ch s ho u l d re s ul t i n mo ti o n s n o t s t ri ct ly c i rcu l a r .

As s i s t a n c e w as here a ffor d e d by t h e a n a logy of t h e s phere

o f t h e fixe d s t a r s c orre s pon d i ng t o w h i ch o ther s phere s
, ,

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, , ,

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-
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pl a ne t s (i n th e w i d er s en s e) a t ta che d t o t hem Th i s co n .

c e pt i on a s w e a t le a s t a re i n c l i ne d t o t h i n k
,
i s not un ,

c onne c t e d w i t h t h e s u n moon an d s t a r w heel s i n ven t e d -

, ,

by An ax i m a n d er (c f Vol I p 5 3 )— a pre ce d en t w h i ch m ay
. . . .

h a v e i nfl u en ce d e i t her P l a t o h i m s elf or s ome pre de c e s s or

o f h i s u n k no wn t o u s The me ch a n i s m w as t hu s pro vi d e d
.

by w h ich a s olu t i on of t h e a fore s a i d problem be ca m e

po s s i ble The hoop or s phere w i t h t h e pl a ne t a tta che d t o
.

i ts eq u a t or w a s i m a g i ne d en c lo s e d i n a n ot her s phere fixe d ,

i n s u c h a m a nner t h a t w i th o u t lo s i ng i t s o w n proper
mot i on i t p a rt ook i n t h at of th e e n clo s i ng s phere As s um i ng .
 D E VE L OP M E N T OF TH E S P H E R E - TH E O R Y . 2 2 3

t h a t t h e t wo mo t i on s w ere performe d ro u n d di ff eren t a xe s

a n d w i t h d i ffere n t v el o c i t i e s i t w a s q u i t e po s s i ble e v en
, ,

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re s u l t i ng orb i t o f t h e pl a ne t s houl d d ev i a t e from t h e

s t r i c t c i r c u l a r t ype Th i s i s t h e s i mple s t form o f th e hypo
.

t he s i s a n d t h e on e w i t h w h i ch P l a t o re m a i n e d c o n t e n t
, .

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en clo s e d r i n g s o r hoop s c a rr i e d t h e pl a ne t s ; of t h e t w o
mot i on s t h u s c ompo u n d e d t h e firs t t oo k pl a c e i n t h e
,
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,
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“ ”
of t h e o t her I n ex t reme o l d a g e w hen P l a t o w a s ,

“ ”
eng a ge d u pon t h e L aw s he be ca me ac qu a i n t e d w i t h
,
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t h e t heory of t h e e a r t h s ro t a t i o n ro u n d i t s o w n a x i s a ,

t heory a lre a dy fa m i l i a r t o A r i s t o t le (c f Vol I p .a nd . . .

g av e i t t h e preferen c e over h i s o w n former s pe c u l at i on s .

The firs t s t ep t ow a r ds a fu rther d e v el o pmen t of th e s phere

t heory w a s t a k en by E u d ox us a n i n ve s t i g a t or w h o s u ppl i e s
,

a mo del of gen i u s c omb i ne d w i t h s obri e t y H o w he .

el abor a te d th e do ct r i n e a lre a dy ex i s ten t i n germ h o w h i s

, ,

a s s ump t i on of t hree s phere s a p i e c e for s u n a n d moon of ,

four s phere s for e a ch of th e t ru e pl a ne t s fu lly m e t a l l th e ,

fact s of ob s ervat i on t hen k no w n w e m a y le a rn from th e ,

c o n c i s e expo s i t i on of a n em i nen t c on t emp o r a ry t h e firs t ,

a s t ro n omer of mo d ern I ta ly We s h a ll re t urn t o t h e .

s u bje ct i n c on nex i on w i t h t h e t heor i e s of A r i s t ot le a n d

C a ll i pp u s .

P l at o s o t her t ho u gh t s o n t h i ng s c ele s t i a l exh i b i t a

’

”
purely Py th a gore a n t i nge The h a rmony of t h e s phere s.

re cu rs i n th e a s s u mp t i o n th a t t h e c i rcle s d e s cr i be d by t h e
pl a ne ts a re di s pos e d a t i n t erva l s w h i ch en s ure th e h a r
m o n i o u s c o n cor d of t h e s oun ds pro d uce d by t he i r re v olu t i on s .

L i k e t h e he a v en of Py th a gor a s s o t h a t o f P l a t o t oge ther , ,

“
w i th t h e w o rl d s o ul per va d i ng i t i s
-
all n u mber a n d
,

h a rmo n y (c f Vol I p . . . . H i s gre a t or w orl d ye a r ,

-

(cf. Vol . I p. . c omprehen d s t e n t ho u s a n d o r d i n a ry

ye a rs .

’
The mo t l i en t fe t re of P l t o s phy s i c s i s i t s
.
7 s s a a u a

a n t hr o omorph i s m
p T h e
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 2 2 4 GRE E K TH I N K E RS .

d e d u c t i on from w rongly i n t erpre t e d ob s er va t i o n s (c f p . .

i s pre s en t e d i n a m a nn er i mply i ng t h a t e ac h elem en t m u s t

feel u n c omfort able w hen n o t i n t h e reg i on a s s i gne d t o i t ,
“ ”
a n d ye a rn a ft er i t s n a t ura l pl a ce At th e s a me t i m e
.
,

t here a r e n o t w a n t i ng w el com e fl a s he s of i ll u m i n a t i on .

A mong s uch mu s t be c ou n t e d t h e d e n i a l of a t rue a bo v e

a n d belo w i n s p a c e ; t h e a bo v e a n d belo w i n t h e d o c t r i n e

o f n a t ur a l pl a c e s a r e no t a b s ol u t e b u t c on di t i o n e d by t h e

s t r a t i fi c a t i on of m a tt er roun d t h e e a r t h s o t h a t t h e a n t i
,

p o d e a ns m a y u s e t he s e t erm s i n t h e oppo s i t e s en s e t o ours .

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, ,
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c on s equen c e s a r e d r a w n from t h e d en i a l of t h e v o i d Tho ugh .

only a s pec i a l c a s e i s d i s cu s s e d th e pr i n c i ple s a ppe a le d t o

,

a re of m u c h w i d er s cope . P l a t o repre s en t s th e t w o ph a s e s
of th e re s p i r a t ory a ct exp i ra t i on a n d i n s p i ra ti on a s t oge ther
, ,

form i ng a s i ngl e re curren t mo t i on ; a n d i n t h i s c onn ex i on

he po i n ts o u t t h at i n th e a b s en ce of a vo i d S p a c e mo ti on
, ,

c a n only pro c ee d by e a ch mo v i ng p a rt i cle d i s pl ac i ng i t s

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, ,

p a rt i c le w h i ch t ake s th e pl ac e of t h e firs t The i m age of

,
.

th e re vol vi ng w heel i s here m a d e u s e of a n d i t m ay be

c onj e ct ure d t h at t h i s mo s t ob v i o u s a n d gr a ph i c i llu s t r a t i on

of cycl i c t ra n s feren ce h a d s ome s h a re i n t h e gene s i s of t h e

r i ng or hoop t heory of t h e pl a ne t a ry mo t i on s A rem a r k
-
.

a ble a n t i c i p at i on o f th e mo s t mo d ern t heor i e s i s perh a p s

t o be foun d i n t h e d en i a l of re a l a t t r a ct i on a n d t hu s of t h e
,

a ct i on a t a di s t a n c e t hereby i mpl i e d w h i ch i s m a d e i n t h e
,

c o u r s e of a d i s q u i s i t i on on ele ct r i c a n d m a gne t i c phenom en a .

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, , ,

i t be j u s t i fi a ble or n o t i s one w h i c h pr i m i t i v e t ho ugh t

, ,

d om i n a t e d by t h e d a i ly exper i en c e of i mp a ct a n d pre s s ure ,

i s p a r t i c u l a rly re a dy t o m a k e .

I n th e b i ology of th e T i m ae u s no t h i ng i s s o rem a r k
,

a ble a s t h e pre d om i n a n c e o f s pe ci fi ca lly hum a n i n d ee d ,

of e th i ca l po i n t s of vi e w The s o verei gn ty of re a s on t h e
,
.
,

re s t r a i n t of d e s i re a re here i n v e s t e d w i t h s uprem e i mpor t

,

a nce . Th u s t h e num erou s w i n di ng s of th e i n t e s ti ne s a r e

expl a i ne d a s a pre cau ti on a g a i n s t glu t tony ; by re t a r d i ng
t h e p a s s a ge of d i ge s t i v e re s i d u e s t hey pre v en t t o o s pee d y
 GR E E K TH I N K E RS .

of p a rt i c ul a r bo d i ly c on d i t i on s —a rem a rka ble exp a n s i on

of t h e S oc ra t i c do ct ri ne I n t h e w ork s of P l a t o s e a rl i e s t
.
’

peri o d th e a bo v e m en t i one d t he s i s o ccu r s i n w h a t i s

-

ob vi o us ly th e or i g i n a l S o cra t i c form a s a n expre s s i on of

,

a b s ol u t e c onfi d en c e i n t h e s u prem a cy of t h a t k no w le dge

w h i ch i s t h e fru i t of re fl e x i o n a n d i n s t r u ct i on No one .

a c t s a g a i n s t h i s be t t er c on v i ct i on ; he w h o a ppe a rs t o d o

s o i s d emen t e d .

Th i s a dd i ti on t h i s re s t ri ct i v e qu a l i fi ca t i on i s n o w
, ,

d e v elope d i n t o a t heory P l a t o en t er s m i n u t ely i n t o t h e

.

phys i ca l c a u s e s of m a d ne s s a n d for u s t h i s proc e d u re of

,

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.
, ,

longer follo ws S o cra t e s i n reg a r d i ng m a d n e s s a s a n i s o l a t e d

phenomenon u n w or thy of more th a n p a s s i ng men t i on ; a n d
, ,

s e c on d ly t h a t t h e c on nex i on b e tw een men t a l a n d bo d i ly

,

pro c e s s e s h as n o w g a i ne d for h i m a n i n t ere s t c om men s u r a t e

w i t h t h a t w i d en i ng of h i s i n t e lle ct u a l hor i zon s o oft en ,

emph as i ze d by u s i n w h i ch N a t ure i s n o w i n cl u de d equ a lly

,

w i t h t h e w orl d of m i n d A t t h e s a me t i m e i t i s n o t a l i t t le
.
,

rem a r k a ble w i t h w h a t t en a ci ty he c l i ng s t o t h e S oc ra t i c
“ ”
formul a n o t only i n t h e T i m aeu s b ut e ven i n th e L a ws
, ,

a l t hough t h e i n t elle c t u a l i s m of w h i c h i t w a s or i g i n a lly t h e

expre s s i on h a s been un d erm i ne d a s fa r b ack a s i n th e

“
Gorg i a s a n d t h e P h ae d o (c f Vol I I p 3 5 3 a n d Vol
. . . .
, .

”
1 11 p . . a n d s t i ll more i n t h e ,
Rep ubl i c by th e d o ct ri n e
,

of t h e t ri p a r t it e s o u l a n d t h e emph a ti c re c ogn i ti on of
pr a ct i c e a n d h a b i t ati on a s i n d i s pen s a ble i n mor a l e du ca ti on
p l a t o s fur the s t a dv a n c e i n t h i s d i re ct i on i s t o
’

( c f
. . P
be ob s erv e d i n t h e ob vi ou s ly s elf c r i t i c a l p a s s a ge s on th e
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“ ” “ ”
a l l s u ffic i e n cy of
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w i s d om and k now le dge w h i ch a re
s c a t t ere d u p a n d d o w n t h e L a w s t h a t t erm i n a l member
,

i n t h e s er i e s of th e P l a t on i c w ri ti ng s t o w h i c h our at t en t i on
mu s t n o w be di re ct e d .
 A P OS TH UM O OS W OR K . 2 2 7

C H APTER X X .

P LATO S L AW S
’
.

1 . T H E RE i s a fine poem by Ferd i n a n d vo n S a a r w h i c h

beg i n s w i t h a n apos t rophe t o Au tu m n s u nny a n d m i l d , ,

t h a t g i v e s t h e fore s t s n e w hue s S uc h i s t h e l i fe s a u t umn ’

.

”
o f w h i c h w e h av e t h e reflex i n t h e L aws No t t h at i n .

’
t h i s w or k o f P l a t o s o l d a g e a l l i s pure r a di a n ce of i n t elle c t
o r m i l d an d gen t le s en t i men t The j ou rn ey t hro ugh t h e
.

”
L aws l i e s p a s t m a ny a d e s ert t ra ct a n d t here a re ,

occa s i on a l u tt era n ce s of a lmo s t i n comprehen s i ble s everi ty .

T a k en a l l i n a l l ho w e ver i t i s a w ork of th e r i che s t m a tu r i ty

, , ,

perme a t e d by s eren e w i s dom a n d a mello w w a rm th of

feel i ng to w h i ch no t h i ng h u m a n i s a l i en At t h e s a me t i me .
,

i t i s i n no me a n d egree t h e pro du ct of a h i gh a rt i s t i c s en s e ,

ob s cu re d a s w e mu s t a d m i t by n o t a fe w w e a k ne s s e s of
, ,

exe cut i on M a ny c i rcum s t a n ce s con s p i re t o d i m i n i s h th e

.

pow er of i ts a ppe a l As a n c i en t c ri t i cs w ere w ell a w a re

.
,

th e L a ws ne ver u n d er w en t t h e l a s t l ab o u rs of th e file .

I t i s a po s thum o u s w ork w i t h t h e publ i c at i on of w h i ch

,

P l a t o en t ru s t e d h i s p u p i l a n d a m a nue n s i s P h i l i pp u s of Opu s .

The l a tt er d i s ch a rge d h i s c omm i s s i on i n pre ci s ely th e

m anner t h a t w a s t o be expe cte d of th e d e vo t e d d i s ci ple of
a gre a t m a s t er . The expe ct a n t c i rc le of p up i l s a n d re a ders
w as n o t k ep t i n long s u s pen s e W i t h i n a ye a r t h e volum i no u s
.

w or k w a s g i v en t o t h e w orl d Th i s ve ry i n t ell i g i ble h a s t e

.
,

a n d t h e s t i l l more i n t ell i g i b le feel i ng o f d u ty t o w a r d s t h e

re vere d he a d of t h e s chool ca u s e d t h e e d i tor t o refra i n

,

w i t h th e mo s t s c ru p u lo u s c a re from a l l i n t erfere n c e w i t h t h e
t ex t a n d a l l t h e m a rk s of i mperfe ct i on i n c l u d i ng c er t a i n
, ,

m a n i fe s t con t r a d ic t i on s w ere left u nobl i t er a t e d

, .
2 2 8 GRE E K TH I N K E RS .

The con t en t s of th e boo k w h i c h i ncl u d e s no le s s t h a n

,

a c omple t e c o d e o f c on s t i t u t i o n a l pr i va t e a n d c r i m i n a l l a w
, , ,

t oge t her w i t h ph i l a n t hr o p i c a n d e d uca t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s ,

w ere o ut of k eep i n g w i t h t h e d i a log u e fo rm t h e a r t i s t i c -

,

me d i u m w h i c h P l a t o n e ver thele s s re t a i ne d from l i felong

h a b i tu a t i o n . Long d i d a ct i c d i s q u i s i t i on s w ere t h u s e v e n
“ ”
le s s av o i d a ble t h a n i n t h e T i m ae u s For th e w hole of .

o n e boo k t h e fift h o f t h e t w el v e
, a S i ngle per s on s pe a k s
,

c on t i n u o us ly u n i n t errup t e d by a s m u ch a s a q u e s t i o n
, To .

t h i s c onfl i ct be t w een form a n d m a t t er w ere a dd e d o t her

d efe cts of w h i c h P l a t o w a s w ell a w a re t ho u gh u n a ble t o ,

reme dy t hem H e i s co n s c i o us of t h e t en d en cy t o repe t i t i on

.

a r i s i ng fr o m t h e l o q u a ci t y of a ge a n d he ex c u s e s i t by
,

rem a r k i ng t h a t th e t r ut h m ay w ell b e s a i d t w i c e or t hri c e

” ’
o v er . H e i s equ a lly c on s ci ou s of th e o l d m a n s le a n i ng
t o w a r d s di gre s s i on s a n d he p a ll i a t e s i t m a k i n g a v i r t u e of
, ,

n ec e s s i ty by c omp a ri ng h i s m i n d t o a fiery s tee d w h i c h i t

,

i s ne c e s s a ry t o c urb a n d hol d for c i bly t o t h e s t r a i gh t p a t h .

There i s ye t a n o t her repro ac h a g a i n s t w h i c h P l a t o

d efen d s h i m s elf i n a n t i ci p a t i on o f h i s c r i t i c s I t i s i n no .

s p i r i t of w i lfu lne s s h e s a y s t h a t he h a s i n du s tr i o us ly
, ,

employe d l i ngu i s t i c i n no va t i on s The fe a t u re t o w h i ch he

.

a ll u d e s i s o n e t h a t fo r c e s i t s elf u pon t h e mo s t c u r s o ry
“ ”
re a d er of t h e L a w s The t ex t of t h i s w ork i s t h i ck ly
.

s o w n w i t h n eolog i s m s b o t h re a l a n d a pp a ren t
,
H e borro w s .

w or ds a n d form s from t h e l a ng u a ge of th e poe ts a s w ell a s

from a n ol der s ta ge of t h e At t i c d i a le ct a n d i n a d d i t i on he ,

employ s n e w i n v en ti on s of h i s o wn i n gre a t number A l l .

t h i s t oge t her w i t h t h e frequen t ly u nu s u a l or d er of t h e

,

w or ds an d t h e d el i c a t ely a dj u s t e d rhy t hm e vi d en t ly s er ve s ,

t h e p u rpo s e of i mp a r t i n g t o t h e d i s c o u r s e a ch a ra c t er o f
s olem n i t y a n d remo t ene s s form e v ery d a y comm o n pl a c e
Vol I I pp 2 7 9 2 8 5 a n d Vol I I I W i h reg a rd to
( c f. . . .
, , t . .

t h e s u cce s s of t h i s en d e a vour th e a u t h o r i s a t no p a i n s t o co n
,

c e a l h i s s at i s fa c t i on H e m ak e s t h e o ther pers on a ge s of t h e
.

”
d i a log u e pr a i s e t h e s pee che s re s emb l i ng p o e t ry a n d hol d ,

t hem up a s mo d el s i n t h e m a n ner t h a t be t o k e n s a rem a r k

a ble a n d no t a l t oge t her ple a s i ng d egree of s elf compl a c en c y -
.

”
We s ay th e o ther pers on a ge s o f th e d i a logue be c a us e ,
 GR E E I ( TH I NK E R S .

P l ato as mo d el s B ut i n o n e d e c i s i v e po i n t t h e ca s e w a s
.

o therw i s e The pol i cy of w a r a n d c onqu e s t w a s o n e w h i ch

.

P l a t o d e t e s t e d from h i s i nn ermo s t s oul a n d on t h i s he a d ,

h e d i d n o t w i s h h i s re a d ers t o be left i n d o u b t for a momen t .

H en ce a lmo s t a t th e beg i nn i n g of th e d i a logu e t h e s ug

, ,

g e s t i ve q u e s t i on i s a s k e d : Wh a t i s t h e obj e c t of yo u r
c ommon m e a l s of men a n d k i n d re d i n s t i t ut i on s ? The
a n s w er el i c i t e d from t h e o t her i n t erlo cu t or s i s t h a t t h e

pol i t i ca l i n st i tut i on s of the i r c o un t r i e s a re d i re cte d t o w a r d s

w a r a n d c onq u e s t a s t h e s u prem e e n d P l a t o a t on c e .

s i gn i fie s h i s d i s s en t H e s e ts a bo u t pro v i ng th e i rr a ti on a l i ty
.

of w a r by c omp a r i ng th e s t r i fe of c i ty w i t h ci ty t o th a t of
v i ll a ge w i t h v i ll a ge ; t hen t o t h a t be t w een fa m i l i e s a n d

i n d i vi du a l s l a s t ly t o t h e i n w a r d confl i c t i n th e s i ngle s oul

, .

From t h i s a rg u m en t far re ach i ng c on s equ en c e s en s ue I t

-
.

h a s s er ve d to b u i l d a br i d ge be tw een pol i t i cs a n d e t h i cs .

Wh i ther t h i s br i d ge i s t o le a d u s s oon be c ome s a bun d a n t ly

c le a r. I f w a r a n d c on q u e s t a r e n o t t h e s u preme e n d i n
pol i t i cs h o w ca n ca p a c i ty for w a r or c our age c l a i m t h e
, , ,

fi rs t pl ac e i n t h e h i era r c hy o f t h e v i rt u e s ? I t i s n o t t h e
w hole of v i r t ue b ut t h e le a s t v a lu a ble p a r t of i t t ow a r ds
, ,

w h i ch t ho s e i n s t i t u t i on s a r e d i re ct e d s o fa r a s t he i r p u rpo s e
,

i s e d uc a t i on a l Th i s i t m ay be ob s erv e d i s a l s o t h e ch i ef
.
, ,

a cc u s a t i on bro ugh t by A r i s t o t le a g a i n s t th e L yc urge a n

d i sci pl i ne I n br i ng i ng i t here P l a t o s t r i ke s t h e k e y no t e
.
,
-

O f t h e w hole w or k To w a r d s th e e n d he refer s i n expre s s

.

t erm s t o t h i s i n t ro d u ct i o n a n d t h e i n t erv en i ng m a t t er i s
,

a ll s ubor d i n a t e d t o t h e s a m e t ho u gh t The w hole of s ta t e

.

c ra ft i s repre s e n t e d a s a me a n s of e d u ca t i on a n i n s t ru men t ,

for t h e a t t a i n i ng of perfec t i on ; a n d for t h e a uthor of t h e

“ ” “ ”
L aw s ,
i f n o t for t h a t of t h e Gorg i a s an d th e
“ “
Th e at te tus t h e t ,
do a n d th e Ph i l e b u s perfe ct i on ,

i s t h e c omple t e s t a n d mo s t s ym me t r i ca l d e v elopmen t of
t h e m i n d a n d t h e bo d y t h e e v ol v i ng of a h a rmony i n
,

w h i ch t h e w hole i s s e t h i gh a bo v e t h e p a rt s .

B ut w e w i ll re t u rn from t h i s a n t i c i p a t i on a n d follo w ,
’
P l a to s more d el i ber a t e a d va n c e E v en i f c o u ra ge w ere
.

th e c h i ef of t h e v i rt u e s — i t i s t hu s ro u ghly t h a t t h e a rg u
, ,

men t proc ee d s — e ven t hen t h e e d u cat i on a l me a n s employe d

,
 A C OM P L E TE E D U CA TI ON . 2 3 I

w ou ld notbe th e be s t a d ap t e d t o t he i r purpo s e The .

“ ”
e d u ca ti on i n q u e s t i on i s a one s i d e d l i mp i ng e d u ca t i o n
-
,
.

For coura ge t a k en i n i ts h i ghe s t s en s e a s s te a dfas t ne s s of

,

t h e s o u l i s exerci s e d n o t only i n fa ce of d a nger a n d p a i n

, ,

b ut a l s o i n re s pect of ple a s u re (c f t h e t re a t men t of t h e .

s u bj e c t i n t h e L a che s p 2 99 s eq of t h e s e con d v ol u me )
, .
, ,
.

Ag a i n s t t h e t emp ta t i o n s from t h i s s our c e you t h o u gh t t o be

a rme d n o t remo v e d from t emp t a t i on a l t oge t her
, As a n .

ex a mple he t a k e s th e ple a s ure s o f w i n e c omple t e i gnora n ce

, ,

o f w h i c h i s c oun t e d by M e
g i l l u s a mong t h e v i r t u e s of t h e
Sp a rta n yo uth The t r uth i s a ccordi ng t o P l a t o t h a t w i n e
.
, ,

i s a h i ghly i mport a n t t e s t of th e s t e a d fa s t ne s s of t h e s o u l ,

a n d a t t h e s a me t i m e a s t re n g t hen i ng t on i c for i t no le s s ,

t h a n t h e p a i nful or d e a l s by w h i c h t h e boy s of Sp a rt a a re
t ra i ne d i n t o fi t ne s s for w ar Th i s br i ng s h i m t o a n i m
.

por ta n t genera l i z a t i on w h i ch he i ll u s t r at e s by a n i ngen i o us

,

fi c t i on H i s purpo s e req u i re s a s ub s t a n c e c on t ra ry i n i ts
.

e fl e ct s t o w i ne — p re d i s po s i ng t o fe a r i n s t e a d of t o d e s i re
'

d i m i n i s h i ng i n s t e a d of i n c re a s i ng t h e s en s e of l i fe a n d
energy d epre s s i ng i n s t e a d of ex a lt i n g The m e t ho d s u g
,
.

ge s t e d for t h e employment of w i n e i n e d uc a t i on con s i s ts

i n firs t ex c i t i ng t h e a ggre s s i v e a n d a ppe t i t i v e i n s t i n ct s by
i t s u s e t hen s u bje ct i ng t hem t o re s t r a i n i ng di s c i pl i ne
,
.

The i m a g i ne d a n ti t he s i s t o w i ne w o u l d ren der a s i m i l a r

s er v i c e i n re s pe c t of t h e d epre s s i v e e mo t i on s I t i s m u ch .

as i f P l a t o h a d pre s c r i be d th e c ompleme n t a ry u s e of a l cohol

a n d t h e brom i d e s .

E d uc a t i on i s t h e s ubje ct on w h i ch P l a t o fir s t d w ell s a t
a n y leng t h I t s pr i m a ry obje ct i s s t a t e d (i n t h e s e c on d
.

boo k) t o be ri gh t mo de s of feel i ng th e a c qu i s i t i on of w h i ch
,

s ho u l d pre ce d e by a long i n t er va l t h e i n s t r u ct i on of t h e

re as on a n d s houl d be fin a lly fo u n d i n a greemen t w i th th e

,

s ub s t a n c e of s u ch i n s t ru ct i on Aft er t h e e d u cat i on of
.

c h i l d ren c ome s t h a t re c e i ve d by a d u l ts o n t h e o ccas i on of

fe s ti va l s — a n e ducat i on re st i ng i n th e l as t re s ort on rhy thm

a n d h a rmo n y The que s ti on a r i s e s : Wh at w orks of pl as t i c
.

a n d m u s i c a l a rt a re t o be c o u n t e d be au t i fu l ? The a n s w er
i s : Th a t i s be a u t i fu l w h i ch pert a i n s t o a ny ex cellen c e o f
s o u l or bo dy or t o th e c opy o f s u ch v i rt ue ; ugl i n e s s h a s
 GRE E K TH I NK E RS .

th e sa me rel at i on to vi c e s a n d d efe cts The ms th e t i c

.

j u dgmen t i s t h u s re duc e d to a n e th i c a l one P rom i nen c e .

i s g i v en t o t h e h i gh i mport a n ce of h ab i t u a ti on th e e ffe c t ,

of w h i ch i s to pro du ce l i k i ng bo th for goo d t h i ng s a n d

,

evi l . For w e i n volun t a r i ly com e t o re s emble th e t h i ng s

t h at ple as e u s e v en w hen t hey a re e v i l lo n g b efo re w e
, ,

c e a s e t o b e s h y of pr a i s i ng t hem For t h i s re a s on E gyp t

.

i s h i ghly c ommen d e d a s be i ng t h e only l a n d i n w h i c h by ,

th e e s ta bl i s hmen t of fixe d a n d un a l t er a ble type s i n mu s i c a l

a s w ell a s d e cor a t i v e a rt leg i s l a t i v e w i s d om h a s d on e i t s
,

u t mo s t t o fa m i l i a r i ze yo u t h w i t h be au t y (cf Vol I I p . . . .

S i n ce a l l pra ct i c e of a rt i s t o be s ubj e ct e d t o t h e
s t r i ct e s t c on t rol on t h e p a r t of t h e S t at e t here c an h a r d ly ,

be a more i mport a n t que s t i on for th e pol i t i c i a n t h a n t h a t

of th e c r i t eri on of be a u ty Accor d i ng t o th e pr i n ci ple s
.

here tak en for gra n t e d t h i s c o i n ci d e s w i th th e c ri t er i on

,

of goo dne s s I n t h e c ours e of t h e a rgumen t th e fu n da

.

“ ”
men t a l t he s i s of t h e Republ i c re curs t h e c en t ra l d o ct r i n e ,

of S o c ra t i s m t o u ch i ng t h e i n s ep a ra b i l i ty of h app i ne s s a n d
j u s t i c e (cf p . .I t s ho u l d b e ob s erv e d t h a t P l at o
enoun c e s i t here w i th s ome wh a t d i m i n i s he d c on fi d en c e .

A l l th e proofs w h i c h th e a u thor of t h e Republ i c accu m u

l a t e d s o i n s at i a bly (of p a n d w h i ch he w i ll s u pplemen t
. .

by a fre s h b a tc h i n a l a t er p a r t of t h e L a w s (cf Vol I I . . .

p 3 2 2 s e q ) h av e been i n s u ffi c i en t t o b a n i s h th e l as t rem n a n t
.
,
.

of d oub t I t i s only t h u s th a t w e ca n expl a i n th e re s erv a ti on

.

“
w i t h w h i ch t h e gre a t d o ct ri ne i s here i n t ro d u c e d : E v en i f
t h i s bel i ef w ere n o t t r u e a n y n o t w holly u s ele s s leg i s l at or
,

w o u l d s ee k t o i mpl a n t i t i n t h e you t hfu l m i n d by me a n s of

Ar t i s w holly
”
a n oble l i e t h e mo s t profi t a ble of i t s k i n d
, .

enl i s t e d i n th e s ervi c e of mora l i ty For th e p u rpo s e of .

“
fill i ng th e t en d er s o u l s of th e young w i th th e ch a rm of
v i rt ue ,
s ong s a r e t o be po u re d i n t o t he i r e a r s from e v e ry

side . Three cho i r s a re t o s h a re th e s i ng i ng of t hem on e o f ,

c h i l d ren o n e of yo u ng a n d on e of el d er men t h e fl a gg i ng
, , ,

s p i r i t s of t he s e l a s t r a i s e d by t h e l i ber a l u s e of w i ne I n th i s .

c onnex i on w e h a v e pre s en t e d t o u s t h e d o c t r i ne s o fa m i l i a r ,

t o A r i s t o t le t h a t a l l a rt re s t s on i m i t a t i on
, a n d o cc a s i on i s

t a k en t o p a s s a s t r i k i ngly d epre c i a t ory j u dgmen t on purely

2 34 GRE E K TH I N K E R S .

fin ds t here t h e c onfirm a t i on o f t h e re s ul ts wh i ch he h a s
o b t a i n e d from a no ther s o u r c e .H e a ppe a l s t o th e h i s t ory
of t h e Dor i a n s t at e s of t h e P eloponne s e t o t h a t of th e ,

P ers i a n mon a rchy a n d t h e Athe n i a n d emoc r a cy Am i d .

m u ch t h a t i s legen d a ry s t a t emen ts o ccur w h i c h m ay w el l

,

s eem le s s i mprob a ble t o u s t h a n t hey d i d t o th e l a s t

gener at i on S uch for ex a mple i s th e a s s ump t i on t h at
.
, ,

Troy w a s on ce w i t h i n th e s phere of As s yr i a n i nfl u en ce ;
w e h a v e n o w d o cumen t a ry e v i d en c e t o S ho w t h a t As s yr i a
exerc i s e d a t empor a ry s u zer ai n t y o ver Ly d i a B ut th e .

’
i mpor ta n t po i n t i s P l at o s c le a r per c ep t i on t h at pol i t i ca l
s t r u c t u re s m a fa ll n o t o n ly by forc e from w i t ho ut b u t
y ’

by t he i r o w n i n he ren t d efe c ts a n d t h a t th e ch i ef of t he s e
,

fat a l fl aw s i s th e ex c lu s i ve d om i n a n ce of a s i n gle pr i n ci ple

of go vern men t th e one s i de d ex a gger a t i on w he t her o f
,
-
,

a u t hor i t y or of l i bert y . The t r ut h i s pro c l a i me d— a n d

’
here i n l i e s a n i n d i re ct c r i t i c i s m of t h e ph i lo s opher s gov ern
m e n t pro po s e d i n th e Republ i c — t h a t hum a n n a t u re i s
“

n o t eq u a l t o t h e exer ci s e of a b s ol ut e or i rre s pon s i ble po w er .

H e n ce a r i s e s t h e ne c e s s i ty here as s er t e d w i t h t h e u t mo s t
,

emph a s i s of a t empere d or m i xe d form of c on s t i tu ti on

,
.

’
Nee d w e s ay h o w gre a t ly i t re d o un d s t o P l a to s honour
t h a t he s ho u l d h a v e w o n h i s w a y i n h i s o l d a g e t o t h i s
fu n da men ta l t ru th v a l i d for a l l a ge s ? An d ye t i t m i gh t
,

ne v er h av e d a w ne d u p o n h i s m i n d i f he h a d n o t h a d b efore
h i s eye s a n h i s t or i c a l ex a mple of a m i xe d c on s t i t u t i on ,

d i s t i n g u i s he d by i t s s t a b i l i ty Sp a r ta w i t h i ts d ouble
.
,

mon a rchy i ts a r i s to c ra t i c co u n ci l of el d ers a n d i ts d emo

, ,

c r a t i c E phor a t e s er v e d h i m a s a p a tt ern j u s t a s t h e E ngl i s h

,

c on s t i t u t i on d i d Mon t e s q u i eu a n d h i s follo w er s It is a .

’
ple as i ng t a s k t o t r a c e t h e i nfl u en c e of P l a to s t ho ugh t s
“
d o w n t o t h e i m me d i a t e pre s en t The fat her s of th e
.

U n i t e d S t a t e s c on s t i t u t i on re c e i v e d t h e d o c t r i ne of t h e
’

d i v i s i on of pow er s a s a n i n v i ol a ble her i t a ge fro m M on t e s

qu i en w h o s e a u thor i ty me a n t fo r t hem w h a t t h at of
,

A r i s to t le me a n t for t h e M i dd le A ge s B u t t h e a u t h o r of
.

“
th e Sp i r i t of t h e L a w s (1 7 48) c h a mp i one d th i s fu n da
men t a l d o ct r i ne of h i s w i t h i mme di a t e referen c e t o
P o lyb i u s w h o borro w s i n unm i s t a k a ble fa s h i on fr o m P l a t o
, ,
 “
TH E D I VI S I ON O F P O W E RS .
”
2 3 5

as w ell as from orre s pon di ng p a s s a ge s i n Ar i s t o tle ;

th e c

he be t ra y s a t t h e s a me t i me a n i n t i m a t e a cqu a i n t a n c e w i t h
’ ”
P l a to s L a w s . No d o u b t i t i s i mpo s s i ble t o a ppr ai s e t h e
i nfluen ce w h i c h a n ci en t forerunners exerc i s e d u pon h i m B u t .

t h a t t h i s i nfl u en ce i s negl i g i ble t h a t th e c onfi d en c e a n d t h e

,

pers i s t en cy w i t h w h i ch Mo n te s q u i e u enou n c e d t h a t d oct r i ne

of h i s s o fu ll of c on s equen c e s w ere i n no d egree e n h a n c e d
, ,

by th e con s ci ou s ne s s of t re a di ng i n th e foot s t ep s of gre a t

pre d ece s s ors — th i s w e t h i n k i s more t h a n a ny on e w i ll
, ,

v e n t u re t o a s s er t .

The do ct r i ne of th e b a l a n ce of po w er s h a s been obj ec t e d

t o o n t h e groun d t h a t i t s s t r i ct a n d unq u a l i fie d a ppl i cat i o n
i n pr a c t i c e w oul d le a d t o a d e a d loc k The d i vi s i on of .

”
po w ers on th e o ther h a n d m ay be reg a r d e d a s a ca tch
, ,

phra s e expre s s i ng n o t qu i t e s a t i s fa ct ori ly e i ther of t w o

, ,

v ery d i ff eren t t h i ng s — t h e d em a n d t h a t t h e s upreme pol i t i c a l

fu ncti ons leg i s l at i ve exe cu t i v e a n d j udi c i a l s h a ll be k ep t
, , , ,

s ep a r a t e ; or a g a i n t h at th e p a r a mo u n t elemen t i n th e
, ,

c omm u n i t y s h a ll be s ome t h i ng le s s t h a n omn i po t en t B ut .

P l a t o a n d h i s a n ci en t follo w er s Ar i s t o tle a n d t h e h i s t or i a n
,

Po lyb i u s m u s t b e ac qu i tt e d of a ll s h a re of re s pon s i b i l i ty
,

fo r t he s e m i s u n d er s t a n d i ng s a n d d i ffi c u l t i e s The d em a n d .

“ ”
w h i c h P l at o m ak e s i n t h e L a ws a n d w h i ch he repe a t s ,

“ ”
i n m a ny va r i e d form s i s one for t h e , t emperi ng th e ,
” “ ”
mo dera t i on t h e m i x t ure of form s of go vernmen t for
, ,
’ ’
t h e recon c i l i a ti on of t h e people s l i bert y w i t h t h e rulers
a u t hor i t y a n t a gon i s t i c t o a rb i t r a ry d e s po t i s m a s m u ch a s
,

to a n y d emo c r a t i c d egener a cy The roo t of t h i s d ege n era cy

.
,

“
i n h i s o w n co u n t ry s eem s t o h i m t o b e t h e
,
d el us i on of
”
a ll t h a t t hey k no w a l l o r el s e as t h i s d el u s i on a ppe a r s t o
, ,

s pr i ng from t h e pre s u mp t i on of t h e t he a t re go i ng p u bl i c -
,

“ ”
t h at i nfl u en c e w h i ch he n a me s t he a t ro c ra cy P l at o .

c o n gra t u l a t e s h i m s elf on h a vi n g prep a re d t h e w a y for t h i s

con s i d er a t i on by h i s ae s t he t i c d i s qu i s i t i on s e a rl i er i n t h e
d i a log u e a n d t here a r e s e ver a l o ther i n s t a n c e s i n t h i s boo k ,

no tably a t i ts c lo s e i n w h i ch he loo k s b a c k w i t h s ome co m

,
”
l ac e n c on t h e r a n d om t r u a n c y of th e d i s co u r s e w h i ch
p y
h a s been s o w ell j us t i fie d by th e re s ul t Th i s c ompl a cen cy .

re ache s i ts h i ghe s t l i m i t i n th e p a s s age w here Cl e i n i a s

2 3 6 GRE E K TH I N K E R S .

m a n i fe s t s h is nx i e ty to d eri v e profi t from th e c olloquy s o

a ,

fa r as i t h a s gone a n d a pply t h e t heory to a p u rpo s e of

,

i mme di a t e pr act i ca l u t i l i ty A fort u n a t e c h a n c e he s ay s

.
, ,

h a s bro ugh t a bo u t t h i s c onv ers a t i on pre c i s ely a t t h e momen t

w hen he i s ch a rge d a s member of a c om m i tt ee of t e n w i t h
, ,

t h e d ut y of fr a m i ng l aw s for a propo s e d n e w Cre t a n c olony .

The re a de r m ay perh a p s remember a n e a rl i er i n s ta n c e of

“ ”
t h i s s a me phr a s e a for t u n a t e ch a n c e
, The P l a ton i c .

S oc r a t e s u s e s i t t o expre s s h i s s a t i s fa ct i on th at h e a n d
t e dr u s h a v e Lys i a s s s pee ch s o re a dy t o t he i r h a n d t o
’

i llu s t rat e a n d con firm t he i r n e w ly d i s c ov ere d rhe tori ca l

po s t ul a te s (cf p . . The l i t era ry a rt i fi ce i s one a n d th e
s a me i n bo t h ca s e s The gre a t a rti s t lo v e s t o c on c e a l h i s
.

purpo s e s a n d pr i de s h i m s elf on th e s k i ll w i t h w h i c h he c an
,

repre s en t a s t h e w or k of s port i ve c h a n c e w h at h a s re a lly

been prep a re d for long beforeh an d an d l e d up t o w i t h
el a bora t e ca l c ul a t i on .

We s e e t h a t e ven t h e fl a gg i ng po w er s of th e gre at e s t
of a l l a ut hors s ti ll d e s er ve our en t i re re s pe ct H e k no ws .

h i s b u s i ne s s fa r be t t er t h a n s ome of h i s c r i t i cs Cert a i n of .

“
t he s e h a v e s een only fa ul t s o f w or k m a n s h i p i n th e t r u a n cy
”
of th e d i s c ours e t h at i s t h e un co n s t ra i n e d a n d appa r en tly
, ,
“
pl a n le s s fl o w of t a l k w h i ch th e a u t hor of t h e
, Laws
d el i ber at ely choo s e s a n d c omm en d s Or r a t her merely .
,

be cau s e he h a s n o t from t h e v ery beg i nn i ng s e t fort h t h e

w hole of h i s p u rpo s e a n d t h e o r d er of i ts fulfilmen t i n c le a r
a n d h a r d o u t l i ne t hey h av e d oub t e d th e P l a t on i c co m
,

po s i t i on o f t h e w ork a n d d e s c ri be d i t a s a p a tch w or k
,

pro d uc t i o n more or le s s a rb i t ra r i ly a n d un s k i lfu lly p i e c e d

,

t oge t her by t h e e d i t or i a l h a n d o u t of s e v er a l or i g i n a l d r a ft s .

The s e v i e w s w h i ch w e reg a r d a s w holly w i thou t fo u n d a t i on

, ,

a re v ery w i d ely hel d w e d o n o t ho w ev er feel c a lle d upon

, ,

t o d i s c u s s t hem a t leng t h i n t h e pre s en t p a ge s b u t prefer ,

t o a d d u c e a fe w i n s t a n ce s of l i t er a ry a r t i n w h i ch P l a t o
a ppe a r s a s h i s t rue o l d s elf No t e t h e d el i ca cy of t h e
.

p as s age i n w h i c h t h e ch a r act er i z a t i on of t h e L a ce dae mon i a n

c on s t i t u t i on i s pl a c e d i n t h e mou t h of t h e mo s t c re d i ble

of a l l w i t ne s s e s th e a ge d Sp a rt a n h i m s elf by a t urn a ft er
, ,

w a r ds i m i t a t e d by P olyb i u s I n t errog at e d a s t o th e form

.
2 3 8 GRE E K TH I N K E RS .

i gnoble and t re ac hero u s en t i men ts H ere i n a dd i t i on w e

s .
, ,

no t i c e h i s t en d en cy t o w a r d s be w i l d eri ng p a ra dox When .

i nforme d t h a t t h e d i s t r i ct i s w ell pro v i d e d w i t h h a rbour s ,

“
he ex cl a i m s : Wh a t d re a d fu l ne ws ! There i s a s i m i l a rly
p a ra d ox i ca l t u rn i n a l a t er p a s s a ge w hen C l e i n i a s as ks i n
,

s ome a s t on i s h men t w he t her i t i s re a lly propo s e d t o b eg i n

t h e gymn as t i c t r a i n i ng of t h e ch i l d i mme di a t ely a ft er b i rt h ,

”
e a rl i er t h a n t h a t
. The que s t i on a s t o t h e c ompo s i t i on of
“
a n d t h e At hen i a n a n s w er s : Cer ta i nly n o t w e s h a ll beg i n
t h e popul a t i on i s d i s c u s s e d w i t h t h e c a u t i on ch a r a c t er i s t i c
’
of Pl at o s l at e per i o d There i s m uch he s ay s t o b e urge d
.
, ,

bo th for a n d a g a i n s t th e pol i cy of s ele ct i ng th e c olon i s t s

from a s i ngle s t o ck I f th e c i ti zen s a r e boun d t oge ther by
.

i d en t i ty of d i a le ct a n d or i g i n by th e po s s e s s i on of c om mon
,

s hr i ne s t h e i n n er c oheren c e a n d u n i t y of t h e n e w S t a t e i s
,

s o mu ch t h e gre a t er ; on th e o t her h a n d he t erogene i t y of,

’
pop u l a t i on d i m i n i s he s t h e oppo s i t i on t o t h e leg i s l a t or s
en act men t s a n d le a v e s h i m a freer h a n d for n e w d ep a rture s .

M u ch i n th e s a me w ay th e pr os a n d con s a re d i s cu s s e d of
“ ”
a no t her que s t i on . G i ve m e a c i ty r u le d by a t yra n t ,

ex c l a i m s th e At hen i a n gre a t ly t o t h e a s t on i s hmen t of t h e

,

Cre t a n a n d th e Sp a r t a n P re s en t ly he m a ke s h i s m e a n i ng
.

c le a rer
. I t i s on e of th e h a pp i e s t of c onj un ct u re s he s a y s , ,

t h a t pl a c e s a h i ghly g i ft e d d e s po t a t t h e he a d of a S t a t e .

The m o s t r a d i c a l i nno va t i on s a r e e a s y for h i m ; he ca n

c h a nge t h e ch a r a ct er s of men a s w i t h a w a v e of t h e h a n d

h e c a n re a l i z e t h e a i m s of a goo d leg i s l a t or i f he i s s o ,

fortu n a t e a s t o h av e s u ch a one by h i s s i d e w i t h a n o t her ,

w i s e i mpo s s i ble r a p i d i t y The At hen i a n s t ra nger s pe a ks

.

i n t h i s c onnex i on of per s on a l exper i en ce s a n d i t i s c le a r ,

t h a t he i s g i vi ng exp re s s i on t o t h e w i s he s an d hope s on c e
en t ert a i ne d by P l a t o a t t h e co u rt of D i onys i u s B ut t h e .

d i s a ppo i n t men t s of t ho s e d a y s h ave t he i r echo t o o O f all .

for t un a t e ch a n c e s th e r a re s t i t i s s a i d i s t o fin d a po s s e s s or
, ,

of a b s ol u te po w er fille d w i t h t h e d i v i ne lo v e of j u s t a n d
”
j u di ci o u s ac ti on . The d i a log u e pro c ee ds t o th e ex a m i n a
t i o n of t h e d i fferen t pol i ti ca l form s a mong w h i c h a c ho i c e
h as t o b e m a d e . J u s t a s e a ch k i n d of c on s t i tu ti on re c e i ve s
i t s n a me from t h e elemen t t o w h i ch i t g i v e s pre d om i n a n c e ,
 “
TH E H OM I L E TI C P A R T O F TH E LA WS . 2 39

so thi s elem e n t , as a r u le s t r i ve s for no pol i t i ca l e n d o ther

,

t h a n i t s o w n a dv a n t a ge . I t i s s o w i t h gov ern men t by

k i ng s by noble s by t h e people ; e ach s u ch go v ernmen t
, , ,

a s c ommonly exer c i s e d ,s ho u l d r a t her b e c a lle d a d i s

or deri ng t h a n a n ord er i ng of th e S ta t e O nly t hen c a n

.

t h e S t a t e be s a i d t o be t r u ly or d ere d w hen t h e ruler s a r e

“ ”
th e s er va n t s of t h e l a w . S uc h a go v ern m en t d e s erv e s
”
to be n a me d t h e r u le of Go d .

I n or d er t h a t t h e w or k t a k en i n h a n d m ay pro s per i t ,

i s w ell t o i n v o k e t h e De i t y w h o i s i n t r uth (a p a r a d ox i c a l
,

“
rever s a l of t h e P ro t a gore a n t he s i s ) th e me a s u re of a l l
”
th i ngs . B ut no s erv i c e i s a cc ep t a ble w h i c h i s no t a cco m
p an i e d by a d i s po s i t i on t o goo d n e s s a n d hol i ne s s G o d .
,

l i ke t h e goo d m a n w i ll re c e i v e no g i ft from i mp u re h a n d s
,
.

There follo ws a n i nj u n ct i on t o hono u r th e go ds w he t her o f ,

Olymp us or th e w orl d below a n d t h e d e mon s a n d heroe s,

w i t h t hem ; fil i a l p i e ty i s l i k e w i s e c om men d e d i n e a rne s t

a n d emph a t i c s pee c he s .

Aft er t he s e prep a ra t i on s for th e leg i s l at i v e t as k th e ,

form a l a s pe ct of t h e que s t i on i s c on s i d ere d O ugh t th e .

leg i s l a t or t o c ompel only or s ho u l d he bo th c ompel a n d

,

pers ua d e ? Sho u l d he re s emble t h e s l av e phys i c i a n w h o -

fl i e s from p at i en t t o p a t i e n t i n bre a t hle s s h a s t e i s s ues h i s ,

d i re ct i on s i n c u rt b a l d t erm s l i k e t h e d e c ree of a po t en
,

t a t e a n d d i s a ppe a r s a s q u i ck ly a s he c a me ?
, O r s houl d
he n o t r a ther t a k e for h i s p a ttern th e more s ci en t i fi c a n d
h u m a ner phy s i c i a n w h o con vers e s gen i a lly w i t h th e p a t i en t
a n d h i s fa m i ly w h o s ee k s t o enl i gh t en h i m on t h e n a t u re
,

o f h i s m a l a d y a n d t o w i n h i s a s s e n t t o t h e t re a t men t h e

t h i n k s ne c e s s a ry ? The d i fferen ce i s i llu s tr a t e d by a n

ex a mple I n d e a l i ng w i t h t h e q u e s t i on of pop u l a t i on
.
,

w h i ch i s t h e firs t t h i ng he h a s t o c on c ern h i m s elf w i t h th e ,

leg i s l at or h a s t w o c ou rs e s open t o h i m H e m a y a nno un c e

.
,

i n s e t form a l t erm s t h a t c er t a i n pen a l t i e s (fine s a n d d i s

,

a b i l i t i e s p a r t ly mo d elle d o n t h e Sp a rt a n pr a c t i c e
) w i ll be
enforce d a ga i n s t b achelors ; or he m ay c o u ple t h e
a nnoun c emen t of t he s e pen a l t i e s w i t h a fu l l s t a t emen t of

t h e re a s on s j u s t i fy i ng t hem — a d vert i ng t o th e s h a re i n
i mmor t a l i ty gra n t e d t o t h e hum a n r a c e a n d a d mon i s h i ng
,
2 4o GR E E K TH I N K E RS .

m en t o s e cu re i t by t h e pro cre a ti on of ch i l d ren The .

i n t erlo cutor s a gree t o g i v e th e preferen ce t o t h i s d o uble

“
m o d e of prom u lg a t i on o ver t h e firs t or s i mple mo d e .

J u s t a s th e d i a log u e up t o th e pre s e n t s ta ge h a s s erve d

, ,

a s a pre a mble t o leg i s l a t i o n a s a w hole s o e ac h p a r t w i ll ,

n ee d i t s o wn pre a mble The h i ghe s t m a tt ers w ors h i p of

.
,

t h e go d s a n d fi l i a l p i e t y h a v e a lre a d y been d e a l t w i t h ;
,

i t i s n o w t i me t o d i s cu s s th e po i n t s w h i ch co me s e c on d i n
i mpor ta n c e — t h e S o u l th e b o dy property t h e d o i ng s a n d
, , ,

d e a l i ng s of men There follo ws a prel u d e i n th e gra n d

.

s tyle , w h i c h o cc up i e s a c on s i d er a ble port i on of th e fi ft h

boo k .

I n t h i s s e c ti on th e l a ng u a ge a n d th e t ho u gh t s a re of
equ a l ele vat i on Th at w h i ch i s h i ghe s t or m o s t d i vi n e i n
.

m a n i s t h e s oul ; t o i t t herefore th e gre at e s t honou r , ,

S houl d be p a i d a n d i t i s o n ly honoure d by be i ng m a d e
,

be tt er The gre a t e s t i mpe d i men t s t o t h e perform a n ce of

.

t h i s d u ty a re c o n c e i t s elf i n d ulgen c e t h e t en d en cy w h i ch
,
-
,

men h av e t o l ay th e bl a me for t he i r gre a t e s t m i s for tu n e s

n o t on t hem s el v e s b ut o t her s No t a l l t h e gol d u pon t h e
.

e a rt h or bene a t h i t c a n be w e i ghe d a g a i n s t vi rt u e Th e .

gre a t e s t p u n i s hmen t of t h e vi ci ou s m a n i s h i s fl i gh t fro m

goo d m e n a n d goo d d i s cours e The bo dy hol ds t h e .

s e con d r a n k I ts ex c ellen c e c on s i s t s — here w e h a ve t h e

.

A r i s t o t el i a n d o ct r i n e of t h e me a n — n o t i n a m a x i mum of
s t reng t h he a l t h
,
be a u ty a n d d ex t er i t y b ut i n a m i d d le
, , ,

q u a l i ty For th e ex c e s s of t he s e a dva n t a ge s m ak e s th e
.

s o u l b o l d a n d p u ffe d up t h e d efe ct d i s p i ri t e d a n d t i moro u s

-
.

I t i s th e s a me w i t h t h e po s s e s s i on of mo n ey a n d honour s .

O f a ll t r a n s gre s s i on s t ho s e a g a i n s t a l i en s d e s erv e th e
s e v ere s t c en s ure For th e fri en d le s s a n d fors ak en a re
.

w or th i er of p i ty i n t h e eye s bo th of go ds an d men Sl ave s .

,

t o o a r e per s on s w hom w e o u gh t t o be e v en le s s re a dy t o
,

i nj u re i f po s s i ble t h a n our eq u a l s
, ,
For t h e t rue unfe i gne d .

lo v e of j u s t i c e i s mo s t evi den t i n c as e s w here w rong d o i ng -

i s easy . Lo v e of t ru t h s t a n ds foremo s t of a ll ex cellen c e s

of c h a ract er E v ery on e t h at d oe s no i nj u s t i c e i s w or thy
.

of honour H e ho w e ver w h o oppo s e s i nj u s ti c e w i th a l l

.
, ,

h i s pow er d e s er ve s double pr a i s e ; i t i s he a n d n o t th e ,
 2 42 GRE E K TH I N K E RS .

th e proh i b i t i o n of c el i b a cy by t h e di s s olu ti on of ch i l dle s s

,

m a rr i age s by a s y s t em of honours a n d re wa r ds t o be c o n
,

ferre d on t ho s e w h o fu lfil t he i r d u ty i n t h i s re s pe c t by t h e ,

s a me v i ole n t me a s ure s i t m u s t b e a dd e d of w h i c h w e re a d
, ,

“ ”
i n th e Republ i c . Th i s t i me ho w e ver t h e expo s ure of
, ,

c h i l d ren i s a t le a s t n o t expl i ci t ly men t i on e d a n d a bor t i on

“ ”
i s a ll u d e d t o by t h e m i l d er phr a s e re s t ra i n t of b i rth s .

Su ch me a s ure s ho we ver w o u l d n e c e s s a r i ly b e i n frequ en t

, ,

u s e ; for only t h e fir s t t e n ye a r s of m a rr i a g e a re d e v o t e d
“ ”
t o t h e pro c re at i on of c h i l d ren fo r t h e S t a t e I n c a s e of .

n ee d th e pop ul a t i on m ay b e re d uc e d by t h e em i gr a t i on of
,

c olo n i s t s w h i le t h e c o n t r a ry d a nger m a y be m e t by t h e
,

a d m i s s i on of fo re i gner s t o c i t i zen s h i p — a n expe d i en t i t i s ,

t rue w h i c h i s s a n ct i one d w i t h s ome rel u ct a n c e

, .

The a ccu mul a ti on of mo va ble propert y by t h e

c i t i z en s i s gu a r d e d a g a i n s t i n e very po s s i ble w ay : by
proh i b i t i n g t h e o w n ers h i p of gol d a n d S i l ver by i n t er d i ct i ng ,

t r a d e a n d c ommer c e (t h e s e o c cu p a t i o n s a re re s er ve d for
‘

’
a l i en s w h o a re n o t a llo w e d m ore t h a n t w en ty ye a r s
,

re s i d en c e i n th e c olony) by a l aw a g a i n s t u s ury a n d by
, ,

th e ref u s a l of leg a l pro t e c t i on — a m e a s ure a l s o a d op t e d

by C h a r o n da s — to t r a n s acti o n s i n volvi ng c re d i t or t h e
a d va n c i ng of mon ey An y i n c re as e of propert y t h at m ay
.

t a k e pl a c e i n S p i t e of t he s e pre ca ut i on s a s a l s o e v ery ,

d i m i nu t i on mu s t be repor t e d t o t ho s e a u t hor i t i e s w ho s e d u ty
,

i t i s t o a s s e s s from ye a r t o ye a r a n d reg i s t er t h e c a p i t a l an d
t h e i n c ome of t h e c i t i zen s No more t h a n a t h i rd p a r t of
.

th e pro du c e of t h e s o i l m ay be s ol d a n d t h a t o n ly t o th e ,

re s i d en t fore i g n ers The rem a i n i n g two t h i r ds s er ve to fee d

.
-

t h e c olon i s t s a n d t he i r s l a v e s The w hole e conom i c s y st em

.

i s s t rongly rem i n i s c en t of Sp a rt a n a n d Cre t a n i n s t i t u t i on s

d e s i gne d t o c re a t e a n d m a i n t a i n a p u rely l a n d e d a r i s t o
c r a cy .I n t h e firm h a n d of P l a t o ho w e ver t h e t en d en c i e s
, ,

of t he s e leg i s l a t i o n s a re d ev elope d a n d ex t e n d e d w i t h
gre a t er c on s i s t en cy a n d pre ci s i on O ne of t he s e ex t en s i on s
.

a ff e c t s t h e i n s t i t u ti on of t h e Sy s s i t i a or c om mon m e a l s of
,

men t o w h i ch w omen a re n o w t o be a d m i tt e d The

,
.

em a n c i p at i o n of w omen for t h e re s t i s by n o me a n s
, ,

a b a n d one d b u t e s t a bl i s he d on a firmer b a s i s of exper i e n c e

,
 F0 UR CL A S S E S OF CI TI Z E NS . 2 43

by a n a ppe a l t o e th n og r a ph i c p a ra llel s I n th i s w ork of .

’ “
P l a t o s o l d a ge exper i en c e bo t h t h e w or d a n d th e
,

t h i n g re c ur s w i t h gre a t er frequen cy t h a n i n a l l h i s e a rl i e r
,

w or k s p u t t oge t her .

The t r u ly pol i t i ca l i n s t i t ut i on s pre s en t u s w i t h a very

d i ff eren t p i ct ure P l a t o h a s here t a k en Athen s more p ar
.
,

t i c u l arl y e a rly At hen s for h i s mo d el , No s ec t i on of t h e.

c i t i zen s i s t o be d e s t i t u t e of pol i t i ca l r i gh t s or bo u n d t o ,

obey a no ther s e ct i o n a s a s l av e obey s h i s m as t er (c f p . .

On th e o ther h a n d th e eq u a l i t y of a ll i s n o t t o be of th e
,

“ ”
me ch a n i c a l t ype no t an equ a l i t y of th e u n eq u a l
, In .

a c cor d a n c e w i t h t h e fir s t of t he s e po s t ul a t e s th e d i s t i n c t i o n ,

be tw een a rul i ng a n d a r u le d c l a s s i s a b a n d one d Whe t her .

from h i s o w n reflex i on s or from th e c r i t i ci s m of o thers ,

“
P l ato h a s le a rn t t h e i n a d m i s s i b i l i ty of t h e t w o s ta t e s i n
”
one (cf p . . The r i gh ts w h i c h he c on ce d e s t o th e
genera l bo dy of c i t i zen s a re mu ch th e s a m e a s t ho s e
e n joye d by t hem un der t h e Solon i c c on s t i t u t i on — a v o i c e
i n ele c t i ng t h e o ffi c ers of S t at e a n d a s h a re i n t h e a d m i n i s
,

t ra t i o n of j u s t i c e D i re ct go vern men t by t h e people i s

.

pr a ct i c ally a b a n don e d The gr a du a t i o n of pol i t i c a l pr i vi

.

lege s i s c lo s ely a ki n to t h a t w h i ch h a d formerly ex i s te d i n

Athen s w here a s w e h a v e re c en t ly le a rn t i t w a s no t
, , ,

en t i rely th e w ork of Solon b u t h a d been prep a re d fo r by

,
’
h i s pre d e c e s s or Dr a co s c re a t i on of fo u r c l a s s e s of t a x
p ayers P l a to to o i n t ro d uce s a fo u rfol d d i vi s i on of proper ty
.
, ,
”
o w ners i n th e L a ws An d here w e a re m e t by a s u rpr i s e
. .

A ft er w e a l t h h a s been pro s c r i be d one m i gh t a lmo s t s ay ,

b ra n d e d p a rt i c i p at i on i n publ i c l i fe i s s t i ll a ppor ti one d

,

a c c or d i n g t o t h e d i fferen t d egree s of a ffluen c e B ut th e .

c on t r a d i ct i on i s n o t s o gl a r i ng a s i t s eem s R i c he s i n t h e .

t ru e s en s e a r e n o t t o be fo un d i n t h e c om mon w e a l t h t re a t e d
“ ”
of i n th e L aw s D i ff eren c e s of proper ty a s w e h av e
.
,

a lre a d y s een a r e c onfine d w i th i n c omp a r a t i vely n a rro w

,

l i m i ts Nor on th e o t her h a n d i s t here a n y y aw n i ng

.
, ,

c h a s m be t w een t h e pr i v i lege s of t h e more a n d t ho s e of t h e

le s s proper t i e d The c h i ef d i fferen c e i s t h a t i n c ert a i n

.

c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h e members of t h e t w o u pper or w e a l th i er , ,

c l a s s e s a re req u i re d un d er a pen a l ty t o g i ve t he i r v o t e s i n
 2 44 GRE E K TH I N K E RS .

th e elect i on s w h i le th e tw o lo w er c l a s s e s a r e free t o a b s t a i n
, .

’
P l a t o s mo t i ve i n t h i s m a y be i nferre d from h i s referen c e
“ ”
t o t h e gre at er me a s ure of e d u ca t i on a n d s ol i d i ty to ,

w h i ch a gre a t er me a s u re of i n fl u en c e i s du e H e prob ably .

a s s u me d a h i gher le vel of c u l t ure a mong t h e more w ell

t o do th e fr u i t of t he i r a mpler le i s u re a n d a c orre s pon di ngly
-
, ,

l o w er lev el i n th e le s s s u b s t a n t i a l c l a s s e s w i t h w h i ch w o u l d ,

be j o i ne d le s s c on t en t men t w i t h t he i r l o t a n d therefore ,

gre at er re a di ne s s t o emb a rk on i l l c on s id ere d i nno va t i on s -

.

Th i s pr i n c i ple of t h e c ompul s ory v o t e by w h i ch a pen a l ty ,

i s a t t a che d t o a b s t en t i on s eem s t o h av e been o t herw i s e

,

u n k no w n t o Gree k pol i t i ca l i n s t i t u t i on s ; i n t h e n i ne t een t h

c en t ury i t w a s a d op t e d pr a ct i c a lly by s e v er a l S w i s s ca n t on s

a n d by B elg i u m w h i le i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i t h a s been a t
,

le a s t t a k en i n t o c on s i d er a t i on .

E le cti on i s n o t ho w e v er t o be th e only ro a d t o offi c e

, ,

i t i s to b e s u pplemen t e d by t h a t d r a w i ng of lo t s w h i c h
P l a t o h i m s elf h a d formerly c en s ure d s o s ev erely an d h i s ,

m a s t er So cra t e s before h i m The mo d e s of ele cti on pro

.

po s e d exh i b i t c on s i d era ble va r i e ty ; a n d e v en th e comb i

n at i on of ele ct i on an d lo t d raw i n g h a s i ts pl a c e H ere
-
.
,

a gai n ,
P l a t o i s n o t w i tho u t pre c e d en ts t a k en from h i s o w n
c oun t ry. I n S o lon s c on s
’
t i t u t i on t h e n i ne a r chon s — as w e
“
le a rn from A r i s t o t le s re cen t ly d i s co v ere d Con s t i t u ti on
’

of th e At hen n i a s — w ere c ho s en by l o t from c a n di da t e s

nom i n at e d by t h e fo u r t r i be s The p u rpo s e s erv e d by .

t he s e ele c t i on -
reg u l a t i o n s — h i ghly a rt i fi ci a l m a ny of t hem ,

an d u nu s u a lly c om pl i c a t e d — i s e vi d en t ly a s follo w s The .

m a s s of t h e people i s n o t to be ex c lu d e d from a S h a re
i n t h e a ppo i n t men t of th e o ffi ci a l s b u t t h i s a ppo i n t men t ,

i s to be remov e d a s fa r a s po s s i ble from t h e i mme di a t e

i nfluen c e of th e m a ny Fur ther pers o n a l preferen ce s t h e
.
, ,

S p i r i t of c l i q u e a n d p a r t y i n t ere s t s a r e t o be el i m i n a t e d
,

a s fa r a s m ay be a n d t h e publ i c c ho i c e g u i d e d t o w a r d s
,

t ho s e w h o enjoy t h e gener a l c onfi d en c e L as t ly th e e .

,

t reme h a r s hne s s e s of go v ernme n t by t h e m aj or i t y a re t o

b e a v o i d e d For t he s e re as o n s th e l aw of ele ct i on s i s i n
. ,

s e v er a l i n s t a n c e s n o t t h e s a m e on t h e a c t i v e a s on t h e
,

p a s s i v e s i d e i n d i rect mo d e s of ele cti on a re g i ve n th e

,
 GRE E K TH I NK E RS .

on e of t h e t h i r ty s even g ua r d i a n s of t h e l a w s A ft er
-
.

ele ct i on h i s ch a r a c t er a n d q u a l i fi ca t i on s a re ex a m i ne d by
,

a bo a r d c on s i s t i ng of t h e ele c t i ng bo dy w i t h t h e om i s s i on

of th e gu a r d i a n s of th e l aw s t h a t i s t h e el i g i ble p a rt of i t
, , .

The l i m i t at i on i s n o t w i t hou t Att i c p a r a llel s .

P l a t o w e ob s erv e c a nno t h av e t o o m a n y or t o o
, ,

el a bora t e s a fegu a r d s i n t h i s c o nnex i on Th a t w h i ch i s a t

.

s t a k e i s t h e obj e ct he pr i ze s mo s t h i ghly of a l l — e d u ca t i on
,

an d t h a t n o t of you t h o n ly for t h e m i n i s t er of e du ca t i on
,

i s a t t h e s a m e t i me t h e s uprem e c en s or of a ll mu s i c a n d
l i t erat ure I t i s e d u ca ti on w h i ch m u s t ch i efly d e ci d e
.

“
w he ther m an i s t o be t h e
"
t a me s t a n d mo s t g o d l i k e -

“
or th e w i l d es t of a ll l i vi n g c re a t u re s The provi s i on
.

“ ”
m a d e i n th e L aw s for t h e t r a i n i ng of yo uth ex t en d s
beyon d t h e c u s tom a ry Gree k c u rri culum wh i ch embr a ce d ,

only th e elemen t a ry bra n che s of k no w le dge t oget her ,

w i t h poe t ry mu s i c a n d gymn as t i cs
, ,
Compul s ory s chool
.

a t ten da n c e i s propo s e d for b o t h s exe s ; t h e i n s t r u ct i on t o

be re ce i ve d by t hem i n c om mon i n c l u d e s a k no w le d ge of
th e l aw s a n d t he i r pre a mbles a s a l s o th e ru di men t s
,

of geome t ry a n d a s t ronomy — o f t h e l as t n a me d ch i efly -

be ca u s e i n vi e w of th e d i vi ne n at ure of th e he av e n ly
bo di e s erron eo us i d e a s a bou t t he i r mo t i on s a re reg a r d e d
a s i rrel i g i ou s . Th i s c ours e of s t u dy en c ro ache s t o s ome
ex tent on t h e d om a i n w h i c h we gener a lly re s erv e for
s e con d a ry e d u ca t i on ; t here i s ho w e v er a n a b s en c e of
, ,

“ ”
d efin i t e s t at emen ts n o t only a s i n t h e
, , Republ i c w i th ,

reg a rd to t h e mo de of a c qui ri ng k no w le dge b ut a l s o i n ,

re s pe ct of t h e d egree of h i gher e ducat i on requ i re d .

D i a le cti c i s n o t all u d e d t o by a s mu ch as a s i ngle w or d .

”
Nor nee d w e w on d er Even i n th e Rep ubl i c i n w h i ch
.
,

t h e s t u dy of d i a le c t i c pl a y s th e mo s t i nfl u en t i a l p a rt ,

expre s s i on s of t h e k eene s t d i s t ru s t t ow a r ds i t a r e n o t
w a n t i ng . Th i s bra n ch of e d u ca t i on i s reg a r d e d as t en d i ng
’
t o promo t e re s i s t a n c e t o a u thori ty ; a n d P l a t o s d re a d of
th i s re s u l t— a feel i ng t o w a r d s w h i ch th e c on t en t i ou s
d i a le ct i c of t h e Meg a r i a n s prob a bly c on t r i b u te d n o t a
l i tt le— h a s i n c re a s e d more an d more B ut fe w t race s .

rem a i n i n th e L aw s of t h e s pell on c e c a s t o ver P l a to

 L A S T P H AS E OF TH E I D E AS . 2 47

by cl as s i ficato ry di a le ct i c, of th e r age for d i vi s i on w h i ch

”
w as so s t rong u pon h i m i n th e Soph i s t th e S tat e s m a n
, ,

an d e v en i n t h e Ph i l e b us .

The d oc tr i ne of i d e a s i s n o t referre d t o i n th e L aw s
by a s m uch a s a S i ngle s yll a ble Tho s e problem s i n th e .

i n v e s t i g a t i on of c on c ep ts w h ic h h a d been a m a i n mot i v e i n
“ ”
i t s gene s i s w ere reg a r d e d a ft er th e , Soph i s t a s s ol v e d , .

The c omp a s s of t h e i de a s w as a ccor di ngly n a rro w e d i n a

m a nner w h i ch t hough perh ap s n o t s tr i ct ly j u s t i fi a ble
,

log i ca lly i s p s ycholog i c a lly i n t ell i g i ble I t i s pert i nen t

, .
,

i n t h i s c onnex i on t o ob s erv e t h at a t t h e t i me w hen

,

Ar i s t o t le w as a s t u d en t a t th e Aca d emy P l a t o h a d a lre a d y ,

a b a n d one d th e i d e as of a rt i fi ci a l pro d u cts w h i c h a re

“ ”
re cogn i ze d i n th e Rep u bl i c (c f p . I n th e e n d
.
,

bo th th e d o ct r i ne of i d e a s a n d d i a le ct i c be ca me for h i m
ex clu s i v ely s u b s ervi en t t o t h e u n d er s ta n di ng of n a ture
( c f
. p . A s h i s p u p i l X eno cr a t e s reports th e i d e a ,

“
h a d bee n d e v elope d i n t o th e typ i ca l c a u s e of th e
”
be i ng s w h i e h a re a l w ay s forme d a cc or di ng t o n atu re .

( We n o t e i
, n c i d en t a lly t h a
, t t h e t heory w h i ch m a d e th e
i d e a s type s or c op i e s t o be i m i t a t e d h a d t ri u mphe d o ve r
t h e t heory of p a r t i c i p a t i on — c f pp 3 3 0 a n d 1 5 2 — j u s t
. .
, ,

as w as t o be expecte d a ft er t h e ele vat i on of th e

"
i d e a s t o th e r a n k of go ds ) The s a me r o l e a s w e
.
,

h ave a lre a dy s een i s as s i gne d to t h i s do ct ri n e i n th e

,
”
Ti m e us w here th e D em i urge c re a t e s t h i ng s a ft er t h e
,

p at tern of th e i d e a s P l at o b us i e d h i m s elf i n t h i s ph a s e
.
, ,

“ ”
w i t h t h e d e d u ct i on of th e i d e a s a s i d e a l n u mbers
, ,

“
from m athem at i ca l pr i m a ry pri n ci ple s Th i s i s a .

Pyth ago re an i z i n g t en d en cy of w h i c h s om e t ra c e s a re
,

“ ” “
fo u n d i n t h e Ph i l e b us as, w ell a s t h e Ti m e us ”

(c f
. pp . 1 88 a n d our a c c o u n t of i t ho w e v er c a nno t , ,

con v en i en t ly be s ep a rat e d from t h at of i ts furthe r

d e velopmen t by P l a t o s s ucc e s s ors S p e us i pp u s a n d
’

X enoc r a t e s The s oun d k ernel of i t l i e s i n t h e s u rm i s e

.

t h a t t h e e s s en c e of t h i ng s i s c i rc um s c r i be d by m a t he
m a t i ca l regu l a r i t i e s . I n th e L a ws t h i s proc e s s i s ca rr i e d
for wa r d a nother s t ep Only m a them a t i cs a n d i ts a ppl i ca
.

t i o n t o a s t ronomy a re re c og n i ze d a s po s s e s s i n g a t ruly
 GRE E K TH I NK E RS .

e d uca t i on a l va lue ; w i th the s e i s j o i n e d at mo s t th e s ci en c e

of l a w t hen s ca rc ely i n i t s beg i n n i ng s
, .

J u s t as th e At hen i a n a rchon beca me a member of th e

Areop a gu s a ft er h i s ye a r of O ffic e s o t h e s uper i n t en d en t
“
,
”
of e d u ca t i on w hen h i s five ye a rs a re o v er belong s t o w h a t
, ,

P l a to c a ll s th e no ctu rn a l c oun ci l Th i s bo dy s ome th i ng .

,

be tw een a s ci en t i fi c a ca d emy a n d a s upreme leg i s l a t i ve a n d

c on t roll i ng a u thor i t y i s t o m ee t e very d a, y i n th e e a rly
morn i n g t o di s cu s s que s t i on s of pol i t i c a l or s ci en t i fi c
i n tere s t . The o ther member s of th i s s upreme co u n c i l a r e
t ho s e pr i e s t s w h o h av e w o n pr i ze s for v i rtu e th e t e n ,

“ “
ol d e s t gu a rd i a n s of t h e l a w s a n d th e s u per i n t en den t ,
”
of e d u ca t i on for t h e t i m e be i ng The fu r ther re c ru i t i ng .

of t h i s bo dy i s pro vi d e d for by th e regul ati on t h a t e ach of

t he s e el d erly member s m a y w i t h t h e c on s en t of t h e o t her s
, ,

a ppo i n t a m an a ge d from t h i rt y t o for t y a s h i s j un i or or

a s s i s t a n t c oun c i llor
-
A l t hough t h e c oun c i l i s expe ct e d t o
.

d i scu ss reform s i n t h e l i gh t of fore i gn exper i en ce i ts m a i n ,

fu n cti on a s i s S how n by th e a dva n ce d a g e of th e gu a r d i a n s

,

of th e l aw s belong i ng t o i t i s con s erva t i ve S t ra nge a s i t

,
.

m a y s eem P l a t o s expre s s d e cl a r at i on s a s w ell a s t h e

’

, ,

ex t ra ord i n a ry s ev eri t y he br i ng s t o be a r on i nnova t ors ,

le a v e n o room for d o u b t t h a t h e reg a rd e d th e i n s t i t u t i on s

re c om men de d i n th e L aw s a s i n t he i r e s s en ce fin a l a n d
i n ca p a ble of i mpro v emen t .

4 Th i s u l t r a con s er va t i s m th e d a rk e s t blem i s h of t h e
-
.
,
”
L aw s s ho u l d n o t bl i n d u s t o th e bri gh t er a s pe cts of
,

t h i s w ork Ta u gh t by a v a ri e d a n d b i tt er exper i en c e of
.

l i fe d e s ert e d a t l a s t by th e long ret a i ne d s a ngu i n e t emper

,
-

of yo ut h P l at o h a d le a rn t t o d oub t th e pract i ca b i l i t y of h i s
,

i d e a l — t h e u n con di t i on a l ru le of ph i lo s o phers — a n d no th i ng
“ ”
el s e w a s left h i m t h a n t o c hoo s e th e s ec on d be s t a s he -
,
”
h a s c a lle d i t i n t h e S t a t e s m a n t h at i s a c on s ti t u ti on a lly
, ,

reg u l a t e d gov ern men t B ut th i s s a me v a r i e d exper i en ce

.
,

t oge t her w i t h h i s reflex i on s on h i s tory h a d m a d e h i m only ,

t o o fa m i l i a r w i t h t h e i mperfe ct i on s pe cul i a r t o a l l form s of

c on s t i t u t i on a n d l e d h i m
,
t o t h e c on c lu s i on — t h e r i pe s t fr u i t
of h i s pol i t i ca l t ho u gh t— t h a t t h e m i x t u re of c on s ti tuti on a l
fo rm s i s n e ce s s a ry to th e w elfa re of th e S t at e Th i s go a l .
2 5o GRE E K TH I N K E RS .

u p o n i ts el f Th i s i s th e form of m i xe d con s ti t uti on t o wa r ds

.

“ ”
w h i c h P l a t o s t r i ve s i n t h e L aw s A l l a u th ori t y i s here
.

d er i ve d from th e people b u t by a w e a l t h of i ngen i o u s

,

a r t i fi ce s t h e people prev e n ts i ts elf from u s i ng i t s o wn

plen a ry po wers a m i s s I t s ren un ci a ti on of al l i m me d i a t e
.

r u le i s a lmo s t comple te ; a co mplex a n d s ki lfu lly con

s t r u ct e d s y s t em of ele c t i on s prov i d e s a h i ghly org a n i ze d

bo dy of o ffi c i a l s w h o w i el d a d eri ve d b ut none th e le s s
,

e ff e ct u a l a u thori ty T a k en i n i ts fun d a men t a l e s s en c e

.
,

a n d free d from t h e u l t r a con s erv a t i v e t en den ci e s

-
of i t s
a u t hor t h i s s i d e of t h e
,
pol i ti c a l i d e a l c on t a i n e d i n th e
“
L aw s s uppl i e s a s w e t h i nk a mo d el no t w i tho u t i ts
, ,

i mpor t a n c e for t h e pre s en t a n d fu ture gener at i on s of

m a n ki n d .

P l a t o s i n v en t i ve s p i r i t t a k e s i t s bol d e s t fl i gh t i n a
’

s e c t i on w here he d e a l s w i t h t h e h i ghe s t pol i t i c a l e n d A .

c ollege of t w el v e men i s en t ru s t e d w i t h t h e s uprem e c on t rol

“ ”
of th e S t at e The s e c en s ors a r e a u t hori z e d to i mpe ach al l
.

”
th e o ther o ffi c i a l s t hey ar e t hu s ru lers of th e rulers a n d ,

only t h e v ery be s t m en of a l l m ay be ch a rge d w i t h t he i r

re s pon s i ble t a s k The mo d e of ele ct i on here propos e d by
.

P l at o i s one w h i ch w e m ay t erm ele cti on by el i m i n a t i on .

The w hole bo dy of ci t i zen s t a k e s p a rt i n i t Vo t e s a re .

g i ven i n w ri t i ng b ut n o t s ec re t ly Three men a re t o be

, .

c ho s en b u t e a ch ele ct or m a y only v o t e for one ; he m ay

,

n a me a n y m a n ex c ept h i m s elf w h o i s n o t un der fifty ye a rs

, ,

of a ge Th i s firs t nom i n a t i on y i el ds a l i s t of n a mes w h i ch

.
,

i s a rr a nge d a cc or d i ng t o t h e n u mber of v o t e s re ce i ve d by
e a ch A s e con d ele ct i on follo w s l i m i t e d to t h e upper h a lf
. ,

of th e l i s t a n d s o th e pro c e s s of s i ft i ng c on t i n u e s t i ll by
,

s u cc e s s i v e h a l vi n gs t h e n u mber i s re d u c e d t o t hree The .

g u i di ng pr i n c i ple s of t h i s s ys tem i t w i ll be s een re s emble , ,

t ho s e u n d erly i ng t h e mo s t mo d ern s cheme s fo r t h e reform a

t i o n of ele ct or a l t e ch n i q u e propor t i on a l ele ct i on a n d t h e
,

repre s ent at i on of th e m i nor i ty No v o t e i s lo s t ; th e

.

ele cte d a re th e c ho i ce n o t of a m aj or i ty b ut of t h e w hole

e ven th e d e ta i l of t h e w ri tt en b u t n o t s e cre t vo t e c ompl i e s
, ,

w i t h th e req u i remen ts l a i d d o w n by Thom as H a re t h e ch i ef ,

foun der of th e mo de rn mov emen t M ore accu r at ely t h i s .

,
 TH E OB 7 E C T O F P UNI S H M E N T 5
‘
. 2 1

mo de of ele cti on i s a c o mb i n a ti o n of th e s econ d b allo t ‘

a n d t h e pr i n ci ple of t h e vote u n i que (e ach ele c t or ca n o n ly

v o t e for one c a n d i d a t e e ven t ho ugh t h e s a me ele ct ora l

,

d i s t r i ct m a y re t u rn s ev era l repre s en t at i ve s ) P l at o s a i m i s
’
.

d i re ct e d t o w a r d s a n e n d w h i ch i s a l s o s o ugh t t ho u gh n o t ,

a s a fir s t e n d by t h e m o d e m refo rmer s — h i gh qu a l i t y i n
,

“
t h e ele ct e d The cho i c e s houl d fa ll on men of w on d erful
.

”
v i r tu e ; a t t h e w or s t w i t h t h e ele ct i on s s o regul at e d i t
, ,

w i ll fa ll on t h e le a d ers of t hree eq u a lly b a l a n ce d p a r ti e s ;

b u t a s s u c h a d i v i s i on of t h e S t a t e i s u nl i k ely th e ele ct e d ,

w i ll gen era lly be t h e mo s t h i ghly re s pe ct e d men i n w hom

t h e c omm u n i ty h a s c onfi den c e S u ch men a re a t a n y one .

t i me v ery fe w i n n u mber ; for t h i s re as on n o t more t h a n

t hree a re e v er t o be ele ct e d The three men c ho s en a t th e
.

firs t ele ct i on of t h e ki n d hel d a fter th e foun da t i on of t h e

,

c olony a re t o nom i n a t e t h e college of t w el ve ; a ft er w a r d s

, ,

ye a rly electi o n s a re to fill t h e g a p s ca us e d by d e a th a n d

a t t a i nmen t of t h e upper a g e l i m i t — s e v en ty five ye a rs - -
.

5 NO fe a t ure of eq u a l ori g i n a l i t y i s t o be fo u n d i n
.

’
P l at o s s y s t em of c ri m i n a l l aw I t i s ch i efly d i s t i ngu i s he d
.

by i ts m a n y s i de d con cep ti on of th e e n d of p u n i s h men t

-
.

The Gorg i a s h a d k now n b u t one s uc h e n d a mel i ora ti on ,

“ ”
or he a l i ng of t h e w rong d oer ; i n t h e P ro t a gor as
-
th e ,

s oph i s t of t h a t n a me i s m a d e t o d i s c our s e on t h e d e t erren t

purpo s e of p u n i s hmen t i n a S pee ch w h i c h s eem s h a lf a

t ra ve s ty B o t h t he s e purpo s e s a re re cogn i ze d i n t h e
.

L aw s t oge t her w i th a t h i r d— t h at of m a ki ng th e o ff en der

”
,

h a rmle s s a n d all t hree a re c le a rly d i s t i ngu i s he d from

,
-

e ach o t her B ut here a s often el s e w here t here i s a

.
, ,

y aw n i n g g ulf be t w een pri n ci ple s a n d t he i r a ppl i ca ti o n .

Who w o u l d expe ct a ft er t he s e h i ghly r a ti on a l expo s i t i on s

,
“ ”
of pr i n ci ple to mee t i n t h e,
L aw s w i t h s u ch gl a ri ng
ex a mples of unre as on a s t ri a l s of a n i m a l s s en ten ce s upon ,

i n an i m a t e obj ects a n d k i n d re d con c e s s i on s t o t h e pr i m i t i v e

,

G er m a n , S ti ch w a h l Th i s n am e i s g i ve n t o el e c t i o n s w here a
.

c a n did a t e n ee d s a n a b s o l ut e m aj o r i ty , t h a t i s , m o re t h an h a lf t he v o t e s

ca st i n o r d er t o be re tu rn e d I f n o can did a te o b t a i n s s uch a maj o ri ty

, .
,

a s e co n d ele c t i o n i s hel d be t w ee n th e tw o ca n d i d a t e s w i t h th e g r e a te s t
n u mber o f v o t e s .
2 52 G RE E K TH I N K E RS .

i n s t i n ct s of t h e popul a r m i n d ? Y e t t h i s w or k con t a i n s
m a ny s uch The po w er of t ra d i t i on a n d o l d t i me c u s t om
.
-

oft en preva i l s i n m a t t ers of d e t a i l o ver th e con vi cti on s

, ,

w h i c h th e t h i n k er h a s g a i ne d by h i s o wn e ffor ts It is so .

e s pe ci a lly i n t h e t re a t men t of th e s l ave c l as s Th a t s l av e s -

.

n o t s el d om s u rp a s s t h e free born i n ex c ellen c e t h a t t he i r

-
,

fi d el i ty t o t he i r m as ters a n d the i r s elf s a cri fici ng s p i r i t h as -

s ome t i me s ex c ee d e d t h a t of bro t her s or s on s i s a d m i tt e d ,

w i t hou t d i fli cul t y B ut t h i s d oe s n o t pre ve n t th e s a me

.

o ffen ce— for ex a mple om i s s i on t o i nform ag a i n s t th e s te a ler

,

of buri e d t re as ure— be i ng reg a rd e d len i en t ly i n th e ca s e of

t h e free an d vi s i t e d w i t h ex c e s s i ve s e ver i ty upon t h e s l a v e .

An d ye t i t i s a n ob vi ou s r e fle x i o n t h a t t h e d epen den t
S i t u a t i on of th e s l av e m a k e s t h e g i v i ng of s u c h i nform a ti on ,

w h i c h a ft er a ll m ay pro v e u n fou n d e d mu c h more d a ngero u s ,

for h i m t h a n for t h e free m a n a n d s ho u l d t herefore e n s ure

,

h i m a more i n du lgen t r a t her t h a n a s e v erer t re a t men t .

The j u d ge i t i s l a i d d o w n s houl d re a lly t ry cas e s ;

, ,

pro ce d u re l i ke t h a t of t h e Att i c courts w here tho s e d u mb ,

”
j u dge s th e j u rors t ake n o a cti ve p a rt i n i n v e s ti g a t i ng th e
, ,

i s s ue s w h i c h t hey d e c i d e i s repe a t e d ly a n d emph a t i ca lly

,

c on d emne d H ere i n i s i mpl i ci t ly con ta i ne d th e d em a n d

.

t h a t t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i on of j u s t i c e be pl a c e d i n t h e h a n ds of
profe s s i on a l j u dge s an d t h e pop u l a r t r i bun a l (i n mo d ern
,

phras e ) repl a ce d by a perm a nen t j u di ci a ry I n po i n t of fa ct .

,

t here a r e m a ny c a s e s i n w h i ch P l a t o req u i re s t h e employ

“
ment of s ele ct j u dge s i n a ddi ti on t o w h i ch he s t i m u l at e s
,

t h e s en s e o f i n di vi du a l re s pon s i b i l i ty by provi di ng for th e

publ i c d el i very of j u d gmen t by e a c h member of t h e
t r i bun a l a n d i n s t i t u t e s a c our t of a ppe a l follo w i ng i n t h i s
, ,

l a s t p a r ti cul a r t h e prec e de n t of H i p p o d a m u s An i n n o va .

’
t i o n of P l a t o s i s th e i n t ro d u ct i on o f lo n g t erm s en ten c e s ; -

or di n a ry Gree k l aw only re cogn i ze d th e cu s to dy of pri s oners

o n t r i a l t h e i mpr i s on men t of d efa u l t i ng d eb t or s t o t h e S t a t e
, ,

a n d t h e s upplemen t i ng of money fine s i n a fe w c as e s by

a br i ef i n ca rc er a t i on The lo n g s en t en ce i s e vi d en tly
.

employe d by P l at o a s a s u b s t i t ut e for o t her pen a l ti e s w h i ch

he reje cts . A mong t he s e a re d epri va t i on of h o no u r ,

b a n i s hmen t— a pen a l ty w h i ch P l a to con dem n s on pri n ci ple ,

 G RE E K TH I N K E RS .

w e fi n d, mong o ther re w a rd s of em i nen t c o u r a ge a r i gh t

a ,

t o ca re s s e s w h i c h n o fello w comb a t a n t m a le or fem a le i s

-
, ,

en t i t le d t o rej e ct The m a rr i a ge a ble age of yo u ng men i s

.

fixe d i n th e s a me w ork a s beg i n n i ng a t t h at peri o d of l i fe

w hen t h e n a t u r a l i n s t i n ct h as a lre a d y lo s t i ts firs t for ce ,

wi thou t a ny w or d t o i n di ca t e t h at yo u t h s un d er a g e a re t o
b e k ep t un d er s t ri ct c on t rol An d i n t h e c as e of t ho s e wh o
.

”
h av e re ache d t h e s t a ge w hen pro c re a t i on for th e S ta te
c e a s e s t o be a d u ty c omple t e l i bert y i s a llo w e d i n t h i s
,

“ ”
res pect I t i s qu i t e o t herw i s e i n th e L aw s
. The l a s t .

n a me d pri vi lege i s expres s ly re vo k e d i n a p a s s age of t h e

s i x t h boo k ; t hough i rregul a r i t i e s of t h i s n a t ure a re s t i ll

t re a t e d i n d u lgen t ly I n t h e e i gh t h boo k how e v er s ex u a l

.
, ,

i n t erc o u r s e o u t s i d e th e m a rr i a ge t i e u n d er w h a t e ver c i rcum

-
,

“ ”
s ta n c e s i s s e v erely c on d emne d
,
I m men s e a dva n ta ge s i n
.
,

p a rt i c ul a r a n enormou s i n cre a s e of t rus t a n d d evo t i on on

t h e p a r t of w i v e s a re expe ct e d t o re s ul t from t h e i n tro
,

d u ct i on of t h e s t r i ct er c o d e The obj e ct i on t h a t w h a t i s
.

d em a n de d ex c ee ds th e s t reng t h of hum a n n a t ure i s m e t by ,

a referen c e t o t h e pow er of publ i c op i n i on w h i c h w hen t h e , ,

p u bl i c i s re a lly of one m i n d c a n h a r d ly be overr at e d I t

, .

”
i s w orthy of no t e t h a t th e a u thor of th e L aws n o t m erely
pre a che s a b s t i nen c e b u t n a m e s v a ri ou s me a n s by w h i ch
,

i t s pr a ct i c e i s fa ci l i t at e d The e d uca t i on of th e s exe s i n

.

c om mo n t he i r c o oper a t i on i n a ll w a l ks of l i fe a re c le a rly
,
-
,

d e s i gne d i n p a r t t o bl u n t t h e e dge of s exu a l a ppe t i t e The .

s a me p u rpo s e i s s t i ll more ob v i o u s ly s erv e d by t h e r e c o m

m e n da t i o n t h a t you t h s a n d g i rl s S houl d a s s o ci a t e t oge t her

w i t ho u t c on s t r a i n t w e a ri ng d re s s w h i ch by only s l i gh t ly
,

c on c e a l i ng t h e form s houl d d o l i t t le t o ex ci t e d e s i re .

L a s t ly a n d ch i efly d i e ta ry regul at i on s a n d th e pra cti ce of

,

gymn a s ti cs a re expre s s ly i n vo k e d as me a n s t o t h e s a me
e nd , t h e fo rmer by pro v i d i ng a g a i n s t o verfee d i n g i n th e
c r i t i c a l per i o d of l i fe a n d th e l a tt er by s upply i ng a v en t for
,

a ll s urpl u s energy We no t e i n c on c l u s i on t h at th e love

.
, ,

of boy s w h i ch e a rl i er d i a log u e s h a d t re a t e d s o i n d u lgen t ly

, ,

re ce i ves t h e mo s t emph a t i c c on d emn at i o n pos s i ble i n th e

“
L aw s — a ch a nge prob a bly n o t un i n fl u e n ce d by Cy n i c
,
”

t e ach i ng re s t i ng a s i t d oe s i n p a rt on a d e t e s ta t i on of th e
, , ,
 G R O W I N G S TRI C TN E S S O F TH E LA W 2 55

u nn at ura l a n d a l s o by a l i vely s en s e of th e da nger of

d epopul a t i on .The s en ti men t i n que s t i on i s n o w a d m i tt e d
“
only i n i ts mo s t puri fie d form a s l i m i t e d t o a n e s the ti c
,

“
del i gh t i n phy s i c a l be a u ty The con d i t i on of m i n d
.

pecu l i a r to th e lover a l t ern at i ng be tw een s en s u a l a n d

”
s p i r i t u a l i mp u l s e s a c on d i t i on t h a t i s w h i ch w as d e s c r i be d
, , ,

“ ” “
i n th e Ph e dr u s a n d th e Sympo s i um as th e w ell
’
S pr i ng of t h e mo s t s a l u t a ry emo t i on s i s n o w i n th e L aw s
, , ,
”
c on d emne d w i t h t h e u t mo s t s e ver i ty S uch i s th e w ell .

foun d e d c omme n t of I vo B run s w ho s e un t i mely d e a t h i s ,

s o m u ch t o b e d eplore d .

We h a ve a lre a dy referre d more t h a n on c e to th e reg u

l ati o n s a ff e ct i n g proper ty Wor thy of men t i on a re t h e
.

re s tri ct i on s on t h e r i gh t s of a l i e n a t i on an d t es t a men t a ry
’
d i s po s i t i o n promp t e d by P l a t o s d e s i re t o m a i n t a i n fa m i ly
'

proper ti e s i n t a c t H i s c ommerci a l co de i s fu ll of th e s p i r i t
.

of di s t rus t : fixe d pri ce s no h aggl i ng no a dvert i s i ng H i s

, , .

leg i s l at i on d i l a t e s w i th a ffe ct i on a t e fulne s s b ut w i tho ut ,

m a r ke d ori g i n a l i ty on a l l t h at pert a i n s to a gr i cu l tu re i n
, ,

c lu d i n g bee keep i n g a n d fr u i t c u l t ure w a t er r i gh ts l i t i g a t i on

- -
,
-
,

a r i s i ng o ut of ne i ghbour s h i p .

.6 The mo s t rem a r ka ble fe a t ure of t h e ci vi l pro ce d u re

i s th e regul at i on t h a t a p a r ty t o a s u i t m ay n o t m a k e on
o a t h a ny s ta t emen t t en di ng t o pro cure h i m a ny a dva n ta ge ,

or s ave h i m fro m a ny lo s s Wh a t i s c h i efly i n tere s t i ng i n

.

th i s pro h i b i t i on i s th e re as on for i t w h i c h i s g i ven i n a ,

referen ce t o th e w i d es pre a d unbel i ef of th e a ge favo u ri ng ,

perj u ry I t i s as t on i s h i ng t o fin d Pl at o s o fa i n t he a rt e d
.
-
.

H i s leg i s l at i on i t mu s t be remembere d i s me a n t for a

, ,

c ommun i ty brough t up on t h e s t r i ct e s t pe d a gog i c pr i n ci ple s

,

e v ery member of w h ic h i s a nx i ou s ly s h i el d e d t hro u ghou t

l i fe from a ll nox i ou s i nfluen ce s An d ye t P l a to i s s o .

t err i bly a fra i d of t h e m i as m a of i nfi d el i ty s pre a d i n g to

h i s c ommun i ty .Th i s i s t h e d a ngerou s enemy a g a i n s t
w h i ch he figh ts for a w hole boo k (th e t en th ) t aki ng ,

rel i g i ou s o ffen ce s as a s t a r ti ng po i n t Three s pe ci e s of-

.

here s y a re d i s t i ngu i s he d : d i s bel i ef i n th e ex i s t en c e of

t h e go d s d i s bel i ef i n the i r pro vi d e n t i a l c a re d i s bel i ef i n
, ,

t he i r i n corrup t i b i l i ty — b y w h i ch l as t i s me a n t t h e bel i ef t h a t
 2
5 6 GRE E K TH I N K E RS .

th e fa vour a n d i n d ulgen c e of d i vi ne be i ng s m ay be w o n by
t h e perform a n c e of holy w or k s The a u t hor of t h e L aw s
.

employ s a l l th e re s o u rce s of h i s eloquen ce a s w ell as ,

t hre a ts of t h e s e v ere s t pen a l t i e s for t h e p u rpo s e of ,

d i ff u s i ng a n d pro t e ct i ng t h e type of rel i g i on w h i ch he

favo u rs .

The l a t t er by no me a n s c o i n ci d e s en t i rely w i th t h e
pop u l a r rel i g i on b ut th e d i fferen ce s w here n o t i m port a n t
, ,

e t h i ca lly a r e ra ther c lo a k e d over t h a n emph as i ze d The

, .

n e w S t a t e rel i g i on — i t i s c er t a i nly s u ch t h a t i s propo s e d t o ,

t h e r i g i d ex c l u s i on of a ll pr i vat e c u l t s t h e O rph i c as w ell as ,

o t hers — i s clo the d s o fa r a s m ay be i n th e g a rb of th e o l d .

B y t h e s i d e of t h e s uprem e De i t y t here a ppe a r numerou s

i n d i vi d u a l go d s foremo s t a mong t hem t ho s e c onne ct e d
,

w i t h t h e s t a rs The m a i n proof for t h e ex i s t en ce of t h e

.

D i vi n e i s prefa ce d by an a n a lys i s of t h i s c on cep t by w h i ch

i t i s re du c e d t o th e p s y ch i c a n d re s ts upon t h e pr i or i ty o f
,

a l l t h a t per t a i n s t o s o u l o ver a ll t h a t pert a i n s t o bo dy A .

re vi e w of a l l form s of mo t i on le a d s t o t h e c on clu s i on t h a t
s oul i s t h e one s elf mo vi ng t h i ng w here a s a l l el s e re c e i v e s
-
,

i ts i mpul s e t o mo t i on from w i t ho u t I n t h i s do ct r i ne P l a t o
.

h a r ks b a ck to t h e Ph e d rus (cf pp 4 5 a n d w i th i t
. .
,

he bel i e ve s h i m s elf to h av e m a d e a c le a n s w eep of a ll

m a t er i a l i s m a n d th e w hole of t h e e a rl i er n a tu re ph i lo s ophy -
.

Th a t t h e s oul w h i c h m o ve s a n d g u i de s th e w orl d i s t h e
be s t s oul of a l l i s a t hes i s w h i c h he s uppor ts by a referen ce
,

t o t h e w ell or d ere d u n i v ers e

-
P l a t o i s here i n c lo s e a gree
.

men t w i th An a x a gor a s a n agreemen t how e ver w h i ch i s

, , ,

s oon ex c h a n ge d for ho s t i l i ty For i t i s t o t h i s ph i lo s opher

.

a n d h i s follo wer s t h a t he a llu d e s i n t h e rem a r k t h a t s ome

w i s e men reg a rd t h e s u n moon e a r t h a n d s t a rs n o t a s go ds

, , ,
”
b u t a s l i fele s s s t one s a n d s e e i n t h e fore men t i one d
,
-

“
a rg u men t no t h i ng more t h a n a fa rr a go of w or ds c on co cte d
”
for t h e mere s a ke of per s u a s i on I t i s a g a i n t o a pup i l
.
, ,

of An a x a gora s A rchel a us t h at P l a t o s eem s t o refer w hen

, ,
”
he s pe a k s of th e d i s t i n ct i on be t w ee n N a t ure a n d Con
ve ntio n , a n d i ts employme n t i n t h e c ri t i ca l or a s he , ,

t h i n k s s c ep t i c a l s e n s e (cf Vol I p
, . .W i th a s i m i l a r
. .

e n d i n vi e w he h a d a lre a d y a t t a c k e d i n a n e a rl i er boo k , ,
 GRE E K TH I N K E RS .

a n s wers th a t t he i r hor i zon i s n a rrow t h a t t h e pl a n of th e ,

u n i ver s e i n i t s c ohere n t c omple tene s s i s beyon d the i r ke n

, ,
.

I t i s t o th e w elfa re of t h e w hole n o t of th e i n d i vi d u a l p a r t ,

or p a r t i c le t h a t th e d i v i ne p u rpo s e i s di rect e d ; t h e p a rt
,

ex i s t s for t h e w hole n o t th e w hole for t h e p a r t t h e s a me

,

pr i n ci ple gu i d e s t h e a ct i o n of th e phys i ci a n a n d ev ery o ther

s k i lle d a r t i fic e r The s e a rg u men t s con t a i n a s l i gh t b u t
.
,

percep t i ble h i n t of l i m i ts to t h e d i vi ne po w er (cf pp 6 7 an d . .

a h i n t w h i ch re c e i v e s more d efin i t e expre s s i o n i n t h e

c omp a r i s on of t h e D e i ty t o a d r a u gh t s pl a yer The l at t er -

.
,

i t i s urge d ca n only mov e h i s m e n n o t c h a n ge t hem

,
No t
, .

t h a t t h e hum a n s o u l i s u n c h a n ge a ble — t h e c a u s e s of i t s
m a n i fol d c h a nge s ho w e ver a re c on ta i ne d i n i ts elf a n d i n
, ,

t h e oper a t i o n of o t her s o u l s upon i t All t h at i s left fo r t h e .

De i ty t o d o — a n d t h at t o o a s P l a t o s eem s t o s ugges t n o t
, , ,

by s pe ci a l i n t erven t i on s b ut by a n or d er of n a t ure e s ta
,

b l i s h e d on c e for a l l— i s t o t ra n s fer t h e s oul w h i c h h as be come

be tt er to a be tt er pl a ce an d t h a t w h i c h h a s bec om e w ors e
,

t o a w or s e ; by w h i ch phra s e i s me a n t t h e a l t ern a ti ng
a s s o c i a t i on w i t h hum a n a n d a n i m a l bo d i e s a s w ell a s t h e ,

s oj o u rn i n t h e pl a c e of pun i s hmen t below .

Th i s s e cti on t ou che s on t h e problem of th e w i ll a n d ,

t here a re i s ol at e d phr a s e s w h i c h m i gh t s eem t o s ta m p

P l a t o a s a n i n d e t erm i n i s t Th i s i mpres s i on ho we ver w i ll
.
, ,

n o t be a r s cr u t i ny The i n telle ct u a l i s ti c t heo ry of t h e w i ll

.

uphel d by So c r a t e s t o w h i ch P l at o rem a i ne d s o long

,

fa i thful a n d of w h i ch h e nev er a b a n done d th e form ul a

,

“
No one err s v olun t a r i ly i s n o t merely d e t erm i n i s m
( ,

b u t d e t erm i n i s m o f a q u i t e p a rt i cu l a r k i n d For i t s upp o s es .

th e w i ll t o be i n va r i a bly d e t erm i ne d n o t s i mply by m o t i ve s , ,

b ut by a s pe ci a l c l a s s of mo t i v e s h a v i n g t h e n a t ure of ,

k now le dge or w i s d om No w i t i s qu i t e t ru e t h a t i n th e
.
,

w ork s of h i s o l d a ge P l a t o t r av elle d a long w ay from th i s

h i s or i g i n a l s t a rt i n g po i n t a n d no where fu r t her t h a n i n t h e
-
,
” “ ”
L a w s w here i n a d d i t i on t o i gnor a n c e a s e con d ca u s e
, ,
’
of w rong d o i ng a ppe a rs i n th e s h a pe of a x p ci r a a t h a t v ery
-
,
“ ”
p a r a lys i s of t h e w i ll w h i ch So cr a t e s expre s s ly d e cl a re d
i mpo s s i ble .B ut for a l l t h a t he ne ver m a k e s u n ca u s e d
, ,

a c t i on a n a tt r i b u t e o f t h e s o u l o n t h e c on t r a ry i t s v ol i t i on s ,
 P L A TO A N D FRE E WI LL . 2 59

a re e x pl a i ne d a s th e effe ct s of i ts n a t u re w h i ch n at ure , ,

t h o ugh a d m i tt e d t o be c h a nge a ble ,

i s d e c l a re d n o t t o
c h a nge p e r s a l tn m or w i t ho u t s u ffic i e n t re as on An d i n .

th at s e c t i o n of t h e w or k (Boo k I X ) w here t h e c on c ep t i on
.

of free w i ll i s s ubj e ct e d t o a s e a rch i ng ex a m i n at i on t h e ,

re s ul t i s merely t o i den t i fy free a c ti on w i t h p u rpo s i v e

a ct i on To t h e re s pon s i b i l i t y of th e hom i c i d e A— s o w e
.

i t m a ke s th e
’
v en t u re t o p a r a phr a s e P l a t o s t hough t
gre at e s t di fferen ce con ce i va ble w he t her he ki lle d B i n
t e n t i o n a lly or un i n t en t i on a lly . B ut t he n th e purpo s e t o
,

k i ll t h e c r i m i n a l i n t en ti on i ts elf h as a r i s en o ut of a n
, ,

a lre a dy ex i s t i ng c orrup t c on d i t i on of t h e w i ll I n or d er .

t h a t t h e d ee d m ay be i mp u t e d t o t h e d oer i t i s by no ,

me a n s requ i s i t e t h a t he s houl d h a v e h i m s elf w rough t or

c ho s en t h e c on d i t i on of w i ll w h i ch pro d u c e d i t I n fa c t i t .
,

i s i mpo s s i ble th at he s houl d h a ve d el i ber a t ely c ho s en i t a s ,

i mpo s s i ble a s i t i s for a ny one to prefer s i ck ne s s t o he a l t h .

I t m ay be a d m i t te d t h a t t h i s l as t comp a r i s on i s i n app r o
p r i a t e re s
, t i ng as i t d oe s on a n i n a d equ at e di s ti n ct i on
be t ween s o ci a l a n d i n di vi d u a l mor a l i ty (c f Vol I I p 6 8 s eq )
. . . .
, .

B ut i t i s d u e t o P l at o t o a ck now le dge th a t he k ep t h i m s elf

free from an aberra t i on w h ich h a s s u rvi v e d d o w n to our o w n
d ay a n d a d m i tte d t h e j u s ti fi ca t i on of pun i s hmen t i n e v ery
,
’
ca s e w here i t ca n a c t reme d i a lly on t h e e vi l d oer s w i ll no -
,

m att er h o w forme d or d e ter o thers from th e l i k e fa ul t

, .

7 A
. ft er t h e t heolog i c a l a rgu men t s c ome t h e pen a l
s a n ct i on s i n reg a r d t o w h i ch w e fin d o u r s el v e s i n n o s m a ll
,

perplex i ty The a tten t i ve re a d er h as a lre a dy no ti ce d h o w

.

t h i n a l i ne of d i vi s i on s ep a r at e s c er ta i n op i n i on s hel d
t empora r i ly or perm a nen t ly by P l at o h i m s elf from t h e
“
heres i e s w h i ch he c omb a ts w i t h s o m u ch z e a l The i de a .

”
of th e goo d i s c er ta i nly n o t a pers on a l De i ty a n d ye t i n , ,
“ ”
the Rep ubl i c i t i s th e c ro w n a n d s u mm i t of a l l ex i s ten c e
“ ” “
cf p The pr n i ple of Ne e s s i ty t h a t of erra t i c
( . . i c c ,

“
mo t i on th e e vi l w orl d s oul al l of t he s e a r e a s m a ny
,
-
,

l i m i ts t o t h e perfe ct i on of t h e d i vi ne po w er (cf p . .

B e t w een t h e ack no w le dgmen t of t he s e l i m i t a t i o n s an d th e

s e c on d here s y w h i ch d oub t s th e s uffi c i en t pro vi d en c e of
,

t h e go d s for m an t here a s s u re d ly y a w n s no unfathom a ble

,
 GRE E K TH I N K E RS .

c has m . A d d to th i s th a t t h e t h i r d here s y or bel i ef i n ,

th e a ppe a s i ng po w er o f pr a yer a n d s a c r i fi c e d oe s n o t ,

c onfl i ct w i t h t h e pop u l a r rel i g i on t h a t P l a t o i s h i m s elf a

pre s u mp t uou s i nnov a t or i n t h i s res pe ct a s w ell a s i n th e ,

rough c r i t i c i s m w h i ch a cc ep t e d m yt hology re c e i ve s a t h i s
“ ” “ ”
h a n ds i n th e E u th yp h ro t h e Repu bl i c a n d ev en t h e , ,
-

”
L aw s (c f Vol I I p 3 64 a n d Vol I I I p
. . . .
, t h a t fin a lly
. . .
, ,

t h e fa t e of h i s m a s t er So c r a t e s w a s s t i ll fre s h i n h i s mem o ry
— a l l t he s e c on s i d er a t i on s one m i gh t t h i n k s ho u l d h a v e
, ,

been eno ugh t o m a k e h i m he s i t at e before s pre a d i ng a n e g i s

of ru thle s s pen a l t i e s o v er th e l at e w o n rel i g i ou s v i ew s of h i s
-

fin a l ph a s e B u t i t w a s or da i ne d o t herw i s e A dva n c e d a g e
. .

exert e d a tw ofol d s er i e s of i nfl u en c e s upon th e ph i lo s opher .

I t i s a s i f two s t re a m s flo w i ng t o w a r d s oppo s i t e po i n t s o f
,

t h e c omp a s s w ere t o i s s u e from ne i ghbo u r i ng foun t s

, O ld .

a g e m a d e P l a t o a t on c e m ore gen t le a n d more s e v ere t h a n

h e h a d ever been before .

L e t u s c o n s i d er fir s t t h e former of t he s e t wo e ffe cts .

’
The t en d en c i e s w h i ch w e foun d c h a ra ct er i s t i c of P l at o s
l a t e s t peri o d as a w hole re a ch the i r c u lm i n a t i on i n th e
“ ”
L aw s . H i s m i n d a n d he a r t s o w e w ro t e a p r op os of ,
”
th e Soph i s t ,
g a i n a s t ronger hol d o n p a r ti cul a r t h i ng s ,
”
p a r ti cu l a r en ti t i e s p a rt i cu l a r pro c e s s e s
, Th i s t r a i t i s no w .

exempl i fie d i n th e s phere of leg i s l ati on No t h i ng i s t o o .

t r i vi a l for i ts reg u l a ti ng pre vi s i on ; from th e nurs i ng a n d

th e pl a y t h i ng s of c h i l d ren d ow n t o t h e equ a l d e v elopmen t
of t h e r i gh t an d t h e left h a n d from hun ti ng a n d fi s h i ng t o ,

th e d i fferen t k i n d s of d a n c e s a n d from t he s e to th e m i n u t i e
,

of b u i l d i ng m a rk et a n d fu nera l or di n a n ce s The wor th of

, , .

m a n an d of hum a n l i fe i s n o t a ppr a i s e d by P l a t o h i gher

t h a n formerly r a ther t h e rev er s e
,
I n reg a r d t o bo t h t h e
.
,

L aw s c o n t a i n s t r i ki ngly pe s s i m i s ti c u tter a n c e s B ut th e .

l o t of t h e gre a t m a s s eng a ge s h i s a t t en t i on fa r more

per s i s te n t ly th a n i n t h e Republ i c H e a b at es s ome th i ng
.

of t h e r ut hle s s t horo u ghne s s w i th w h i ch he h a d pres s e d for

t h e re a l i z a t i o n o f h i s s o c i a l a n d pol i t i ca l pr i n ci ple s b ut he ,

no lo n ger l i m i t s t h a t re a l i z a ti on t o a s ele ct m i nori ty The .

hero i c s t a n d a r d of l i fe h a s i n m a ny po i n t s m a d e w ay for a
h u m a ner i d e a l Thu s t h e me d i c a l t re a t men t of chro n i c
.
2 62 GR E E K TH I NK E RS .

ag e . O n e c i rc um s ta n ce i n p a rt i cu l a r s eem s t o s upport t h i s
conj e ct ure .

I n cl o s e ne i ghbourhoo d t o th e bloo dth i r s t y s en t en ce s

p as s e d upon i rre cl ai m able free t h i n k ers upon propo s ers of ,

pol i t i ca l i nnova t i on s w h o a re by no me a n s ne ce s s a ri ly
,

a po s t le s of s ub v er s i on e v en upon c on t en t i ou s a d v o ca t e s w h o
,

m ak e or a ppe a r to m a k e a perv er s e u s e of t he i r a rt i n
, , ,
-

c lo s e ne i ghbourhoo d t o a l l t h i s w e mee t w i t h a c on t emp t

for i n d i vi d u a l i t y a n i n di fferen c e t o ev ery form of pers on a l

,

i n i t i a t i v e a d i s po s i t i on a s w e m ay e v en s ay t o en s l a v e
, , ,
’
m en s s o u l s w h i ch i s a b s olu t ely a s ton i s h i ng The fa t a l
,
.

”
en d e avour a ft er u n i ty here re aches a he i gh t of d evel op
m en t w h i ch rem i n ds u s of th e J es u i t rule d s t at e of -

P a ra g u a y A s ys t em w h i ch m ay perh a p s h av e h a d i t s
.

u s e for t h e purpo s e of i n t ro d u c i ng ro v i ng I n d i a n t r i be s t o

s e tt le d an d c i vi l i ze d w a y s i s here a ppl i e d t o th e h i ghly

,

c ul t i va t e d Gree k s of t h e four t h c en t ury before Chr i s t We .

refer to t h e p a s s a ge i n t h e l as t boo k i n w h i ch m i l i t a ry ,

d i s ci pl i ne i s hel d up a s a mo d el for th e w hole of c i vi c l i fe .

A w i s h i s expre s s e d for a s t a t e of t h i ng s i n w h i ch no one

s ho u l d e v er d o a ny t h i ng a lone a n d for h i m s elf i n w h i ch ,

e very one s ho u l d e very w here a n d a l w ay s loo k up t o a

s uper i or i n w h i ch e very a ct from th e gre a t e s t t o t h e
, ,

s m a lle s t s houl d be performe d i n obe di e n c e t o an or d er

, ,

j u s t as t h e s ol d i er i n c a mp s ta n ds an d w a l ks w a s he s an d ,

fee ds le a ve s h i s b e d a n d s eek s i t a l l on th e w or d of co m
, ,

m a n d I s a n y proof ne c e s s a ry th a t t h i s d e s i re t o keep
.

men i n l i felong le a di ng s t r i ng s i s an expre s s i on of th e -

s a me t emper w h i c h b a n i s he s t h e free th i n k er t o t h e re

fo r m at o ry (a w qbp o vw n ip ro v ) t here t o l a n g u i s h i n h i s c ell

-
, ,

d epr i v e d of a ll ex cep t s p i r i t u a l con s ol a ti on an d i n th e e n d ,

“ ”
t o be d el i v ere d u p i f t h e no ct urn a l c oun c i l fa i l s i n i ts
,

w ork of c on vers i on to th e a x e of th e exe cu ti oner ?

,

L e t us t u rn t o a nother a n d more e di fy i ng s i d e of th e
p i ct ure I t i s s a i d th at a t th e hou r of d e at h i m a ge s of
.

ch i l d hoo d a n d e a rly yo u th ho ver roun d u s I t i s of s u ch .

t ho u gh t s t h at w e a r e rem i n d e d by t h e c on c lu di ng port i on
“ ”
of t h e L aw s We fin d t here a repet i t i on a n d emph a ti c
.

re as s ert i on of s ome fun da men ta l t hough t s of th e boo k : t h e

 M E M OR I E S OF A N E ARL I E R S TA GE . 2 63

l i tt le w or th of mere c oura ge t h e di vi ne n at ure of t h e s oul

, ,

i t s pre c e den c e over th e bo dy i ts i mmor t a l s o vere i gn ty a n d

, ,

i t s gener at i o n of a l l mo t i on . B ut s i d e by s i d e w i th a l l t h i s
t h e Soc r a t i c problem s a n d me t ho ds w i t h w h i c h w e a re s o
fa m i l i a r c ome on c e more i n to v i e w The o l d r i dd le of th e
.

u n i ty or plur a l i ty of vi r t ue i s on ce more d i s cu s s e d a n d

on c e more left un s ol ve d The S oc rati c i n du cti on w i th i ts

.
,

t i me honoure d i n s t a n c es of t h e p i lo t th e gener a l a nd th e
-
, ,

phys i ci a n on ce more p a ra de s before our eye s D i a le ct i c

, .
,

t oo,
m ak e s an unexpe cte d en t ry a n d i ts obj e ct i s n o w
,

d e cl a re d ,
i n w or ds s t r i ki ngly l i k e a p as s age i n t h e
” “
P h e d r us (
c f p
. . t o be t h e c on t empl a t i on of t h e
O ne i n t h e M an y an d t h e U nl i k e S u ch may w ell h ave
.

been th e me di tat i on s a m i d w h i ch t h e a ge d t h i nk er s a n k
t o re s t .
 G RE E K TH I N K E RS .

C H AP T E R XXI .

R ETRO S PE CTS AN D A N TI C I P ATI O N S .

1 . A LO N G s eri e s of c re ati on s h a s d e fil e d before h av e us we

p a s s e d i n re vi e w t h e w hole of th e w orks w h i ch w ere um
d o u b t e d ly w r i tt en by P l a t o When w e loo k b a ck from t h e
.

e n d t o t h e beg i nn i ng our fir s t feel i ng i s on e of i n t en s e

,

a s t on i s hmen t c a lle d fort h by a n un ex a mple d w e a l t h of

,

i n t el le ct a ne ver re s t i ng ne v er t i r i ng l a bour of t ho u gh t
,
-
,
-
.

O u r a d m i r at i on gro w s w hen w e remember t h e t h i n k er s

’

e a rn e s t a n d pers e veri ng z e a l for th e i mprov em en t of m e n

a n d th e perfe ct i ng of s o ci e t y I t i s s t i ll fu r t her i n cre a s e d
.

w hen w e t h i n k of th e m a ny s i d e dne s s of P l at o s m i n d— a
’
-

qu a l i ty d i s pl aye d n o t only i n th e d i v ers i t y of s u bje cts

t re at e d b u t j u s t a s mu ch s o i n th e v a ry i ng m a nner of t re at
,

i n g t hem Th i s c on t i nu a l proc e s s of ch a nge follow s a v ery

.

rem a rk a ble c ours e I t m ay b e s a i d a n d t h e a s s er ti on i s a

.
,

p a ra dox only i n a ppe a r a n ce t h a t Pl at o w as j us t a s m u ch

,

one s i d e d a s m a ny s i de d H avi ng on ce en t ere d upon a

- -
.

p at h he purs ue s i t w i th th e u t mo s t s elf co n fid e n ce u n
,
-
,

t ro u ble d by w a rn i ng v o i c e s a n d t h e obj e ct i on s t h a t m ay
o ccur t o h i s m i n d L ik e m a ny a n epo ch m a ki ng th i n ker he
.
-
,

i s n o t a fra i d of ex t rem e s olu t i on s Then c ome s a re a ct i on

.
,

c on s t r a i n i n g h i m t o a ck no w le d ge t h e elemen ts of t ru t h

w h i ch he h as h i thert o negle ct e d S uc h i s t h e c a s e i n h i s
.

w ork s on pol i ti cal ph i lo s ophy F i rs t w e h av e th e ex cl us i v e

.

a n d unl i m i t e d s o v ere i gn t y of ph i lo s opher s t hen t h e mo d el ,

of a m i xe d c on s ti t u ti on perme a t e d by re ci pro ca l che cks

a n d l i m i t a t i on s ; fir s t o ver bol d d e d uc ti on then ca u t i o us
-
, ,

a lmo s t t i m i d emp i r i c i s m P hy s i ology h as l at ely t a ugh t u s

.
2 66 GRE E K TH I N K E RS .

t h e t wo h i ef i n s t rumen ts i n th e i nve s ti g at i on of n at ure

c ,

w e no t e t h a t one of t hem t h e exper i men t a l me t ho d w a s

, ,

c on t emne d by P l a t o t h e re a d er i s fa m i l i a r w i t h t h e po i n t
( ,

cf . pp 84 1 87 an d
.
, , t h e o t her m athem at i cs he , ,

no d oub t pr i ze d h i ghly a n d r a i s e d i n th e genera l e s t eem

by i n t erw e av i ng i t w i t h m a n y of h i s d oc t r i ne s Th a t i n .
,

a ddi t i on t o t h e s t i mul u s a n d i n di re c t i nfluen ce w h i ch he

exerci s e d u pon t h i s br a n ch of re s e a rch he left t h e w orl d ,

i n d eb t e d t o h i m for or i g i n a l c on t ri bu t i on s t o i t w e a re v ery ,

w i ll i ng t o bel i e ve ; t ho u gh th e a n c i en t s t a t emen ts t o t h a t
effe ct ar e l a ck i ng i n d e fin i te n e s s Nor c a n we d e term i ne.

w i t h c ert a i n ty w he t her t h e ru di men t of t h e s phere t heory -

w a s P l at o s o w n w ork or only borro w e d by h i m

’

,
The .

fe w ob s cure s en t en ce s i n w h i ch P l a t o s pe ak s of t h i s
t heory d o n o t i n t hem s el v e s g i v e t h e i mpre s s i on t h at a
d i s co verer i s here a nnoun ci ng t o h i s fellow w ork er s for t h e -

firs t t i me t h e re s ul ts of h i s l abor i ou s i n ve s ti g at i on s B ut .

i f i n t h i s i n s t a n ce i t i s n o t perm i tt e d t o do more t h a n
, ,

d oub t w e reg a r d i t a s a l t oge ther i n a d m i s s i ble t o c l a s s

,

E u d oxu s w h o a s a He d on i s t i n e t h i cs w a s a n oppo n en t
,

of P l a to a m ong th e members of P l at o s s chool o n th e

,
’
,
’
groun d t h a t i n e a rly you t h he a tten d e d s ome of P l a t o s
le ct u re s .

3 The v a s t an d va r i e d i nfluen c e w h i ch pro cee d e d from

.

P l a t o a n d a ffe ct e d th e h i s t o ry of t h e w orl d m ay perh a p s b e ,

be s t s um me d up i n th e rem a r k t h at w i thou t P l a to w e S ho u l d
h ave h a d n o Ari s t o t le no C a rne a de s no Aug us ti ne
, , .

—
Through th e i n t erme di acy of A r i s t o t le (3 4 3 2 2 ) P l at o
8
c on t r i bu t e d a ft er a l l t o t h e progre s s of phy s i ca l re s e a rc h
, ,

m u ch le s s i t m u s t be a dm i t te d i n c on nex i on w i t h th e
, ,

k now le dge of c a u s a l s u cc e s s i on s t h a n w i th t h a t of th e
or d ere d c oex i s t en c e of th i ng s The cl as s i fi cat i on of n at ura l
.

obje ct s gre w i n th e s o i l of th e P l a ton i c d i a le ct i c The i n ter .

“ ” ”
m i n able d i vi s i on s of th e Soph i s t a n d t h e S t at e s m a n
di s gu s t an d w e a ry u s s ome ti me s by t he i r ex ce s s of pe tty
d e t a i l w e s houl d n o t forge t how e ver th a t w e a re here i n
, ,

t h e s c hool w h i ch s en t fort h th e g re a t a rr a nger an d c l as s i fier ,

t h e morpholog i s t p a r ex ce l l e n ce B o t h t e a c her a n d pup i l

.

t r a n s ferre d t h i s me t ho d t h e me t ho d of n a t ura l h i s tory t o

, ,
 P L A TO AN D CARNE AD E S . 2 67

th e fiel d of m en t a l s ci en ce t h e ex act d ifferen t i at i on of form s

of i nferen ce i s w holly t h at of pol i t i ca l an d poe t i ca l form s
,

p a rt ly d ue to th e p u p i l B ut by th e employmen t of t h i s
, .
,

me t ho d on i ts n a t i ve groun d n at ura l h i s tory i ts elf A r i s to tle

, ,

p rep a re d t h e w a y for i f he d i d n o t h i m s el f w or k o ut re s u l ts
, ,

of t h e h i ghe s t i mport a n c e d e a l i ng w i t h ca u s a l connex i on s .

For one of h i s c re a t i on s comp a rat i ve a n at omy w a s a n

, ,

i n di s pen s able prel i m i n a ry t o th e con s t ru ct i on of th e t heory

of d e s c en t .

B ut w h i le P l a t o s s chool pro d u c e d i n Ar i s t o t le th e gre at

’

en cyclop e d i s t th e colle ct or an d or d erer of a va s t s to ck of

,

know le d ge a bov e a l l t h e a rb i t er of me d i e va l t ho u gh t bo t h
, ,

i n E as t a n d We s t t here i s a no t her po i n t a t w h i ch i ts i n
,

flue nce pene t ra t e s i n t o th e mo dern w orl d s t i ll more d eeply .

The c ri ti ca l s p i ri t of a n ti qu i ty re ache d i ts c u lm i n at i o n i n
“ ”
th e Ne w Ac a d emy E v en t h e
. l a bor i ou s p as t i me of th e
“ ” ’
P a rmen i d e s w a s n o t l a bour lo s t (c f p .Pl at o s
.

i mme di a t e s u cc e s s or s i t i s t r u e re t a i ne d only t h e qu as i
, ,

Py th a gore a n i s m an d t h e e t h i ca l a s p i r at i on s of h i s l at e s t
ye a rs B ut w i t h A rces i l a u s (di e d 2 4 1 ) ca me t h e t ri umph
.

of th e c r i ti ca l an d d i a le ct i ca l t en d en cy of t h e P l at on i c m i n d ,

w hi ch h a d d er i ve d s ome of i t s s t reng t h from Meg a ri a n i n

fl ue n ce s The moveme n t re a che d i ts a pogee i n C a rne a de s
.

h urp e pre e e s or s a n d s u cce s s or s

( 2 1 3 w o s as s d a l l h i s d c s

i n s u b t le ty of t hough t w hos e p i erc i ng c r i t i ci s m s h a ttere d

,

t h e confi den c e of t h e d ogm a t i c s chool s a n d i n p a rt i cul a r ,

d rov e th e S t o a t o a c omprehen s i v e re vi s i on of i ts d o ct ri ne s .

H i s t heory of prob a b i l i ty a t t h e s a me t i me g av e a n i mpul s e

t o w a r ds th e c re a t i on of a n i n d u ct i v e log i c w h i c h w a s re
pre s en t e d i n th e l at er E p i cure a n i s m a s w ell a s i n th e
me di c a l s chool s of th e M e t ho d i cs a n d E mp i ri cs C a rn e a d es .

h as been r i gh t ly n a me d t h e D av i d H um e of a n t i qu i t y .

B ut he a l s o rem i n ds u s of M i c hel de Mon t a i gne t h e gre at ,

q ue s t i on i ng s p i ri t of th e Ren a i s s a n ce by h i s a u d ac i o u s ,

c r i t i c i s m w h i c h m a d e fu ll u s e of a ll t h e c on t ra d i ct i on s of
,

t r a d i t i on s a n d a ccep t e d s t a n d a r ds w h i ch re s pe ct e d n o
,

b a rr i er An d tho u gh Mon ta i gne s rel a ti on t o C a rne a de s

.
’

“
m ay be t h e s a me a s h i s rel a t i on t o P l a to ( I w as a
P l a t on i s t i n t h i s re s pe ct befo re I kne w t h a t there h a d e v er
 GR E E K TH I N K E RS .

been a P l a t o he w a s i n a ny ca s e a cc ura tely a c qu a i n t e d

, ,

w i th h i s t e ach i ng s .

Fi n a lly i n A ug us t i ne (3 5 4—
, 43 0 t w o s t re a m s u n i t e d
w h i c h fo r s e v er a l c en t ur i e s h a d b a t t le d a g a i n s t e a c h o t her
-
Neo P l a t on i s m a n d Chri s ti a n i ty
-
The firs t o pe n e d a t
.

A t hen s P l a t o s s chool w a s a l s o th e l a s t t o be c lo s e d i n t h a t
’

c i ty ( i n 5 2 9 by J u s t i n i a n )
,
The form of P l at on i s m re
.

pre s en t e d i n th at s chool i n i ts l a s t per i o d h a d been the

ph i lo s ophy of dy i ng a n t i qu i ty j u s t a s i t a fterwa rd s be ca me
,

th e ph i l o s ophy o f t h e d aw n i ng Ren a i s s a n c e I n t h e Gree k .

E a s t i n d ee d t h e P l a t on i c t ra d i t i on w a s ne v er w holly ex t i n ct
, , .

As l a t e a s i n th e e i gh t h c en t u ry John of D a m as cus t h e , ,
’
s y s t em a t i zer of t h a t d a y s t heolo
gy an d ph i l o s ophy d re w ,

from a Neo P l a ton i s t s o u rc e a s w ell a s from t h e F a thers of th e

-

C hurch ; an d a s e a rly a s i n t h e ele ve n t h c en t u ry w e fi n d

Con s ta n t i ne Ps e l l us a ppe a r i ng a s a fully d evelo pe d P l a ton i s t
i n re s pe ct bo t h of t h e form an d th e s ub s t a n c e of h i s t e ach i ng .

Th at even i n th e tw o i n terven i ng c ent ur i e s i n t ere s t i n P l a t o

h a d n o t d i e d o u t i n B yz a n t i u m i s s how n by th e d at e of,

t h e two c h i ef m a nu s c r i p t s of h i s w or ks I n t h e We s t .
,

P l a t on i s m a ft er a s hort h i bern a t i o n a w o k e t o n e w l i fe a t
, ,

th e le as t a s e a rly as t h e e n d of t h e n i n t h c en tu ry i n th e
c o u r s e of th e nex t fe w c en t uri e s t h e c a mp a i gn a g a i n s t t h a t

pet ri fie d Ari s to t el i a n i s m kn o w n a s S chol a s ti ci s m i s opene d

, ,

u n d er i t s b a nn er a n d c a rr i e d on w i t h c on t i nu a lly i n c re a s i ng

v i go u r . B ut t hough d eeply perm e a t e d by my s t i c elemen t s ,

’
fin d i ng l i fe s s upreme e n d i n t h e e cs t at i c c on t empl a ti on of
t h e d i vi ne Neo —
,
P l a t on i s m d i d n o t a llo w i ts or i g i n i n th e
gre at c r i t i ca l i n t elle ct of P l at o to be en t i re ly forgo tt en .

Thu s i t m a y be no te d i n t h i s c onnex i on t h a t th e P r i mor d i a l

—
E s s en c e o r F i r s t C a u s e of P lo t i nu s (2 0 4 2 6 9 t h e

t rue s y s t em a t i z er of t h e s chool i s reg a r d e d ne i t her as s elf

,

k now i n g nor e v en a s k now a ble s t i ll le s s a s h av i ng l i fe or

,

pers on a l i ty b u t a s s om e t h i ng t ra n s cen di ng a l l t he s e d e t er
,

m i n a t i o n s — a c on cep t i on i n w h i ch w e re c ogn i z e w i th ou t
d i ffi cu l ty t h e a ft er e ffe ct s of t h e t ren ch a n t c ri t i c i s m a ppl i e d
-

by C a r n e a de s t o th e c u rren t i d e as a bo u t Go d .

B ut t h e my s t i c a l elemen ts a re of P l a t on i c ori g i n equ a lly

w i t h t h e c r i ti ca l The ex a l te d mys t i ci s m w h i ch w e mee t
.
2 70 GRE E K TH I N K E RS .

The rel a xe d a u s t er i ty of P l ato s o l d a g e g av e con s i d era ble ’

s cope t o mere bene volen ce w i t hou t for a ll t h a t en cro a c h

, , ,

i n g upon t h e pr i vi lege d po s i t i on of j u s ti c e A ft er t h i s .

vi r t u e a n d o n ly i mperf e ct ly d i s t i ng u i s he d from i t c ome s

, ,
’
o a f1 v m t h a t s elf d i s c i pl i ne s upport e d by a s en s e of on e s
ow
¢p -

o w n w ort h w h i c h i n P l a t o s t i ll more t h a n el s e w here be a rs

, ,

a c h a r a ct er of prou d a n d d i gn i fie d re s erv e The i n complet e .

s e v er a n c e of t h e t w o d om a i n s i s regre tt a ble i t i s ex cu s able

on th e gro u n d of t he i r i n ti m a t e a ct i on an d re act i on u pon
e ach o ther For n o t only i s s elf d i s ci pl i n e th e i n di s pen s a ble
.
-

c on di t i on for t h e fu lfilmen t of s o ci a l d u ty t h e l a tt er re act s

on t h e former a n d s o promo te s t h e he a l th of th e s o u l
,
.

The a b s en c e of d u t i e s t o s o ci et y th e free d om of th e w i ll ,

from a l l re s t r a i n ts le a ds t o p s y ch i c d i s i n t egra t i o n (m a dnes s

,

of th e C e s a rs a n d s o fort h ) I n i ts ex a ggera t i on t emper

, .
,

a n c e be come s a s ce ti c i s m Th i s pri n ci ple th e pract i c e of

.
,

w h i ch i s t h e mo s t e ffect u a l h u nger c u re for ple a s u re s a t e d - -

epoc h s pl a ys i n t h e P h e d o a p a rt w h i ch s u ppo s i ng t h at
, ,

o n ly t h i s w ork a n d a fe w k i n d re d t o i t h a d been pre s erve d ,

w oul d i nev i t a bly h ave pro du ce d a fu n d a men t a lly fa l s e i m

pre s s i on The s e w orks pre s en t t o u s a t h i nk er for w hom
.

e very t h i ng c orpore a l i s merely a h i n d r a n ce t o k no w le dge

an d t h e pre s en t of no o t her ac c oun t t h a n a s a prep a r a t i on

for t h e fu t ure : w h o w o u l d h av e g u e s s e d t h a t t h i s s a m e
t h i n ker fa r from be com i ng a pen i t e n t a n chor i t e w o ul d i n
, ,

o ther w r i t i ng s l avi s h th e mo s t d evo t e d t ho u gh t on th e c a re

of t h e bo dy i n a l l i ts bra n che s a s w ell as o n th e ord eri n g ,

of econom i c a n d s o c i a l con di ti on s ; t h a t he w o u l d on e d ay
glory i n th e l a bo u r a n d re s e a rch he h a d b es t ow e d on the s e
“
obj ects w i th th e emph as i s d i s pl a ye d by th e At hen i an
” “ ”
s t r a nger a t th e c lo s e of t h e Law s I n t h i s h i s l at e s t ,

w ork more t h a n i n a n y o t her P l at o m a d e h i s pe a c e w i th

, ,

t h e gen i u s of h i s people ; he re t u rne d i n l a rge me as u re t o

t h e o l d H ellen i c i d e a l w h i c h s ough t t h e h a rmon i o u s d evelop
m en t of th e w hole pers on a l i ty .

Fl i gh t from t h e w orl d as c e t i ci s m ho s ti l i ty to n a tu re
, ,
’
a ll the s e v i s i t e d P l a t o s s oul w i tho u t t a k i ng perm a nen t p o s

s e s s i on o f i t A fe at ure w h i ch t hey re s emble a n d w h i ch

.
,

they pe rh a p s s t reng t hene d w as t h e d epre ci a t i on c ommon

, ,
 TH E A CAD E M I CS . 2 7 1

to a ll So c r a t i c s of th e ex tern a l goo ds enjoye d e i ther by

,

i n d i vi d u a l s or a s s o c i a t i on s of m e n Th at th e h a pp i ne s s
.

eve n of a S t at e doe s n o t re s t on i ts s i ze or i ts r i che s i s a ,

con vi ct i on w h i c h th e m a t ure o l d m a n s w i s dom of t h e ’

”
L a ws hel d as i n vi ol a bly a s th e you thfu l i mpe t uo s i ty of
“
th e Gorg i as h a d d one None t h e les s tho s e ex t reme
.
,

t en den c i e s a mong w h i c h m u s t be re c k on e d th e pr i n ci ple

,

of avo i di ng a ll re s ort t o forc e (c f pp 5 0 a n d . h avi ng .

on ce g a i ne d th e va n tage gro u n d of i n corporat i on i n P l at o s

-

w or ks exert e d a n equ a lly po w e rful i nfluen c e on th e w orl d

,
.

The ch a ra ct er of t h i s i n fluen ce wa s d e t erm i ne d i n no i n

con s i d er a ble me a s ure by th e d efe ct s of t h a t v i e w of n a t ure

wh i ch w a s hel d by P l a t o a n d re ta i ne d by A r i s t o t le p a r ,

t i c ul arly by th e geo cen t r i c hypo t he s i s a n d th e a n t hropo

c en t r i c i d e as b as e d u pon i t H a d t h e fin a l fa ll of t h i s
.

hypo the s i s been c on s u m m a te d i n th e t h i rd c en t u ry before

Chri s t w hen a l l t h e i n t ellect u a l c on di ti on s w ere prop i ti o u s
,

for th e c h a nge (cf Vol I p . . . i n s te a d of be i ng d el aye d

.

t i ll th e s i x t een t h a ft er Chr i s t t h e w hole d ev elopmen t of

,

Wes tern hum a n i ty w oul d h a ve ta ken a differen t c ours e .

B ut s ome t i me s t h e s a fe ty of a n a rmy s movemen t s d em a n ds

’

t h e reca ll of a fly i ng c ol u mn s en t fa r i n a dva n c e T a ken .

a ll i n a ll , i t m ay h av e been be tt er t h a t t h e d a ngerou s
re vi s i on of t h e t heory of t h e un i vers e w as pos tpone d t o a
m a turer ph a s e of th e hum a n m i n d .

.
5 The s e gre a t a n d di s t a n t a fter e ffe cts w ere beyo n d -

t h e ke n of t h e you t h s wh o t hronge d ro u n d t h e a d m i re d
t e acher i n t h e A c a d emy They a tt en d e d th e s chool of
.

P l at o j u s t a s t hey a tten de d t h a t of I s o c r ate s j us t a s a fe w , ,

d e ca de s e a rl i er men h a d h u ng on th e l i p s of a P ro d i cu s or
,

a P ro t a gora s . P h i lo s ophy w a s purs ue d more i n t h e s p i ri t of

C a l l i cl e s t h a n i n t h at of So cr at e s (cf Vol I I p . The . . .

object w as t o g a i n th e me a n s for s u cces s fu l compe t i t i o n i n

t h e fiel d of pol i t i cs by t r a i n i ng an d S h a rpen i ng t h e i n t el
lectua l fac ul ti e s Thu s th e mo s t em i nen t s ta t e s men of th e
.

At he n s of t h a t d ay w ere t empora ri ly p up i l s of P l a to
Lycu rgu s th e w i s e a dm i n i s t r a t or a n d fin a n ci er no le s s t h a n
H yp e ri d e s th e s u cce s s fu l a dvo ca t e Demo s thene s t h e le a der
,

of th e ra di ca l n at i on a l p a r ty equ ally w i th Pho ci on th e he a d

-
2 7 2 GRE E K TH I NK E RS .

of th e pe a ce p a rt y All s h a d e s of pol i ti ca l s en ti men t a n d

-
.

a c t i v i ty w ere repre s en t e d a mon g P l a t o s d i s c i ple s

’
Cle a rch us .

s e t h i m s elf u
p a s r u ler of H e r a c l e i a ; Ch i on a n d Leon i d a s
c on s p i re d a g a i n s t h i m ; Leon of B yz a n t i u m w h o s n a t c he d

h i s n a t i ve c i t y from t h e c l a w s of P h i l i p a n d P y thon w h o ,
’
b e a t th e re cru i t er s d ru m for th e s a me P h i l i p i n e very co rner
of Gree c e — a l l t he s e a l i ke h a d been Ac a d em i cs B e s i de s
, .

D i on t h e ph i lo s opher i n th e p a l a c e t here w a s Ch e ron of

, ,

P e l l e ne a tyr a n t i n t h e Gree k a n d a l s o i n th e mo d er n
,

a cc ep t a t i on of t h e w or d w h o o v er t hre w t h e c on s t i t u t i on of
,

h i s c o u n t ry by t h e a i d of M a c e d o n i a n l a n c e s a n d w h o ,

s hra n k from n o d ee d of v i ole n c e H erm i a s th e e u nu ch

.
,

a n d form er s l a v e w h o fo u n d e d a throne i n th e c i ty of
,

At a rn e u s i n Nor t hern As i a M i nor an d w h o re ce i ve d th e

,

s u ppor t of P h i l i p i n th e s t r u ggle a g a i n s t P er s i a w a s a l s o a ,

member of th e Aca d emy So t o o w a s E up h re u s of O re u s

.
, ,

i n E re t r i a w h o for a long t i me e n j oye d fa v o u r an d h i gh

,

e s t eem a t t h e c ourt of P e r di ccas I I I b ut w h o en de d a s a

.
,

p a s s i on a t e o pponen t of P h i l i p an d t oo k h i s o w n l i fe i n
,

pr i s on t o a vo i d fa ll i ng i n t o th e h a n d s of h i s gener a l s I t .

w a s a c omp a r a t i v ely me a gre b a n d of d i s c i ple s t h a t c ho s e

’
t h e p u rs u i t of s ci en c e for t he i r l i fe s ca ll i ng From t h i s .

n a rro w er ci rcle w e s h a ll s e e men pro c ee d w h o p a rtly i n ,

t h e A c a d emy p a r tly ou ts i d e i t c a rr i e d on a n d d e velope d

, ,

th e t e a c h i ng s of P l a t o foremo s t a mong t hem t h e m a n

,

w ho s e n a me h as s o oft en a ppe a re d i n t he s e p a ge s —A r i s t o t le
of S t a g i ra .
 N O TE S A ND A DD I TI ON S .

55 3
—5 ,
Fr ag m , 3 8 1 A v al u a ble le ct i o n i n H ai gh Th e Tr ag i c
. . co l ,

Dr a m a of th e Gr e e ks (O xfo r d, p 8 6 s eq .
, .

P a ge 8 O n th e Or es te i a n o w co m p a r e al s o th e s ugge s ti v e
.
,

i n tro d uc t i o n o f W i l a m ow i tz i n h i s t r a n sl a ti on For th e ch a r a ct e ri s t i cs .

o f I Es ch yl u s an d S o ph o c l e s ge n er ally a b o ve a l l s e e R o h d e s P sy ch e
’
, ,

i i 2 2 4 (e d
. a n d h i s l e c tu re D i e Re l igi on d e s Gr i ech e n H e i d e l
.
, ,

berg 1 89 5 ,
.

P a ge 9 B e s i d e s R o h d e (op ci t p
. J o h an n e s H oo yka a s . .
,
.
,

D e S op h ocl i s (E d zp ode Col on e o (Le yd e n h a s l a tely t re a t e d t h e ,

“ ”
m o r a l o rd er o f th e w o rl d i n S o ph o cl e s w i th pe n e t r a ti on a n d
“ n
c o n vi n c i n g t r u th (B el o w) O e o f th e m o s t p i o us . c f S ch o l on . .

“
S o ph E l e ctr a 8 3 1 .
,
O n e o f t h e h on e s t At he n i a n s
,
. s o h i s co n

t e m p o r a ry I o n c al l s h i m i n A th e n ce u s x iii 60 3 C ,
. .

”
P a ge 1 0 No t t o be b o rn e tc . cf G d COL 1 2 2 4 s e q (B e l o w ) ,
. . .
, , .

C f H er o d o t v i 9 8 (B e l o w) E u r i p id e s Tr a n s l at i o n o f Fr ag m 449
. .
,
. . .
,
.

P a ge 1 1 C h il d re n w h o t ur n out i ll e tc
.
”
Fr ag 7n 5 7 1 W i th ,
. .
,
.

th e ab o v e c f o n h avi n g c h i l d re n A l c 8 8 2 s e q
,
. A n dr om 4 1 8 s e q , .
, ,
. .
, ,
.

M ed .
,
1 0 9 8, s eq ; S upp l .
, 1 0 89, s e q .
(B ot to m) Cf E ur i p
. .
,
Fr agm .
,

2 85 .

P a ge 1 2 (M iddl e) Th ucyd . i i i 8 1 , s e q (M i d dl e ) Adva n t a ge o f a

.
, . .

m i dd l e s t ati on : cf
. E u ri p .
,
S upp l , 2 44, a n d Fr ag m q 6 2 6 (B o tto m ) .

G r o tt o in S al ami s : a nci e nt Li fe of E ur i p i de s , l 61 (p . vi . in

N a u ck s
’

P a ge 1 3 . E ur i p , Fr ag m , 9 1 0 1 a n d 9 1 3
. . . g o ds d o e vi l e tc
If ,
”

Fr ag m , 2 92 , 7 (B e l o w) O n t h e tr e atm e nt
. o f l ege n d a ry m a tt er b y

E uri p id e s co m p a re d w i th old e r p o e t s, cf W e l ck er GOtte r l eh r e i i 90

’

. .
, ,

L e o p ol d S ch m i dt, E th i h d er Gr i e ch e n , i 1 7 ; C hri s t Gr i ech L i t

.
, . .

Ge s ch .
,
1 2 1 .

P a ge 1 4 . E u r i p i de s on a t h l e te s : cf. Fr agm .
, 201 an d 2 8 2 . (B e l o w )
C f Tr oa d , 8 84, s e q
. . .

P a ge 1 5 C f h
t e co l l e c i on i n Nauck s I ntr o duct i o n , No te 67
t .
’
. .

E ur i p i d e s ra i s e s h i s vo i c e a g a i n s t w ar a n d c o n q ue s t , S upp l , 49 1 , s e q
—
. .

Fr ag m , 2 86, 1 0 1 2 . .

P a ge 1 6 . P l a to ca ll s th e m i l d er t re atm e n t of l e
s av s s p oi l i ng
(9p61 r r e w) i n L a w s , vi 7 7 7 C
'
. . B ut cf 7 7 6 D E .
-
.

“
P a ge 1 7 C f E u r i p , H ipp , 4 8 6 .M e d , 5
82 Of S o p h i s ti c, o f
.
” . . . .

“ e re m e i n d i vi dual i s m, ”
P ohl m a n n s pe a ks i n m a n y p a s s a ge s
xt

e s a n ti h on C om m u n i s m ns a n d S oci a l i s m n s
) (B el o w)
’

(G e s ch i ch te d .

H e s i o d, W w he r e th e l i n e s (gen er a lly r e cogn i ze d

or hs a nd D ay s , 60 2 , '

a s m i s pl a ce d) Ofir d r
’
li omov n ate fa ea t It a l bi r e x vov épcflov Si ge a ea t n e Aop a r
’ ’ '
'

a dm i t n o o t he r i n t erpre t a ti on (B el ow) Th e ogn i s , e s pe ci a lly 5 3 , s e q . .

P e m Ly r Gr , 1 2 4, B e r gk , e d
( o . . .

“
P a ge 1 9 Le t t h e a l i e n s er ve t h e H e ll e n e, e tc
.
”
E ur i p , Ip h i n . . .

An l .
,
1 400 , s eq.

P a ge 20 . X e n o ph on A n a h , , V1 1 . 6 .
(B elo w) Ar i s to tl e : cf . P ol .
, i .

c . 2 and 5 .
(B el o w) I l xx i i 3 7 1 .
, . . Th e t ra gi c p o e t M os ch i on (tr a n s i ti o n
 N O TE S AN D A D D I TI ONS . 2 75

be tw ee n th e sth a n d 4th c e nt ur i e s ) ; cf Fr ag m 3 H er o d o t i x 7 9 . .
, . .
,
. .

I nc i d e n t a l d i s a pprova l o f i n su l ts t o d e ad b o d i e s e ve n as e a r l y a s
I l x x i i 3 95 an d xx i ii 1 7 6 (B e l ow ) Th e r e m ar k t h a t H o m er d o e s n o t
.
,
. . .

“
u s e t h e n am e H elle n e s a s a c o lle ct i ve t e rm n o r ye t o pp o s e b a r
”
,

b ar i an s t o G ree k s i s a s o l d a s Th u cyd i 3 Th e U u a S of I l
’

,
. . . a e e
, .
,

i i 5 3 0 a n d t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e Ca r i an s a s B pfi p frpwvo (i bi d
.
, a a r t .
,

pr o ve a t t he utmo s t i f t hey pr ov e s o m uch t h a t t h a t p a r t th e s o , , ,

ca lle d C a t a l o g u e o f S h i p s i s t h e w o rk o f a l a t er a ge
”
Th e w o rds , .

o f t h e Am ph i c ty o n i c o a t h i n {E s ch i n e s I n Cte s z h
’
p 1 0 9 s eq , , .

P a ge 2 1 (B o tt o m) E rn s t C ur ti u s i n h i s Gr e ek H i s tory h a s .
, ,

d e s c ri be d th e s e rvi c e s o f D elph i to ci vi l i z a ti on i n m an y p a s s a ge s ,

w i th pe n e t rati o n i f n o t wi th o ut o cca s i o n al ex a gge rati o n .

P a ge 2 2 (Top ) M ar d o n i us i n H er o do t v i i 9 . Th e p o et o f , .
,
. .

e n l i gh t e nm e n t i e Eu r i p id e s S upp l 49 1 s eq (B o ttom ) Ar mi st i c e
”
, . .
, , , . .

Il .
,
vi i .
40 8, s eq .

P a ge 2 3 ,
Athe n e, I l
3 7 9 ; D i o m ed e s , I l , x i 3 9 5 H .
, vii i . . . . .

W e il h a s ex c el le n t ly t re a t ed t h e m a tt er i n h i s e s s a y , L I l i a de e t l e
’

d r o i t d es g e ns da ns l a v i e i l l e Gr ece , Rev de P h i l ol ogi e , 1 88 5 , p 1 6 1 . .

s e q , repri n t e d i n E tu d e s s n r l a n ti q n i te Gr e cq u e (P a ri s, p ’
’
.

1 8 3 , s eq (B el o w) Li fe a n d free d o m o f t h e co n q u ere d : c f C a ll i
. .

cra t id a s i n Xe n o p h , H e ll e n , i 6 , I 4, an d P l a to , R ep , v 469 c . For . . . . .

w h a t fo ll o w s , c f Th u cyd , i i i 6 8 , 2 , a n d P a us a n , i x 1 5 , 2
. . . . . .

P a ge 2 4 C f I l i a d, v i 6 2 Ag a i n s t b u tche ry o f pr i s on er s
. . . .

“
Th ucyd .
,
iii 67 , 3 .
(B e lo w) Fl am e s d evo ur t h e
5 8, 2 ; 66 , 2 ; .

ci ty , e t c : I l i ad , i x
”
593 , s e q
. O n th e Theb an s a n d t h e S yr a cu s an s,
. .

s e e P a us an , i x 1 5 , 2 , an d Th u cyd , v i i 8 6
. . Fo r w h a t fo ll ow s To r on e , . . .

Th u cyd , v 3 S ci o n e , i bi d , 3 2
. . P l a t e a , i i i 6 8, 2 ; M el o s , v 1 1 6 . . . . .

P a ge 2 5 (M iddle ) C f Th u c yd , i i 6 7 , s e q Th u cyd : i e v 8 5 ,
. . . . . . . . .

seq Th i s d i al o gu e i s t re a t e d by D i o n ys i u s o f H al i ca rn a s s us , D e
.

Th u cy d c 47 - 42 G r o t e , v i i 1 5 7 (2 md
. . .

“
P a ge 2 6 D e a t h s e n t e nc e o n t h e i n h ab i t an ts o f M yt il e n e z c f
.
” -
.

Th u cyd , i i i 3 5 , . . seq .

S u p po rt o f t h e d i s ab l e d : cf t h e s pee ch o f Ly s i a s (2 4)
P a ge 2 7 . .

fo r t h e i n v al i d ”
(M p m 7 aaw a r o u) P r o s e cut i o n by wi v e s : c f M e i er
i
. .

a n d S c h Om an n , D e r A tti s ch e P r ocess , i i p 50 9 (z u d P r o vi s i on . .

fo r wi do w s an d o rph a n s : cf G i r a r d, L E d u cat i o n A th e n i en ne , p 3 2
'
’
. .

S ch Om an n , Gr i e ch i s ch e A l ter th ii m er , i 5 6 2 (4th O rph a n s

’

seq . .

o f fall e n s o l di er s : c f Gil ber t, Gr i e ch i s he S ta a ts a l ter t it mer , i 3 2 8 . . .

Q uo t at i on fr o m th e I l i a d, xx i i 49 5 Leg a l pr o t e c t i o n o f t h e s l ave . .

M e i e r a n d S ch Om ann , op ci t p 6 2 5 , s eq S i m i l a r l a w s el s e where a l s o
’

.
.
, .

eg. at G o r tyn i n C re t e ; c f N e n es S tad tr e ch t v o n Gor tyn (e d

. . .

B uch e l e r p 9 5 s eq
a nd Zi tt e l m an n ), .
,
.

P a ge 2 8 C f t h e i n s t ru ct i v e e ssa y o f S S p i tzer i n th e Z e i tsclz r

. . . .

m p Z u r Ges ch i ch te d er i n ter n a t z o n a l e n
’

f G 8
'

. Os ter r y n 1 9 4 . 1 s eq .
, , .
, ,

M or a l b e i den Gr i e ch e n I t i s s pe ci all y re m ark a b l e t h a t i n Th u cyd . .

,

v i i 1 8 th e S p a rt an s as cri b e th e i r fa i l u re i n t h e Ar c h i d a m i an w a r to
.
,
 N O TE S A N D A D D I TI ON S .

t he i r he i r v i o l a t i o n o f th e t erm s o f th e pe a c e an d n o w
w a pa vénn/L a , t ,

d r a w z n e w h o pe fr o m t he s a m e a ct o n t h e p a r t o f t h e At he n i an s .

P a ge 2 9 S c h o o l o f G ree c e.
”
I n th e fu n er al o ra t i on i n Th u c yd . .
,

P eri cle s ca ll s At he n s e EM da s i a mu ’ ‘
n 41
.
,
7 o r a eu .

B OO K I V .
— C H APTE R II .

P a ge 3 0 . P ra i s e At hen s i n E uri p , M e d , 8 2 4, s eq ; A l c , 45 2 ;
of . . .

Tr oa d , 2 0 7 , se
q . Fr ag m , 3 60 , 5 , s e q , 98 1 I n Ar i s t o ph an e s , At he n s
. .

”
is e v er a l t i m e s c a lle d
s v i o le t c r o wn e d (B el o w) C a p tu re o f -
.

M i le t u s c f H er o d o t vi 2 1
,
. .
, . .

“
P a ge 3 2 (M i d dle ) O n e fa m i ly o f h i gh rep ut e i e that o f . . .

I s a gor a s ; c f H er o d o t v 6 6 N el id e a n d I E a ci d e ; t h e fo rm e r fr o m
. .
,
. .

P yl o s i n M e s s e n i a th e l a tter fr o m I Eg i n a H o s p i t a l i ty : cf S t r a b o
,
. .
,

x 47 1 a n d P l ut a r c h Ci m on x 8 E rn s t C ur ti u s : A l te r th n m a n d
.
, , . .

Geg e n w a r t, i i 3 0 . .

P a ge 3 3 O n t h e s t a b i l i t y o f l i fe o f t h e At he n i a n c o n s t i tuti on , c f
.
.

t h e a u th o r s e s s a y , A r i s to te l es a n d s e i n e n e n e n td ech te S ch r if t, D e u ts ch e
’

R u n ds ch a u , p 2 1 9 s eq 1 89 1 ,
.
,
.

“ “
P a ge 3 4 Ab u n d a n c e o f l i gh t a n d p uri t y o f a i r pr a i s e d by
”
.
,

E u r i p id e s M e d 8 2 3
,
Ar i s ti d e s P a n a th e n
.
, 9 7 an d 1 0 1 (i 1 5 6 a n d , .
, .

1 6 2 e d D i n d o r f) (B el ow) Ar i s to p h np (Fr a g m i 5 3 6 e d Ko ck )
'
, . . . au . . .
, , , .

Th e s t a t e m e n ts a b o u t t h e c l i m a t e re s t o n th e t w el v e ye ar s o b s ervat i on s ’

o f th e a s t r o n o m er J u l i u s S ch m i d t H i s p ubl i c a ti o n i s q u ot e d by .

Ku rt W a ch s m ut h D i e S ta d t A th e n i m A l te r th n m i 9 4 n o t e 1 E rn s t
, ,
.
, .

C u r ti u s op ci t p 3 4
,
. .
,
. .

P a ge 3 5 (To p ) H e ro d o t u s i 6 0 (B o tto m) H ere o ur exp o s i t i o n

.
,
. .

o w e s m u ch t o t h e w o r k o f Em i le B o ut m y e q u a ll y r i c h i n fa ct s a n d ,

t h o u gh t s : L e P a r th en on e t l e g en i e g r e c P a r i s 1 897 ; fi r s t s k e tch , , ,

P h i l os op h i e d e l
’
a r ch i te ct n r e e n Gr ece , 1 87 0 .

P a ge 3 8 (M i dd le ) W i lhel m v on H u m b o l d t , I d e en a n e i n e m Ve r s uch
. .

di e Gr an e e n d e r W i r h s a mh e i t d e s S to o l e s e u be s ti m m en , W er h e ,
'

vi i p I o - I 1
. J o h n S t ua r t M i ll , L i he r ty (ch i ii p 1 0 7 , S co tt Li br a ry
. . . . .

(B el o w) H er o dot , v 7 8 . . .

P a ge 40 (B o tt o m ) Th u cy did e s . or P er i cl e s : fun e ral r

o a ti on of

P er i cle s i n Th u cyd i i 3 7, seq .

,
. .

P a ge 42 (B o tt o m ) O n t h e m a t er i al . a dva n c e of Ath e n s a fter th e

P er s i an w ar s , see B el o c h , Gr i e ch Oes ch , i 3 9 5 . . . .

P a ge 43 (M i dd le ) . Th u cyd , i v 5 5 (B o tto m ) O n P er i cl e s ,
. . .

Th u cyd .
, i v 6 5, 6
. .

B OO K I V .
— C H APTE R III .

P a ge 46 B i r th of S ocr a te s . Th e da t e o f h i s de a t h i s fixed a s .

M ay, 3 99 (D i o g La er t , I I 44) t h e l en gt h o f h i s l i fe li s g i ven by P l a t o i n

. . .

Cr i to, 5 2 c , a s s e v e n ty ye a r s , b ut i n Ap o l , 1 7 D , a s m o re th a n s ev e n t y .

ye a r s . I n th e l att er p a s s a ge r
t h e v a i a t i on o f t h e m anu s c r i p t s be t w ee n
éBSommox/ Ta ’
an d 1 r7t e l w éBBop i jfroI/ r a i s t o ‘
be d e c i de d i n favo ur O f th e
 N O TE S A ND A DD I TI ON S .

P a ge 5 5 , 3 Ar i s to tl e, M e tap h , M c 4 (1 0 7 8 b , 2 7 , s e q ) (B otto m)
. . . .

Th e d i s t i n c ti o n s ta te d i n th e t ex t i s a t l e as t i m pl i e d i n th e e n t ry o f
S oc r a ti c s e n t e n c e s u n d e r t h e he a d o f wa pa BoAfi C f Ari s to t le , Rh e tor i c, . .

B .
( 3 9 3 b,
20 with 1 exp o s i ti on s , suc h as we rea d in Xe n o ph on ,
M e m or , i i i 9 1 0 . . . .

P a ge 5 6 (M i ddl e ) . Xe n o ph o n , M e m or .
,
iv . 2 . 1 3 ,
s eq . Cf . a sol
P la t o, Rep .
,
i 33. 1 C .

P a ge 5 7 . Xe n o ph on , M e m or , i v 6 1 5 , an d i 2 , 3 7 ; s i m i l arly . .
, .

P l a to , Gorg .
, 49 1 A a l so Sy mp , 2 2 1 E . .

P a ge 5 8 .
”
D i d h e p r Op os e , e tc Xe n o ph on , M e m ar , i i i 6 a n d 7 . . .

t he n i i i 9, 1 . 0 .

“
P a ge 5 9 . M i s ol ogy cf . P l a to, P h ce d o, 89 C . Th e n ext q uota ti o n ,
Ap ol , 3 8 A .

P a ge 60 . Ar i sto tl e d e n i e s th e th e ory o f i de a s to S o c r a te s ,
M e taph ,

M iv . . 1 0 78 B , 3 0 , an d 1 0 86 B, 4 .

P a ge 6 1 (B o tt o m ) 8 X en o ph o n E
.
, con ,
i .
, and iv . 1 .

P a ge 6 2 . P i l gr i m a ge t o D e l ph i
c f Ar i s to tl e i n D i o g La er t , i i . . . .

2 3 ; a l so M e mor , i v 2 , 2 4, s e q ; a n d P lu t a r ch , I n Col ota m , c 2 0

. . . .

(B e lo w) Fi el d s an d t ree s P h e dr a s , 2 3 0 D M y s i an s a n d .

P i s i d i an s M e m or , iii 5 , 2 6 ; A n ah , i i i 2 , 2 3 . . . .

P a ge 6 3 O n th e p am phl et o f P o ly cra t e s , c f I s o cra t e s , Or , x i

. . . .

4 W e k no w, o n t h e a u th o r i ty o f Fa vo ri n u s , B i o g La e rt , i i 3 9,
. . . .

t h at i t w a s n o t c o m p o s e d t i ll s e v e ra l ye a r s a ft e r t h e exe cut i o n o f
S o cr a t e s C o b e t e s pe ci a l l y (N ov a L e cti on e s , 6 6 2 , s e q ) h a s m a d e i t
. .

v ery prob ab l e t h a t X e n o ph on i n t h e M e m or a hi l i a m ak e s fre qu e nt , ,

“
r efere n c e t o t h i s p a m phle t (B el o w) Th e t u rn s o f ph ra s e th e .
,

fo rmu l a s c f t h e d e fin i t i o n o f ¢ 06 s i i i
.
9 8 an d o f iii 9 9 vo
,
.
, ,
.
, ,

s i m i l ar l y i i i 8 6 (on th e be a u t i ful d u n g b a sk e t) a n d furt her i i i 4

.
,
-
, , . .

P a ge 64 (To p) Th e r i gh t m e t h o d i n pr i n ci ple h a s bee n s h o wn b y

.

Karl J o é l D er E ch i c u n d d er Xe n op h on t i s ch e S ocr a tes, i p 64 s eq

,
. .
, .

B OO K I V — C HAP TER I V . .

P a ge 6 6 errs o f h i s o wn free w i ll ( b a l s cl wi / pw ng )
. N 0 m an a e
'
en I i La
i
.

Th e n um ero u s P l at on i c refe re n c e s i n C F H erm an n Ge s ch i ch te a n d . .

,

Sy s te m de r P l a ton i s ch e n P h i l osop h i e p 3 3 0 n o t e 3 2 8 ,
.
,
.

P a ge 6 7 O n th e d en i a l o f th e i rr at i on al p a rt o f th e s o ul an d t h e
.

i m p os s i b i li t y o f dx p a f c f Ar i s to tle N i c E th H 3 1 1 45 b 2 3
a a, .
, . .
, .
, ,

I 1 47 b 1 4 s e q ,
1 2 00 b 2 5 ; M ag n M or
,
A 1 (s i m i l a rly ch 2 0 1 1 90 b
.
, . .
, . .
, ,
“
a l s o ch 1 0 1 1 8 7 a 6
. Vi de o m e l i or a e tc O v id M e ta morp h v i i 2 0
,
”
, .
,
.
, , .
,

el re eye m B e h m i s c a l l e d b y M ill
s eq (
. B o w ) G a t o n e d e n s o n t a -
,

D i s s e r ta ti ons a nd D i scu s s i on s , i 3 5 7 . .

P a ge 68 . Fre n c h w r i t e r o f co me di e s S ar d ou, L a Fa mi l l e
B e n oi ton , 8 (Par i s , p . 1 1

P a ge 7 0 E pi ch a rm us , Fr ag m , 7 8 (Com Gr a c Fr ag m , e d Ka i b e l ,
. . . . . .

i 1 , 1 04
.
= Ahre n s , fr. 0 686 2: é m
’ ’
b v n ovnpbs o t a dr a w éx wv Th e t wo l a s t
. .

w ord s a l t e r e d to anew p dnap i n Ari s t ot , N i c E th , i 7, 1 1 1 3 b, 1 5 . . . . .

 N O TE S A ND A D D I TI ON S . 2 79

P a ge 7 1 Cl e a n th e s Th e q uo t at i on fo rm s t h e mo tto o f th i s b o ok
. . .

B e s i d e s C l e m e nt , l o , t h i s s e n t e n c e a l so a ppe a r s i n C i c er o , D e L eg i h us ,
. .

i 1 2 , 3 3 (wi th th e a d d i t i o n , I d e n i m q uer e ha tu r cap u t e s s e er i ti or u m

.

om n i u m ), a n d i n a s l i gh tly a l tered fo r m, D e Oj Z ,
iii 3 , 1 1 Th e el egy . .

o f Ari s to t l e i n B e r gk , P o etce Ly r Gr , e d 4, i i 3 3 6 , s e q At th e begi n n i n g

'

. . . . .

of t he l as t l i n e r a di ti o n h as f A w h i c h t h e a u t h o r (W i e n e r
th e t o ; »,

S t u di e n i i 1 ) h a s e m e n d e d f six a C f fo r ex a m p l e D i o n s Or a ti on i i i
,
.
o ) . .
, ,
’
,
.

39 ( i A r i m ) l 6 f Th e a uth o r bel i e v e s
’

4 0 .1 4 n ,
m al x G ,
s ii «H A ,
I a e 7 '
r é a rr o , .

w i th B e rn a y s (Ges A hh a n d l u ng e n i 1 4 1 s eq Rh e i n M us xxx i i i .
, .
, . . .
, .

23 2 s eq ) t h a t S o c ra t e s
,
. n o t P l a to i s here m e a n t (co m p a re n o w , , , ,

m y P l a ton i s ch e A ufi cz tz e i i i e n d ) Li n e 3
’
Auapbs b ur f :
’ ’

70 ,
. .
, y o a t/ 5 1 ; 7 0 ,

w r te o ms c a n be refe rr e d pre ci s el y t o th e un wo rt hy repre s e n t a t i v e s (as

’
o ; e
,

Ari s to tle reg a r d e d t he m ) o f S o c r at e s l ik e Ar i s ti ppu s a n d An t i s the n e s , .

P age 7 2 S l avi s h c on d i ti o n
. cf P l ato Sy mp 2 1 5 E a n d Xe n o .
, .
, ,

ph o n M om or i v 2 2 2
,
.
,
.
,
.

P a ge 7 4 Xe no ph on M e m i i i 9 4 : E pf
. It l o wc
pp a ivnv ,
.
, .
, or av a
'
o r o r;
’

Th e s t r uctu re o f th e S ocra t i c m o ral ph i l o s o phy h a s been

‘

s ép g
r r e v.

n o w here b ett e r exh i b i t e d t h an i n t h e fo rg o t t e n d o ct o ra l d i s s e rt a

t i on o f t h e E n gl i s h m a n W F H ur n dal l D e P h i l os op h i a M or a l i , . .
,

S ocr a ti s (H e i d elb u rg L D i s s e n s pr o gr a m m e D e P h i l os op h i a
’
.
, ,

M or a l i i n Xe n op h on ti s de S ocr a te Co mme n ta r i i s Tr ad i ta (G ott i n ge n ,

al so d e s erv e s m e n ti on (B el o w) H ere w e fo ll o w Z ell er s .

’

a dm i r a b l e exp o s i t i on o f th e e u de m on i s ti c b a s i s o f m o r al i ty i n
Xe n o ph on (P h i l d e r G r i i 1 1 5 2 e d . .
,
.
, , .

P a ge 7 8 J S M i ll Sy s tem of L ogi c b k ”v ch 1
. . .
33 , , . . .
, .

“
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i 3, I
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d e ci s i ve o n t h e o t her s i d e , P l at o , Ap ol , 3 1 D Z el l er c o un ts th e .

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—C H APTER V .

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3 51 an d 3 5 5 , Ko ck) O n P r ota g ora s , .

i hi d , p 2 97 . . .

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ph an e s B i r ds 1 2 8 1 s eq , , , , 5 53 , s eq
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a nd 1 47 1 .
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Ar i s to tle , R h e t , B 2 3 , 1 3 98 a , 2 4 . . .

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. . .

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. . Th e . .

u o t a t i o n fr o m th e C l o u ds o f Ar i s t o ph a n e s , 1 44, s e q
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.
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, x vi i i .
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J . S M i l l , L i be r ty,
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3 7, ad fin .

P a ge 1 1 8 . I Es ch i n e s , I n Ti ma r ch um, § 1 73 .

B OO K I V —C H APTE R V I . .

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th i s s ct i on , e X en op h o n s ’
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 N O TE S A ND A DD I TI ON S . 2 83

li fe , be s i de s i n c i d e nt a l
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. .

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’
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p o s s i b i li ty o f e x pl a i n i n g lth e s e d i s cr ep a n ci e s by l on g d i s t a n c e i n t i m e
d o e s n o t s ee m t o t h e pre s e n t w ri t e r t o be q ui t e ex cl ud e d Th e s p i r i t .

o f t he li ttl e w o r k c ert a i n l y s h o w s c o m p l e t e c o rre s p o n d e n c e w i t h th e

co g n a t e w r i t i n g s o f X e n o ph o n .

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.

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.
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befo re th e e nd o f t h e fi fti e s o f t h e fo u r t h c en tu ry There a r e two .

re a s on s : (1 )Xe n o ph o n e n ds t h e H e l l e n i ea wi t h t h e b a ttl e o f M a n ti n e i a .

a n d i n t h e Ag e s i l a u s he pre s u pp o s e s t h e d e a t h o f t h a t k i n g Th a t .

w o ul d n o t re q ui re h i m t o l i v e l o n g a ft er 3 60 B ut th e s ta t e m en t i n .

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. . .

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p o l i ti ca l s i tua t i on pre s upp o s e d i n b o t h w o rk s B ut, s i nc e t h i s s pee c h .

“ ”
of I s o c ra t e s fall s in th e m i dd le of th e fift i e s (B l a s s , A tti s efi e
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.

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x x vi . 4 (Vi tae , 1 221 , 1 5, s eq .

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,

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 N O TE S A N D A DD I TI ON S .

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of
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D i o d o r u s w ou l d l e a d us t o o far D ii r rb a ch s a tt e m pt t o expl a i n t he s e .
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, v. 3 .

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,
ii . 6 .
55, and

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7 s el z.en 1 .
’

R o l i e n , Z e i ts ei z r f u r os ter r Gy m n , 1 86 6, p 7 0 1 , s eq C f al s o J ak ob
'

. . . . . .

B ern a y s , D i e D i a l og e d es A r i s tote l e s , pp 6 2 a n d 1 5 7 . .

P a ge 1 2 6 (M id dle) C f Cy r opce a i a , i i i 1 2 2 , a n d G e on omi e u s , x i i

’
- .
. . .

1 2 s i m i l a rly xx 2, 2 1 W i t h re s pe ct t o w o m e n , cf o n o n e s i de th e
. . .

w h o l e E con om i e z es , a n d o n t h e o ther th e a l r e a dy q u o t e d expre s s i on s

on fe m a le c ou r a ge i n th e Sy mp os i u m .

P a ge 1 2 7 (To p) Th e rel a ti o n o f th e t wo Sy mp os i a h a s gre a tly .

o ccu p i e d s c h o l a r s I t c a n n ow b e t ak e n a s p ro v e d t h a t Xe n o ph o n s
’
.

wo rk fol l o w e d i ts Pl at o n i c n am e sak e C f I vo B ru n s A tti s elz e L i ebes . .

,

tlz e or i e rz , e t c .
, i n N e ue y a fz r oi ce ke r f d Cl a s s A l ter tfz u m, 1 900 ,
. . .
1 Ab t .

p . 1 7, s eq . (B o tom ) S tri i n g t k p a s s a ge s of th e H e l l e n i e a : i v . 1 . 2 9;
iv . 1 .
3 ,
s eq . 4 2 5 , s e q ; v i 4 3 6, s e q
; v . vi i 2 9
. . . . . . . .

P a ge 1 2 8 (M i d d le) S pee che s o f Th e r a m e n e s a nd C r i ti a s . : H el i en .

,

ii 3 . of P r o cl e s : v .
3 13 . .

P a ge 1 2 9, 3 . P l utar ch , i n h i s Li fe of Age s il au s , e s pe ci ally in

ch . in i nit .

P a ge 3 1 S p a2rt an fe a t u re
(TOp)
s i n t h e Cy p
r o m z.i a e g s y s s i t i a,
’
.

1 1 . 1 . 25 ; m i l i ta ry d ri ll , i i 3 2 1 (B e l o w ) D i s c i pl i n e , Cy r op ee d i a , . . .

vi ii o fii ci al h i er a r c hy , v i i i re s p on s i b il i ty, v 3 5 0 ;
‘
. 1 2
. 1 1 5 . . . .

d i vi s i o n of l a b ou r, i i . 1 . 2 1 a n d v i ii . 2 .
5 .

“
Pa ge
33 H u mou r of a
bl un t gua r d r oo m t ype
1 . i 3 - . . 1 0 ;
11 . 2 v ii 5 40 . a rt o f h o r s e m a n s h i p i v 3
s p o r t, i 6 3 9 . 1 5 seq . .
,
. .
,
.

P a ge 1 3 6 (To p ) H zpfi a r e/z

ix 8 Fo r w h a t fo ll o w s cf . .
,
. . ,
.
9,
a d fi fz C f a l s o th e c h a r a ct er i s t i c p a s s a ge Cy r op wd i a i 6 44
. .
, ,
. .
,
s eq .

(B o t to m ) O n e c ri t i c i n p a r t i cul ar : Au gus t Kr o h n i n S o/Er a tes ,

a nd

Xe n op lz on .

t r M “
37( B P a ge
o t o m ) C o n v1e s a t i o n wi t h La m p r o cl e s e m or , u 7 .
. . .

“
P a ge 1 3 8 E xh o r t a t i o n t o p a t i e n c e M e m ar , i i 3
. (B el ow) . . . .

Ari s t a r ch u s , M e m ar , i i 7 E u th e ru s , i i 8 For w h a t foll ow s , c f . . . . .

“ B u to
i ii 1 2 . O n b eh a vi ou r at t a b l e, i i i 1 4
. t g i ve a com pl e t e . .

”
a c co un t e tc . iv .
 N O TE S A N D A DD I TI ONS .

co lle cti on of C y n i c t h o ugh t s and expre s s i on s Th e p ol e m i c a g a i n s t .

P lato ee m s n o t t o h a v e bee n n ot i c e d befo re b ut i s

’
s P r otag or a s s . ,

un m i s tak a ble C f e s pe ci a lly D i on . . .

,
l oc ci t p 2 1 s e q w i t h P r otag or as
. .
,
. .
, ,

3 2 1 A —C (B o tto m ) Rou s s e a u D i s cou r s s ur l es S ci e n ces e t l es A r ts ,

.
,

2
“d
p ar ti e n o t e 1
e
, .

P a ge 1 47 (B o tto m ) B o t h t he s e q uo t a t i on s fr om To l s to i a r e .

br o ugh t t oge t he r a n d di s cu s s e d by M el ch i or d e Vo g u é i n h i s w o rk ,
“
Le Roma n R u s s e pp 3 1 3 1 1 H e r efer s t o th e v e r t i ge s ecu l a i r e
0 ,
.
, .
'

”
O r i e n ta l w h o s e d o ct ri n e s ar e re vi v e d d a n s l a f r en es i e q u i p r eczjoi te
,

u ne p a r ti e d e l a R us s i e ver s ce tte a bn e
g a ti on i n te l l e ctu e l /e
’
et m or a l e ,
q u i e ti s me, p a rf oi s s u bl i m e a e a ev o u e m e n t
(p
' ' ' ’ ’

p a r/oi ls s tup i ne
’

ae .

P a ge
50 , 4 1 vi 9 1 0 5 , a n d vi 1
. 1 1C f D i og L a er t ,
. . . . . . . .

P a ge 1 5 1 (To p) D i o g La er t , v i 1 3 (M i ddle ) P r om et he u s an d
. . . . . .

H er a cle s H ere w e d r a w fro m D i on s e i gh t h o ra t i on , Ai o-ye yns h 1 re pl

’ ’
.

“
ape f fis (B o tto m) W he n J ul i a n a s c e n d e d th e t hr o n e : cf D i on , Or
. . .

a a Al e x a n d r i n os , 6 5 7 (R e i s k e ) i 2 69 1 1 (Ar n i m) : m y 151 Ki n/ mam

’
. .

Ae yop e vwv 3 0 7 1 Men £1 1 7 1? m i k a w k fiflo s a i m 6M yov : al so J u li a n ’ s s i x t h a n d

'
‘ '

e ve n t h E p i s t le s Ei s bs ama t ae ti r o vs w d m e rov
f
s r o '
va s , a n d U p bs
‘
x vmx dv
— H ertl e i n ) Th e c o w a rdi c e t h e C y n i cs a t w h i ch
(i . 2 34 3 1 0, ed . .

An t i o c h ar e s a i d t o h a v e d i s pl a ye d d u ri n g t h e re vo l t (J a n u a ry , 3 87
i n c o n tr a s t w i t h t h e m o n k s , i s e m ph a s i ze d by J o h n C hry s o s t o m , xl i x .

p 1 7 3 , e d M i g n e cf G i bb o n , D e cl i n e a n d Fa l l , i i i p 48, 2 n d e d
. . . . . .

( M o re ex ac t d ates i n R a u s c her, ya nr o d Ch r i s t l K i r cne u n te r . . .

l
’
e oa os i us , pp .
51 2 5
“
P a ge free do m fr o m i ll us i o n : fio s an d é o
I ll u s i on
’
'

1 52 . r o r v z a.

(B el o w) O n C r a te s c f D i o g La er t v i 5 H e w a s l i vi n g w he n
,
. . .
,
. .

P t o le m y P h i l a d elph u s a s c e n d e d t h e t hr o n e (2 8 5 c f H e ns e .
,

P r o l eg a d Te l e t R e l. p 2 7 Th e fr a g m e nt s o f h i s p o em s a r e
.
,
. .

c o lle c t e d i n B e r gk P o é ta Ly r Gr p artly repe at e d

’

11 3 64 (4th ,
. .
,
.

i n C u rt W a ch s mu t h Corp us cu l u m P oe s i s Ep i cce Gr a m L u a i bu n a a
’ ’
, ,

i i 1 9 2 s e q (z u d
.
,
Fr a gm e nt s o f h i s t ra ge di e s i n Nau ck p 8 09
.
,
.
,

s eq Ad d t h e s u pple m e n t s i n Na u ck s Tr agi cw D i cti on i s I n dex

.
’
,

p x x vi i a n d t he pre s e nt w ri t er s N a cli l es e z u d e n B r u clt s tu cke n a e r

. .
,
’ ’

Gr i e clc Tr ag i ke r p 48 s eq
. O n B i o n cf n o t e o n pp 2 43 2 44
,
.On ,
.
,
. .
,
.

Tele s c f n o t e s o n
,
6 (B el o w) O n t h e beh a v i o u r o f t he R om an
. .

C y n i cs a n d e s pe ci a lly o n P eregr i nu s c f B er n a y s L u ci a n u n d di e
, .
, .
,
’
Ky n z ke r m i t e i n e r e r s e tz u ng a e r S clz r ift L u ci a n s
’
e r a as ’

Le oe n s en a e a es P e r eg r i n us (B e r l m,
’ '

P a ge 1 5 3 I n s p i t e o f th e a l l u s i o n t o p a s s a ge s o f th e Ody s s ey , l
.

d o n o t a gree w i t h W a c h s m u t h i n c ou nt i n g t h e fra g m e n t a m on g t h e
ol o f C ra t e s S o a l s o h i s expl a n a ti o n o f t h e l a s t l i n e,
. Te r r a o

q u a f a ce t i n me d i a fi li i l os op/z o r u m
f a s tu ,
”
s ee m s t o m e m u ch t o o
”
n a rr o w H e i s s pea k i n g n o t a e d ogm a ti cor u m p l a ci ti s , b u t o f th e
'
.

c o mm o n cu rre n t v i e w o f l i fe (M i ddl e ) H ere I d ra w fr o m t h e t h i r tee n t h .

o r a t i o n o f D i o n , i n e s ti m a ti n g w h i c h I fin d m y s e l f e n t i rely c o n fir m e d

b y Arn i m , L e be n u n a W e r ke d e s D i o v on P r u s a p 2 5 6, s e q
’
‘
. .
 N O TE S A N D A DD I TI ONS . 2 87

Li k e h i m , I to ok D u mm l e r s D i o n here u s e s th e A r clz e l a u s
’
vi e w, th at
o f An t i s t he n e s , t o be w r on g B ut i t m ay be reg a r d e d a s ex t re m ely
.

l i k ely th a t D i o n h a s m a d e s po i l o f an e a rl y C yn i c, perh a p s An t i

he n i c w o rk
st ,
. Cf Or , 1 3 42 4 (Re i s k e )
. . .i 1 8 2 2 0 , s e q (Ar n i m ) . . . .

P a ge 1 5 4 H e a pe d u n m e a s ure d co n d e m n a t i o n Th i s i s s t a t e d
”
. .

by Athe nae us v , . 2 20 D 0 6k 1
‘
071 1 7 1 b a i r a i}
‘
61 1 01 0 7 0 ; é vr afv r wv ‘
k a r a opo fi w

H e i s s a i d al s o t o h av e re vi le d h i s
' ’
rdm Aflfivnd w onp a ywy é
‘

we p x '
v.
‘
us et

t e a c he r G o rgi a s i n h i s A r c/z e l a u s , a s At he n ae u s s t a t e s i n t h e s a m e
p a s s age ; he s i m i l a rly i n ve i ghe d a g a i n s t I so c r at e s (D i og La er t , . .

vi . 1 . W e a gree w i t h m o st i n ve s ti g a t o r s i n r eg a rd i n g t he
d e cla m a t i on s A i a s an d Ody s s e u s (Or a t A tt , i i 1 6 7 , a ttr 1 b u t e d . . .

t o An ti s the n e s , as s p ur i o u s (B o tto m) H ere a l s o I dr a w fro m D i o s

’
.

t h i rt ee n th o r a ti on .

P a ge 1 5 5 D i oge n e s i s tr e a t e d (very full y ) b y D i o g La er t , vi 2 ;

. . . .

a n o t v ery t r us t w o r t hy m o n o gra ph i n G o tt l i n
g s Ge s a mm e l te A b/i a n d
’ ’

l u ng e n , i 2 5 1 , s e q a m a s s i v e c o lle c ti o n o f a p o ph t heg m s i n M ul l a c h s
’
. .

Fr ag m P /z i l os op nq i i 2 9 5 , s e q
. C o m p a re d h i s t e a che r t o a t ru m pe t
. .

“
c f D i o n , Or , Vl i i
. 2 7 5 (R e i s ke )
. i 9 6 3 , s e q (Arn i m )
. S o cra t e s . . . .

g on e m a d ”
Th e s a ym g i s a tt ri b ut e d t o P l a t o by B i o g L a er t , v i 2 5 4
. . . . .

(w here Go bet h a s br a c k e t e d th e w o r ds wi th o ut r e a s on ) a n d E l l en ,
Va r H i s t , x i v 3 3
. . . .

P a ge 1 5 6 C o i n i n g fal s e m o n ey
.
”
Th e exp l a n a ti on he r e g i ven .

c o m e s fro m D i el s
’
A u s de m L e be n d e s Cy n i ne r s D i og e n e s , i n t he
Fe s tg a be i n h o n o ur o f Z el ler, b y t h e e di to r s o f t he A r clt f Ge s cn d e r . . .

P /z i l os (B erl i n , . pp 3 - 6 I n ow a c cept t h i s re s ult a s q u i t e . .

“
c e rt a i n Two a n c i e n t m o n o gr a ph s As a u t h o r s o f t he s e m o n o
”
. .

gra ph s , th e n a m e s o f M e n i pp us a n d a c er ta i n u n kno w n E ub ul us ar e
m e n ti o n e d (Acc o rdi n g t o i n fo r m a t i o n ki n d ly s uppl i e d b y P ro fe s s o r
.

B y wa t er, E u b ul i d e s an d H e rm i p pu s h a ve n o m a nu s c r i p t
a uth o r i t y ) W e h a ve r eal ly befo re u s , a pp ar e n tl y, an i m a g i n a ry
.

s to r y by th e C y n i c p o e t M e n i pp us , a At o ye vo us r pad l s , w h i c h m a y
'
'

h av e bee n s ugge s te d by t h e r e a l s al e o f P l a t o a t Ai gi n a , a n d i n i t s
o wn t u r n h a v e g i v e n a m o d el t o Lu ci a n s B M d Ac co rdi n g to
’
6 613 .

Th e w o r d s o f D i o n a r e : E lre l at aar e eawe v 6 Aw w oe m s

’ ’
”
D i on
’ ’
' :
.

s is
d wfloy , Or , v i i i 2 7 6 (R e i s ke ) i s eq (Ar n i m)
. . . . .

Xe n i a d e s t he C o ri n th i an D i og La ert , v i 2 3 0 , s e q . . . . .

ge T “ H e al th s tre n g t h an d c heerful n e s s c f J ul i an ,
Pa 1 5 7 ( p)
o , , . .

Or , v i 1 9 5 A
. . i 2 5 2 2 1 , H er tle i n), a n d E p i ct e tu s , D i s s e r t , i i i
. . . .

22 8 8 , an d i v 1 1 2 2
. p 2 7 7 4 a n d 3 9 1 2 2 , S e b e nkl ) (M iddle )
. . . . . .

D i o ge n e s a n d ;th e C r an e i o n c f P a u s a n i a s , i i 2 4 ; P l ut ar c h , D e . . .

E x i l i o, v i ; A l ex a nde r , x i v ; Al c i ph ro , i i i 60 ; D i o n , i v 1 47 ; vi 1 99 ;
. . . . .

i x 2 89 (Re i ske )
. i 5 8 4, i 8 4 4, i 1 0 3 1 7 (Ar n i m ) ; C u rt i u s , . . . . .

P e l op on n en , i i 5 2 9 (B o t t o m ) O n h i.s d e at h , c f D .i og L a er t , . . .

vi . 2 7 6 , s eq
. I f t he po e t C e r ci da s w a s r e a lly a con t e m p o ra ry o f
.

D i oge n e s , as i s a l m o st u ni v er s all y b el i e ve d (cf S t eph B yz , . . .

Me ydAn ml ms, a n d M e i n e ke , A n a l e cta A l e x a nd r i n a , p t here ca n .

 N O TE S A ND A D D I TI ONS .

be n o d o ub t of th e s ui cide Th e v e rs e s gi ve n i n Di og L a ert l c a r e
. . .
, . .
,

t re at e d b y B e r gk P oetae Ly r Gr i i 5 1 3 4th e d O n th e o r i g i n
‘

. .
, . .
, ,

o f th e n a m e t here w ere a lre a d y d i s p ut e s i n a n ti q ui t y Cf E l i a s

’
. .

”
(fo rm erl y c al l e d D av i d ) C o m m e n t a ry o n th e C a t eg o r i e s i n ,

C o mme n ta r i a i n Ar i s tot x vi i i pp 1 1 1 1 1 2 (B erl i n .

,
Th e
. .
, ,

o b vi o u s ly r i gh t v i e w i s fo u n d i n H W eber D e D i on e C/ z ry s os to m o .
,

Cy n i cor u m S e cta tor e p 1 0 3 s e q Th e d o g w a s th e t ype o f s h a m e l e s s

, .
, .

n e s s a n d th e C y n i c s fl o ut e d a l l cu s t o m a n d s ee m l i n e s s
, B ut o n .

t he i r o wn s i d e t hey p o i n t e d t o a ll t h e ex c e lle n t q ua l i t i e s o f t h e d o g
—i ts fid el i ty w at chful n e s s s h a rp d i s cr i m i n a t i o n e tc Th e n i ckn am e
, , ,
.

s ee m s t o h av e bee n g i v e n a lre a d y t o An t i s the n e s .

Th e p i cture o f D i o ge n e s h a s bee n gre a t l y di s to rt e d b y l a te r

ex a gger a t i o n s Th e b egg ar s l i fe t o w h i c h m a n y a p o ph t heg m s a n d l a ter
.
’
,

s t o r i e s r efer he c a n on ly o cc a s i o n a l l y h av e l e d
, H i s d w ell i n g i n t h e .

t u b w a s o n ly a m o m e n t a ry expe d i e n t w h i c h he s el e ct e d c ert a i n l y n o t ,

w i th o u t t h e p urp o s e o f di s p l a y i n g h i s free d o m fr o m w a n t s (D i o g .

La er t v i 2 .
,
. I t i s d i ffi c ul t t o pe n e t ra t e t o th e h i s t o r i c a l t r u t h
.
,

b e c a u s e l a t er t i m e s h a ve o b vi o us ly d el i gh t e d t o t r a n s fer th e fe a t ure s
o f t h e l at e r C y n i c i s m t o i t s e a rl i er repre s en t ati v e s ab o v e a l l t o ,

D i o ge n e s wh o w a s ex al t e d t o a t ype
, B ut w e c o m e n e a r t o .

o ri g i n a l whe n w e fix o ur eye s o n t he p i ct ure w h i c h c a n be r e co g n i ze d ,

i n t he exh o r t a ti o ns o f Tele s le s s t h an a h u n d re d ye ar s a ft er h i s
d eath Th u s w e fin d i n h i m (p 3 1 4 e d H e n s e ) th e s a y i n g w h i c h
. . .
,
.

“
D i o ge n e s ga v e a s h i s re a s o n fo r n o t p ur s ui n g h i s e s c a pe d s l av e If
”
M a n e s c a n l i v e w i th ou t D i o ge n e s wh y n o t D i o ge n e s w i t h out M an e s ? ,

At th e t i m e w he n Tele s w r ot e t herefo re D i o ge n e s wa s bel i e ve d t o , ,

be th e o wn er o f a s l av e w h i ch i s n o t co m p a ti b l e w i t h b egg a ry i n t h e
,

s t r i ct s e n s e An d s i n c e i t c a n be pr o v e d t h a t Tele s d re w m o s t o f s u ch
.

m atte r fro m B i on th e p i ctur e g ai n s a fur ther a t t e s tat i on o f a n ti q u i ty

,
.

P a ge 1 5 8 M o n i m u s O n e si cr i tus M e tr o cl e s H i p p ar ch i a a r e
.
, , , ,

tre a t e d i n t h i s o r d er by B i o g L a er t C ra t e s p o e m s
’
vi C 3 s eq . .
,
.
,
.

h a v e bee n m e nti on e d al re ad y (p H i s s upp os e d l e tt er s a r e .

v ery b a r r e n s o m e t i m e s fil le d w i t h a p o ph t hegm s el s e w he r e a tt r i b ut e d
,

t o D i o ge n e s a n d An t i s the n e s ; s o m e t i m e s l i k e N o 2 4 (H er cher ,
.
,

Ep i stol og r ap lz i Gr a ci p b a d t o th e p o i n t o f a b s u r d i ty
,
. On .

t h e o t her h a n d t h e l e tt er s a t t ri b ut e d t o D i o ge n e s (i oi d p 2 3 5 s e q )
,
.
,
.
,
.

ca n be t re a t e d a s a n o t q u i t e w o r t hle s s a u t h o r i ty (cf W ebe r op ci t .

, .
,

p 93 n ote
.
, C o m e dy a s m i gh t be expe ct e d h a s b i t terly a t ta ck e d
, ,

t h e C yn i c s Th u s M e n a n d er m ak e s M o n i m us ca rry n ot o n e b ut
.
,

t hree begga r s w a l l e t s ; i n P h i le m o n i t i s n o t e n o u gh fo r C r a t e s t o
’

w e ar t h e s am e g a r m e n t i n s u mm er a n d w i n t er ; he w e a r s a l i gh t e r
r o be i n w i n t e r a n d a he avi er o n e i n s umm e r E ve n C ra te s w i fe ’
.
, ,

H i p pa r ch i a i s n o t s p a re d (cf Ko ck Fr ag m Co m i i 5 2 3 ; i i i 3 5
, .
,
.
,
. .

i ii . Th e vi s i t o f O n e s i cr i t u s t o th e s o cal le d G y m n o s o ph i s ts o f -

I n d i a i s n a rr a t e d i n gre a t d e t a i l b y S trab o x v p 7 1 6 pr ob a b ly , . .
,

foll o wi n g O n e s i cr i tus w o rk o n Alex an d er (M i ddl e ) B o o k d ram a s

’
.
-
 N O TE S AN D AD DI TI ONS .

Ky n z ié er , p . je s t o f D i o ge n e s i n B i o g Lae rt vi 2 3 7
3 1 , s eq . Th e . .
, . .

and 7 2 O the r v er s i o n s i n B e rn a y s op ci t p 9 5
. I n t h e a p o ph t hegm , . .
, . .

i n J o a n D a m a s e (a ppe ndi x t o S to b Fl or i l i v
. . e d M e i n e k e) .
,
.
,
. .
,

An t i s t he n e s p uts h i m s el f on th e l ev el o f th e p o pul a r r el i g i o n .

P a ge 1 6 5 “ An t i s the n e s i s s a i d ”
. Th e s a y i n g s o f An ti s the n e s .

a n d D i o ge n e s i n C le m Alex P r o tr ep t p 6 4 (P o tt e r) D i o g La er t . vi .
, .
,
.
, . .
,
.

4 ; P l ut a r ch B e A u d P oe t i v (M or a l i a D ii b n e r 2 6
,
. w a t ere d d o w n ,
.
, ,
.

i n D i og La ert vi 2 3 9 (B o t t o m ) Ab un d an t ex t ra ct s fro m t h e I mr wv
. .
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h i s w s b pw l cf
a C rus i u s Ri z e i n M u s
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,
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t ra ge d i e s n o w c o m ple t ely v an i s he d J ul i an s pe a k s w i t h h o rr o r i n O r
, , .
,

vi i . 2 1 0 B i 2 7 3 6 H er tle i n ) ; w h i l e he q uo t e s w i t h a ppr o va l a
. .
,

s a y i n g o f h i s o n t h e a n t i q u i t y o f C yn i ci s m a n d i t s i n depe n d e n c e o f t he

t e a ch i n g o f th e fo u n d er s o f s ch o o l s (v i 1 8 7 C i 2 42 2 2 H er tl e i n ) . . .
, .

Th e per son a l fri e n d s h i p o f (E n o m a u s w i t h t h e R a bb i M e i r i s a u n i q u e

i n c i d e n t i n th e h i s t o ry o f c i v ili z at i o n c f Comp te s r e n d us o f t h e .

Aca d é m i e d e s I n sc ri p ti on s 1 883 p 2 5 8 , ,
. .

“ ”
P a ge 1 6 6 T e phy s i ci a n s a l s o
h . Th e re to rt bel o n gs to An ti .

s the n e s (D i o g La er t vi 6 cf B e r n a y s op ci t
. p .
,
. .
, . .
, .

B OO K I V — C H AP TE R V I I I . .

“
P a ge 1 7 1 Gr ey-be a r d e d b egi n n e rs ,
. p ov e rt y-s tri cke n i n te ll e cts
c f P l a t o , S op fi i s t, 2 5 1 B , C
. Ari s t otl e , M e tafi/z , A 1 0 2 4 B , 3 2 H 3 . . .

“
1 0 43 B , 2 4 (B ot to m ) Th e fir s t i m p u l s e
.
"
W e w ere t h i nki n g o f G us t av .

H a r te n s t e i n s p a per, e r d i e B e de u t u ng de r m eg a r i s c/z e n S clt u l e f z cr

’
‘ ‘

d i e Ges clt i clt te de r m e tas y s i s c/z e n P r ob l e me n ow i n cl u d e d i n

H i s tor i s c/z P /z i l os A ona n d l u ng e n , 1 2 7 s e q
-
. . .

P a ge 1 7 3 , 2 O n E u cl i d e s a n d h i s d i s ci p l e s ,
. cf . B i o g La e rt
. .
,
11 .

1 0, e s pe ci al ly 1 06 . Cf . Fe rd D e yck s , D e M eg a r i cor u m D octr i n a

.

(B on n ,
7 5 (To p ) Th i s j ud gm en t o n Abe l a r d be l o n g s t o W i n de l
P a ge 1 .

b a n d , H i s t of P /z i l os , t r an s Tu ft s (M acm i l l a n,
. p 3 0 8, n ote 2
. . . .

“
P a ge 1 7 7 (To p) An e m i n en t h i s t o ri a n o f ph il o s o phy
. W i ndel
b and ,
o 99, n o t e 2
p . ci t (M i dd l e) Th e q u o t at i o n fr o m Z eller ,
.
,
p . 2 .

Ge s eli d D e u ts c/z e n P /z i l os , p 840 , s e q

. . C o n t a m i n a t i n g j u d gm e n t s . . .

cf . H G o m p e rz , Z u r P sy ch ol ogi e de r l og i s ch e n Gr u n dtlt a ts a c/z en

.

c h a p 3 , e s pe c i a l l y p 5 4, s e q
. . .

P a ge 1 81 (B o tto m ) 5 3 ; S i m pl i ci u s, I n
. Cf B iog
. . La e rt .
, vi . 2,

A r z s tote l i s Ca teg or i a s , f 66 B (6 7 A, B r an di s ) ; Am mo ni u s , I n P orp lzy r i i

'

I s ag og e n , 2 2 B Th e o p o m p , Fr ag m , 3 3 5 , Fr ag m H i s tor Gr a n , i . . . .

3 3 1 , w here C M il ll e r s d o ub t s m a y be reg a rd e d a s u n fo u n d e d
’
. .

P a ge 1 8 2 (M i d dl e ) An all us i o n i n P l at o S op lz i s t, l o
. . .

“
P a ge 1 8 3 (To p ) All pr o p o s i t i on s b ut th o s e o f th e i den ti fy i n g
.

t ype z
”
Ar i s t o tl e , M e t , A 2 9, 1 0 2 4 B , 3 2 ; a n d Pl a to , S op /z i s t, l c . . .

( M id d l e ) D e fi n i t i on s c f D i o ge n e s , v i I, 3 F o r w h a t fo l l o w s , cf . . . .
 N O TE S A ND ADD I TI ON S . 2 91

Ari s to tl e , M e t , . 11 .
3 , 1 0 43 B, 2 4, co m p ar e d w i th P l ato, Tb ea te tz cs ,
201 E, seq.

W hethe r th e l
pr o p o s e d b y u s p 1 83 s e q i s th e r i gh t o n e
s o u ti o n , .
,
.
, ,
m a y be c o n t e s t e d B ut t here i s a b s o l ut e l y n o j u s t i c e i n th e a c cu s at i o n
.

w h i ch i s o ft e n m a d e t h a t b y a d m i tt i n g n o pr o p o s i t i o n s b u t i d e n t i c al
,

o n e s An t i s t he n e s m a d e a n e n d o f a l l s c i e n c e I t w o ul d be n e c e s s a ry .

t o g o fu r t her a n d m a i n t a i n t h a t he h a d g i v e n u p h i s r i gh t t o s pe ak o f
,

t h e w a r m t h o f th e s u ns h i n e o r th e c o l dn e s s o f i ce I n re al i ty a l l t h a t .
,

he ca n h av e d e cl a re d i n a dm i s s i b le —fo r re a s on s w h i c h w e h a v e
expl a i n e d repe at e dl y i n th e tex t— m u s t h av e bee n th e u se o f th e v erb
“
t o be i n s u c h u tt er an c e s I f t h i s w a s t h e c a s e he m u s t l i k e .
, ,

Ly co phr on (c f Vo l I I p 1 7 9 a n d V o l I p . . h a v e e m pl oye d o t he r
. .
, . . .

l i n gu i s ti c fo r m s fo r t h i s pu rp o s e I f he d i d a d o p t th e co u rs e w e h a v e .

c o nje ct u re d he w a s a pre d e c e s so r o f Th o m a s B ro w n cf M i ll Lo i c
, ( g .
, ,

b k i i Ch 3
. . .
,

P a ge 1 8 5 (To p) M ai n t a i n e d th a t al l con tr a d i cti on i s i m

.

p o s s i ble Ari st o tle M e t l c (fo r h i s p ap s Ady 1 0 43 b 2 6 ; c f a l s o

, .
,
. . os
, , .

N 3 1 0 9 m 7 w i t h S ch w e gl e r s co mm e n t s ) a l so Top i es A 1 1 1 0 4 B
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.
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.
, ,
. .

t h e gi be o f I s o c r a t e s a t t h e b eg i n n i n g o f t h e H e l e n a Th e wo rk o f .

Anti s the n e s a g ai n s t Pl a to w a s n a m e d 2 dv 7) pl i} dw k y w B i o g
’
'
. 1 re r o z e e
, .

La ert v i i 1 6 (M idd le ) I n v e s t i g a t i on o f n a m e s
.
, . . E p i ct e t D i s s e n t .
, ,

i . 1 7, ( 7, 1 2 I I I, r a z oe da e ws 7 63 11 bvop ci r wv éwi a x '

l
e t as .

P a ge 1 8 8 (s e con d Ti m o n s s a ti r i c v er s e Fr ag m , 4 1
’
, , P oe s i s
L u d i bu n da , e cl W a ch s m uth ii 5 2 (e d 0 68 éprsdw E6nAe f6e w, M e 7
’
. . 1 . ew a
,

pe ao w as Zp Ba Ae Aba a a v épw p o a, s ou d n o t l h l e ad u s r y
Th e a n e cdo t e
a st a .

rel e by
at d P l uta c (M or , 5 60 , 46, a n d 5 9 3 r h .
,
1 4, D ii b n e r), D e Colz i be n da
I r a, 1 D e Fr a ter n o A m or e , 1 8, s h o w s t h a t he w a s c o ns i d ere d a
4, a nd
“
m o de l o f ge ntlen e s s H i s br o ther, i n a v i o le n t r a ge , ej a cul at e s , I
.

”
s h a ll per i s h u n le s s I h a v e m y r e v e n ge o n yo u To w h i c h he a n s w e rs , .

“An d I
u n e s s I c on c l i a t e yo u Fo r w h a t fo ll o w s , s e e D i og
”
, l i . .

L a ert , i i . . 1 0 .p a s s a ge t h e ti tle s o f s i x di a l o gu e s by
1 07 . I n th at
E u cl i d e s ar e m e n ti o n ed U n fo r tun a t el y n o p a rt o f a n y o f the m h a s
.
,

bee n pre s erve d Pan ae t i u s d ou bted t he i r gen ui n en e s s t oge ther w i t h

.
,

t h a t o f P h ae do s d i al o g u e s w h il e he rej e ct e d a b s ol ut ely th e re m a i n d e r
’
,

o f th e S o cr a ti c d i a l o gu e l i t e ra tu re a p a r t fro m P l a t o Xe n o ph on , , ,

An ti s then e s a n d E s ch i n e s (D i og La er t i i
, As a c ri t i cal h i s t o r i an . .
,
.

o f l i t era t ure t h i s e cl e ct i c S to i c s ee m s t o u s n o t t o p o s s e s s t h e s l i gh t e s t
,

a u t h o ri t y B e c au s e he t h o ugh t h i gh l y o f P l a t o b ut did n o t s h a r e h i s
.
,

bel i ef i n i m m o rt a l i ty h e reje ct e d th e P /z ce d o S i m i l a rl y he a ttr i b ut e d

, ,

t h e wr i t i n g s o f Ari s to n t h e S t o i c t o Ar i s t o n t h e P er i p a t e t i c d o ub tle s s ,

o n n o o ther gr o u n d t h a n t h a t he di s l i k e d t h e S t o i c s C y n i ci s m C l e a rly ’
.
,

al s o i t w a s a p erfe ctl y a rb i t ra ry p r o cee di n g o n h i s p a rt t o r efe r

,

Ari s to p h a n e s m ock e ry o f S o c r a t e s (Fr og s 1 493

’
n ot t o t h e , ,

ph i l o s o p h er b ut t o an o ther wi s e e n ti rel y u n k no w n p o e t o f t h e s am e
,

n am e At t h i s s ta ge we c a n onl y exp re s s o ur c o nvi c ti ons ; we s h a l l

.
 N O TE S A N D A D DI TI ON S .

e n te rm or e fully i nt o P an ae ti us
’
s r ej e cti on s in o ur n o t s o n e pp . 21 1

a n d 2 82 .

P age 1 89 (M i ddl e)
O n E ub ul i de s , cf B i o g La e rt , 1 1 1 0 8, s e q . . . . . .

O n h i s i ll -m a n n er e d p o l e m i c a g a i n s t Ar i s t o tle , c f ch i efly E u s eb i u s, .

P r ay} E v a ng , x v 2 , 5 At he n aeu s , v ii i 3 5 4 C
.
Th e l a tt er w ri t e r a l s o
. . .

q uo t s 43 7e (x
D ) t w o s p i t.eful l i n e s fr o m a c o m e d y o f h i s (c f i i 43 1 , . .

“ ”
Ko ck ) (B o tt om ) O n th e
. H e a p , s e e c h i efly D i og La ert , v i i 8 2 ; . . .

C i c e ro , A ca d P r i or a , i i 2 9 S ex t us Pyr rh , i i 2 5 3 a n d Ad o M a t/t e rn
. . . . .

vi i 4 1 6 (1 1 7 , 1 9 a n d 2 8 1 , 1 7 , B ekk er)
. .

“ ”
P a ge 1 92 (M i ddle ) O n th e Li ar, c f fir s tl y Ci c er o , l c , 95 . . . .

G e l li us , N octes A tti ca , xvi i i 2 1 0 (B elo w) Th e q u o tati on fr om . . .

Ar i s to tl e, S op/i E l , x x v 1 80 B , 2 . . . .

P a ge 1 93 (M i d dl e) . C hry s i pp u s : a c co r di n g to B i o g . La e rt .
,
vu .

1 97 T he
. o ph r a s tu s : a cco r di n g t o D i og , v 49 , fi n (B o tt o m ) . La er t . . .

E le ct r a , o r Th e M a n i n D i s g ui s e
”
cf L u c i a n , Vi ta r u m A u cti o, .

2 2 (5 6 2 ) D i o g La ert , v i i 1 9 8 Ar i s to tl e , S op /z E l , xx i v 1 7 9 A, 3 3
. . . . . . .

P a ge 1 94 (M iddl e ) E p i cur u s : cf th e a u th o r s p a m ph l e t , N e u e
’
. .

B r u cli s tu cke Ep i b u r s (Vi e n n a, p 7 A1 ?) m l pq afws ai r w ay k ar a ye .

'

71 6 0 1 1 1 7 1s Onok oyfia a w ds r wos

'
’
o
'
r eau 7 11 1 7
ev ex e c 3 5 l
7 6 sea

Th e auth o r o f th e ca t c h
l
l W KGKM vfl fl é l/ Ofl r bv
’
e w a r a a ea r is G .

pre s e n t ly c en s ure d a s a s o ph i s t (Ne x t p ar ) Cf Di og La ert , vi i 1 8 7 . . . . . .

an d i i 1 3 5 al s o v i 3 8
. G e ll i us , N oct A tt , x vi 2 4, s e q (ve ry j udi ci o us )
. . . . . . .

M e nti on e d a l s o by Ar i stot l e, op ci t , x x i i 1 7 8 A, 2 9 . . . .

P a ge 1 9 5 , § 8 Al e x i nu s vo n Arn i m h a s s h o w n s o m e i n ge n u i ty i n
.

r e co g n i z i n g a n d r e s to ri n g a fr ag m en t o f t h i s p h i lo s o pher s w o rk, n e p i
’

Ay wyfis : H e rm e s , x x v i i 6 5 , s eq I ca n n ot s e t a s h i gh a va l ue a s Arn i m
’
. .

d o e s (i bi d , p 7 0 ) o n th e a n e c d ot e i n D i o g La e rt , i i 1 09
. . B y th e . . . .

te r mi n u s a n te q ue m, o f t h at w o rk, h i s d a te i s fi xe d m o re

d e fin i t el y t h a n i t h as b ee n b efo re (B e l o w) S ti lp o : cf B i o g La e rt , .
. . .

11 . c . 1 1 .

“A t o o u
P a ge 1 96 (To p ) . h r gh m a n of t h e w o ld r h
t i s i s th e
i n t erpre ta t i on o f th e wok w marr a r o s o f B i o g L a e rt , l oc ci t ,
rrec t ’
co
'
. . . .

c f v W i l a m o w i tz s A n ti gon os D o n K a ry s tos , p 1 42 , i n s p i t e
’
1 1 4 . .
.

o f S u s e m i h l s o bje ct i o n (
’
A l e x a n dr i n L i t Ge s ch , i O n S ti l p o . . .

a s a n e t h i c a l ph i l o s o pher, cf p a rt i c ul a rly S e n e ca , E i s t i x 1 and 1 8

p ,
. .

a l s o Tele s , 4 5 , 1 0 H e n s e (M i ddle ) Th e s o l i ta ry fra g men t h a s b ee n .

t re a t e d by th e a uth o r, R lz e i n M u s , 3 2 47 7 , s e q Zr i M rwx/t (re a d Er vurwu) . . . .

Mnr ponAe ? [t h i s d i a l o g u e i s kn o wn t o D i o g La e rt , i i 1 2 0 ] GVGfipfy Gl

’
. . .
’

7 45 2 7 01 1 e 1 M m ponx fis . Th e q u ot a t i o n by Tele s (p .
4, H e n s e ) c an n o t
1

be co m ple t ely d i s e n t an gle d fro m th e q uo t er s

’
a d di ti o n s C f vo n . .

W i l am o w i tz (op . .
, p
re s to re d th e O pe n i n g
ci t . wh o h a s a dm i r a b l y

w o rd s C a n c ell i n g t w o i nt e rp ol a ti o n s o f th e c r i ti cs I re a d Tl A y s
.
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(pno i l 6t bu yfi i 11 7 06
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a fiy a fi é v ém l s ; (B o tt o m ) Gi be s o f C r at e s a t S t i l p o : D i o er t ii
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.

1 1 8 I n t h e s am e p a s s a ge a g i b e o f S t i l p o a t C rat e s
. I t s e em s to m e .

a co m p a r a t i v e l y h a r m le ss ex ch a n ge o f b a n te r .
 N O TE S A N D ADDI TI ONS .

M e taplzy s i cs , 3 p art i cul ar l y 1 0 47 a 2 5 a n d o 5 1 0 48 a 1 2 4

O .
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, ,
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Z ell er s j ud gm e nt o n th e con t ro ver s y (i i 1 2 5 7 e d 4) i s o n e w i th wh i ch

’
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, , .

I c an n o t a gr ee O n w h a t fo ll o w s cf C le m en s S tr om i v 1 9 6 1 9
.
,
.
, , .
,

(P o tt er) Th e n a m e o n ly b o rn e by m e n i s Th e o gn i s a n d M e n e x e n e
.

i s a t l e a s t a fe m i n i n e fo r m e d con t r a ry t o a n a l o gy fr o m M e n e x e n u s .

O n D i o dor u s u s e o f p ar ti cl e s a s n am e s A ma fo r a s l av e M a n d
’ ’ ’

, ey
,

4 6 fo r h i s o wn s o n s s e e Amm o n I n A r i s tot d e I n terp r e t p 3 8 1 7

, .
,
.
, .
,

(B u s s e) a n d S t eph a n u s i n h i s c o m m e n ta ry o n th e s a m e w o rk p 9 2 1 ,
.
,

(H ayduck) Fo r h i s do ct ri n e t h a t a m b i gu i ti e s d o n o t ex i s t cf Au l u s
.
, .

G e ll i u s x i 1 2
, Al l t h i s i s cl o s ely b o un d u p w i t h h i s c h a m p i o n s h i p o f
. .

t h e t he o ry o f c o n v e nt i o n a s S t eph a n us (l oc ci t ) expre s sl y t e s ti fie s a n d
, . .

Am mo ni u s i n d i ca t e s s u ffi ci e n tl y c le a r l y S ex tu s (P yrr h o n i i 2 45 p . .
, . .

1 1 5 1 3
, ,
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H er o ph i l u s i s s u m m o n e d t o a t t e n d D i o do r u s wh o h a s d i s l o ca t e d h i s ,

s h o uld er a n d pr o v e s t o h i m by th e Z e n o n i a n a rgum e n t a g a i n s t th e
, ,

p o s s i b i l i t y o f m o ti o n w h i ch D i o d o r us h a d r evi ve d t h a t th e l a t t er
, ,

c o u l d n o t h a v e s u s t a i n e d th e i nj u ry i n q u e sti on 1 0 ) O n th e o r i g i n .

o f D i o d o r u s h i s p u p i l s a n d h i s fa m e c f D i o g L a er t i i 1 1 1
, , (B el ow ) ,
. . .
, . .

Z en o : a cc o r d i n g t o D i o g La ert vi i 2 5 . .
,
. .

P a ge 2 0 5 (Top ) Cl i n o m a ch u s c f B i o g La er t 1 1 1 1 2
. P h ee do . . .
, . .

D i og L a er t t rea t s o f h i m i i ch 9
. . Th e fe w fra gm en ts o f h i m a re
,
. . .

di s cus s e d by P rel l e r A u sg e w ii fi l te A ufs atz e p 3 7 0 r e ce n tl y by vo n

, ,
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,

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, ,
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.
, ,

s ee m th e ri gh t c o n c l u s i o n s a s t o h i s i n t er m e di a t e p o s i t i o n be t w ee n

An ti s the n e s a n d Ar i s ti ppu s W e s h all m ee t w i t h h i s pers on a l i t y a g a i n

.

i n t h e d i a l o gu e o f P l a t o n a m e d a ft er h i m (B o t to m ) M e n e d e m us : .

D i og La er t d e v o t e s t o h i m t h e s e v e n t ee n th c h a pt e r o f t h e s e co n d
. .

b o ok An a n a ly s i s o f th e s ou r c e s i s g i v e n by v W i l a m o wi tz A n ti
. .
,

n os K a ry s tos 8 6 s eq T h e c i r cl e o f M e n e d e m u s i bi d 1 40 2
g o , , .
,
.
, ,
.

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.
,
.

2 p 81 7
, . I t i s a S a tyri c d r a m a d e a l i n g w i th l i t er a ry h i s t o ry
. .

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. .
,

Ad u l a tor e e t A m i co 1 1 (M or 6 6 46 D ub n e r) O n h i s d o ct r i n e o f
v i r tu e— u n i t y o f v i r tu e—
.
, .
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c f th e s a m e a u t h o r i n D e Vi r t u te M or a l i 2
.
,

(Al on 5 3 5 1 D ) W i tty s a y i n g s o f M e n e de m u s i n Pl uta r ch D e P r o

, , , .
,

f e cti bu s i n Vi r t u te , 9 7 , 3 7 ,
D ) , 1 0 (M or
a n d D e Vi ti os o P u d or e , 1 8
.
,

(6 4 8 , 4 2 ,
D ) I n t h e s a m e. a u t h o r , D e S to i co r u m R ep u
g n, x 1 1 (1 2 6 8, .

1 8 , D ), C hry s i pp u s s pe a k s o f t h e fo r m e r fa m e o f S ti l p o a n d M e n e

d e m u s , a fa m e w h i c h i n h i s t i m e w a s a lre a d y d i m m e d .

“
P a ge 2 08 (M i ddle ) . D e n i e d th e s ub s t an ti al ex i ste n ce
o ur n o t e to p 1 97 (t op)
. .
 N O TE S A ND A D DI TI ONS . 2 95

B OO K I V .
—C H APTER IX .

P a ge 2 09 , s eq . Th e de s cri p t i o n of th e l o ca l i ty i s fo un de d m a i n ly
H e i n ri ch B a r th , W a n de r u ng e n d ur cli d i e K ii s te n l an de r d e s M i tte l
'

on

In ee r e s , i ch 8 E l i s ee R e c l u s , N ou D e l l e g eog r ap /z i e u n i v e r s e l l e , x i
. . .

p 8, s e q ; B e é ch e y, P r ocee di ng s of tb c E x p e di ti on t o e x p l or e tb e
. .

N or t/i Coa s t of Af r i ca , p 43 4, s e q (B o t t o m ) P i n da r s phra s e , Py t/z ,

’
. . .

iv 7 .Th e q uo ta ti o n fr o m B a r th 01 5 ci t , p 42 5
. . . . .

P a ge 2 1 1 , 2 Ar i s t i pp us i s t re a t e d o f by D i o g L a e rt , 1 1 ch 8
. . . . . .

C f H v o n S te i n , D e P /z i l os opni a Cy r e n a i ca (p a r s pri m a ), G ott i n ge n ,

. .

“
1 88 5 A d i s ci ple o f S o cr a t e s
. i e I s c h o m a ch u s C f P l ut a r c h , D e . . . .

Cu r i os i ta te , ch 2 (M or , 6 2 4, 3 8, s e q , D ub n e r ) O n h i s i n ter co u r s e
. . . .

w i t h S o c r ate s , c f Xe n , M e m , i i 1 , a n d i i i 8 X e n o ph o n a s cr i be s t o
. . . . . .

h i m a re m a rk a bly i n d epe nd e n t a tt i tud e G ay e i n s t r u ct i o n fo r p a y .

a n a n ci e n t w i t n e s s t o t h i s i s P h a n i a s o f E r e s u s , a fell o w - s t ud e n t o f

The o ph ra s t u s , r ep o r te d i n D i og La er t , i i ch 8, 6 5 C all e d a S o ph i s t . . . . .

“
b y Ar i s to tl e , M e t , B 2 , 996 a , 3 2 H i s s ta y a t th e S yr a cu s a n co u r t
. .

w he ther t h i s w a s i n t h e re i gn o f t h e o l d er or th e y o u n ger D i o n y s i u s
c an n o t b e d e t er m i n e d w i th c e rt a i n ty G r o t e i s c e rt a i nly r i gh t (P l a to, .

i i i 5 49, s e q ) i n reg a r di n g th e a n e c d o te s referr i n g t o th e s i m ul t an e o u s

. .

“
re si d e n c e o f P l a to a n d Ari st otle a s i ll us tra t i v e fi cti o n ”
H e t h i n ks .

“
t h e v i s i t w a s m o re pr o b a b l y p a i d t o D i o n y s i u s I Ar i s t o tle s k n o w
’
.

l e dge Ar i s ti ppus d o ctr i n e s

of M e t , M 4, 1 0 7 8 a , 3 2 , co m p a re d w i t h
’
.

t h e a b o v e-m e n t i o n e d p a s s a ge Th e o p o m p u s , q uo t e d i n Ath e n mus , .

i x 50 8 , C. Th e at a r ptBa l m e n t i on e d t here a l s o a ppe a r i n t h e l i s t o f h i s

.
'

w ri t i n g s gi ve n by D i o g La er t . .
,
ii . 84 : {mot 83 1 m l 61 01 7 71 1 8 63 1 1 a trr dv (pa w n
’

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It a l Z w o mpafm s 6 P dOt o s Th i s i s
'

5 1 8 0 66
’ ' '
0 .

th e sam e w ri t e r w h o a gree d w i th P a n ae ti us i n a s s i g ni n g th e w r i ti n g s
o f Ar i s t o n th e S t o i c t o Ar i s t on t h e P er i p a t e t i c i n s p i t e o f t h e e vi d e n c e ,

o f t i tl e s a n d s ubje c t s (B i o g L a er t v i i I mm e d i a t ely a ft erw a r d s . .

, .

D i o ge n e s m a k e s P a n ae t i us h i m s e l f— i h gl a ri n g con tra di ct i o n w i th h i s
w h o le s al e r ej e ct i on i n i i 64 (cf a b ov e p 2 9 1 )—a dm i t th e ge n ui n e n e s s . .
,
.

o f t w e l v e n a m e d w r i ti n g s t h us i n d i r e c tly r ep udi a t i n g a s s p u r i o u s ,

s e v er a l o th er s m e n t i o n e d befo re W e p os s e s s a s m a ll fr a g m e n t i n .

D e m e t r i u s D e E l ocn ti on e 2 96 : f 8 ? fi flp m x pfip d ok i m '

a r a.
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r t

9 615 70 1 C f D e me tr i i P /i a l e r e i q u i di ci t n r l i be l l a s
. . L Ra de r m a ch e r . .

(L e i pz i g ,
p 6 0, 2 7, a nd p 1 2 1 . . .

P a ge 2 1 2 (To p ) Apfc n m r o s i ) Kam Ia s i s m e n t i on e d a m o n g S t i l po s

’ ’
-
.

d i a l o g u e s by B i og La e rt , i i 1 2 0 a n d S pe u s i p p us Ap fa r nn ro s i n i v 5
’ ’ ' ‘

. . . . .

“
Th e m a n w h o m ak e s h i m s elf m a s te r t h i s s a y i n g i s r e co r d e d
by S tob ae us , Fl or , xvi i 1 8 i i i 493 , 1 5 H e n s e ). I po s s e s s . . .

éx w, o f": tx op a z , i n B i o g La e rt , i i 7 5 , an d i n o t h e r a uth o r s : H o rac e ,

’ ’
. . .

E pi s t , i 1 7 , 2 4, a n d i 1 , 1 8 , 9
.
“ Al m os t u n w i l l i n g pr ai s e o f Ar i s to tl e
. .

“
P l ut , B 2 3 , 1 3 98 b , 2 9
. . S tr a i n o f s unn y chee rful n e ss 1 c f ZEl i an,
”
. .
 N O TE S A ND ADDI TI ON S .

Va r H i s t , 1 4, 6 (1 1 1 60 , 2 3 , s e q , H er cher) O n th e b us t p rob ab l y
. . . .

repre s en ti n g Ari s t i pp us , c f Fr an z W i nt e r, p 43 6, s eq , i n th e . . .

Fe s ts ch r i ft d e di c at e d t o m e .

“
P a ge 2 1 3 (Top) C i c ero : M a gn i s i ll i e t di vi n i s b o n i s h an c
.

”
l i ce n ti a m a s s e q u e b a n tur (D e Ofi ci i s , i 4 1 , H i ghly n o te w o rt hy i s .

t h e pr ai s e o f M a x i m u s Tyri u s, D i s s , vi i c h 9 , p 1 2 5 Ag a i n s t t h e . . . . .

m a l i ci o u s an e c d o t e s wh i ch At he n ae u s d eri v e d m a i n ly from H e g e s a n d ru s
(x i i 5 44, ch 6 3 ) m a y be s e t o thers , s u ch a s t h o s e i n Pl ut a r ch , D e
. .

Co/z i be n d a I r a , 1 4 (M or , 5 6 1 , 2 D ) Ar i s t i pp u s , w h o i s di s p u ti n g . .

w i th I Es ch i n e s , here d er i v e s a s m u c h l u s t re fr o m h i s c al m e q u a b i l i t y
a s fr o m th e u n w i l li n g a ck n o w le d gm e n t o f h i s s u peri o ri ty by h i s fe l l o w

p u p il a n d o pp o n e n t M o n t e s q u i e u, q u o te d by Ka rl H i l l ebr an d ,
.

Z e i te n , VOl b e r u n d M e n s cne n , v 1 4 (M i d dl e ) Pl a t o, Tlz e a te t u s ,

'

’
. .

“
1 56 A a n d P h i l e bu s , 5 3 C (B otto m ) Th e fi el d
o f s c i e n t i fic i n t ere s t c f S ex tu s , A d v M a t/i , v i i 1 1 (1 92 , 2 4, . . . .

s e q , B ekk er)
. There i s q u i te a S o c rat i c r i n g i n th e w o rd s q u o te d by
.

E u s eb i u s , Fr ago E v a ng , i 8 , 9 , o n t h e a ut h o ri t y o f P l ut a r c h
. Th e . .

repr o a c h ag ai n s t m ath e m a ti cs i n Ar i st otl e , M e t , B 2 , 996 a , 3 2 . .

“
P a ge 2 1 4 (M i dd le ) B ut fo r th e p u rp o s e o f e s t a bl i sh i n g i t s t ru e
.

n at u re t h e c h i ef the s e s i n h i s d e d ucti o n o f E t h i cs a r e g i ve n by

D i og La e rt . .
,
11 . 85, s eq .
”
P a ge (B ottom ) Th e ge n tl e m o ti on fin di n g
2 1 5 . i ts w a y i nt o
c o n s ci o u s n e s s (B i o g La e rt 1 1 8 5 ) i s m o re a cc u r a t e l y . .
,
. d e fin e d a n d
i l l us tr at e d b y Ar i s t o cl e s , q u ot e d i n E us e b i u s , P r agb E v a ng , x i v 1 8 , 3 2 . . . .

“
P a ge 2 1 6 (M id d le ) O n e ple a s ur e d o e s n o t d ifl e r 71 9,.

i sor/fig . D i o g L a er t , 1 1 8 7 (B o t to m) S um o f
'
Ol a cpe pe w r e v780t v . . . .

ple a sura bl e s e n s a t i o n s q uo t e d by D i o ge n e s , l oc ci t Th e m o d er n . .

u t i l i t a r i an i s J S M il l Ut i l i ta r i a n s . p 53 . . .

P a ge 2 1 7 (To p ) W i s d o m w a s d e cl a re d t o be t o e nd o f p ar
”
.
’
, .

c f D i o g L a ert
. i i 9 1 a n d 9 6fi n
.
(B o tto m) Th e s ay i n g o f An ti s the n e s
.
, . .

q uo t e d i n Ath e n mu s x i i p 5 1 3 A ,
. . .

P a ge 2 1 8 (B o tt o m ) E u do x u s i s d e s i g n at e d a H e do n i s t by .

Ar i s to t le E tlz N i c A 1 2 1 1 0 1 b 2 7 a n d K 2 1 1 7 2 b 9 w i th t h e
,
. .
, .
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.
, , ,

l a u da to ry a d d i ti o n 1 5 s e q 5 A67 8 3 i1
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,
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81 a ¢ e p 6v7 ws y ap 3 5 6m l 0 0 4> pwv r i va l

’ 5 5
74 801 71 01 / i ) 81 01 13 7 0 1 3
“
.

“
Pa 2 2 0 (To p ) ge A i s ti u s i m s l i s r o t d . r pp h ef ep r e cf . B i og .

“ ”
er
La t , i i 6 8 (B o tt om) T y a
. . a d. 1 as he ppe l e r ep or t e d b y B i o g .

La er t .
,
i i 90. .

P a ge H e ge s i a s
22 1 o n h i m a n d h i s s u rn am e , s e e D i og
(To p) . .

La ert , i i 86 . O n h i s b o ok a n d i t s e ffe c t s , s e e C i c er o, Tu s cu l , i 3 4,
. . . .

8 3 , 4, a nd Pl u tar c h , D e A m or e P r ol i s , ch 5 (M or , 60 2 , 2 4, D ) H el d . . .

h a pp i n e s s t o b e u n a t tai n a b l e 94, 5 (B o ttom ) .

O n Ann i ce r i s a n d h i s t e a c h i n g , cf B i og La er t , i i 96 , 7 , an d C le m e ns , . . . .

S tr om , i i c h 2 1 , 49 8 (P o tt er)
. . . .

P a ge 22 3 (To p) . S ti ll , they he l d i t for a n e st ab l i she d truth

“
c f. B i og La e rt . .
, ii .
93 .
(Mi ddle ) Ag ai n, th e E n g l i s h di vi n e
 N O TE S AN D ADDI TI ONS .

a rs ena l s .
(M i ddl e ) Th e q uo t a ti o n fr o m J a m e s M i ll, Ana ly s i s , e d . 1 ,

i 71
. Th e p a ss a ge i n P l at o s Tne a te t u s , 1 5 7 B , C
.
’

P a ge 2 3 5 (To p ) M o d e s o f be i n g a fl e cte d S e x t us , l oc ci t ,
'

. .

“
1 94 (2 3 3 , 1 5 , B ekk er) An E n gl i s h p s y ch ol o g i s t
.
J S M i ll , A n . .

E x a m i n a ti on of S i r PV H a m i l ton s P nz l os op l iy , e d 1 , 2 0 3 ; t h e
'
’
. .

G er m a n -Au s t r i a n phy s i c i s t i s E rn s t M a ch , B e i tr age z ur A n a ly s e d e r

E mpfi n d u ng e n , 3 (Je n a, ed . p 6 . .

P a ge 2 3 6 (B o t t o m ) Ac ti v i ti e s , pr o c e s s e s, a n d al l th e i n vi s i b l e
.

wpa fie t s Ge n a i “ye r/ {d e w It a l was! 7 b ddpa 7 ov Tb ece te t , 1

i

, 55 E
P a ge 2 3 7 (To p ) “
H e w i ll , o f c o ur s e , begi n
. Th e t h ough t
expre s s e d here n ee d s a m o re ex a ct s t at e m e n t N o c o n t r a d i ct i o n .

a r i s e s i f I fir st d e cl a re th a t I kn ow m a tte r o n ly a s s o m et h i ng t a n g i ble ,

v i s i ble a n d s o fo rt h s o t h a t I c a n n o t w i t h o ut c o n fus i o n re t a i n t h i s
, ,

c on c ep ti o n an d a t t h e s a m e t i m e m a k e a b s tr a ct i o n o f e v e r y per c e i v i n g

s u bj e c t a n d i f I a ft e r w a rd s refe r p a r ti cu l ar s e n s a t i on s o r p o s s i b i l i t i e s
,

o f s e n s a t i o n s t o o t he r s u c h s en s a t i o n s a n d p o s s i b i l i t i e s a s t he i r c a us e s

(th at i s i n var i a ble a n d u n co n di ti o na l a n t e ce d e n t s ) Th e C y r e n a i c s

, .
,

0 1 1 t h e o t he r h a n d w ould h a v e bee n g ui l ty o f re al i n con s i s t e n c y i f t hey

,

h a d d e n i e d a l l s ub st an t i a l ex i s t e n c e a n d ye t a t th e s a m e t i m e h a d ,

e xpl a i n e d t h e t o t a l i t y o f phe n o m e n a a s a r i s i n g fr o m th e m o t i o n o f

s u b s t an ce s B u t i t i s i m p o r ta n t n o t t o fo rge t t h a t t h e exp o s i t i o n
.

g i v en b y P l a to i n w h i c h s uc h a c o n tra d i ct i o n a ppe a r s t o be co n t a i n e d
, ,

i s a n y t h i n g b ut a n a ut he n ti c rep o r t o f C yre n a i c d o ct r i n e (M i ddle) .

Th i s w o u l d a c co r d c f S e n e ca E 1 8 1 2 S ex t s A d v M a t/i
1 9 .u , , , ,
. .
,

vi i .1 1 (1 9 2 3 B e kk er ) (B o t t o m ) Th e w o r k o f P h i l o de mu s here
, , .

m en t i on e d bea r s t h e t i tl e n pl z nn lwv n i Z ny mm wv a n d w a s fi r s t
’ ’
e e a e e
,

e di t e d b y th e a uth o r i n 1 86 5 Th e a ll u s i on i n P l at o s Rep ubl i c v 5 1 6.

’
, .

C . I t w a s n o t e n t i rely o v e rl o ok e d by S c h o pe n h a ue r D i e W e l t a l s ,

W i l l e u n d Vor s te l l u ng b k i i i 3 1 B u t i ,
t w a s. E r n s t
. L a a s w h o .

fir st n oti c e d th e ; a ll us i o n t o t he a n ci e n t t he o ry o f i n duct i o n ; a n d
s p o k en w o r d s o f h i s w ere th e o c ca s i o n o f P a u l Na to rp t re a ti n g t h e

s u bje c t i n h i s Fo r s cli u ng e n z ur Ge s cl z i clz te d e s E r ke n n tn z Sp r obl e ms i m

A l te r t u m p 1 48 s e q whe re he expl a i n e d th e re fere n c e a s b ei n g t o

,
.
, .
,

P r ot a go ra s .

P a ge 2 3 9 (M i ddl e) The ae te tus 1 5 7 E s eq.

(B ott om) Th e qu ot a , .

t i o n i s fr o m H el m h o l t z P /zy s i o l Op t i c e d 1 444 5 , Th e fo ll o w i n g
.
, .
, , .

q u o ta t i o n i s t a k e n fr o m a t rea t i s e w r i t t e n by E rn s t M a ch i n 1 868 a n d ,

c i t e d i n h i s Con tr i b u t i o n s t o t h e A n a ly s i s of tb e S e n s a t i ons (t r an s .

W i ll i a m s C h i c a g o
,
p 9 n ot e ,
.
,
.

P a ge 2 40 (B o t t o m ) Th e a t t i tu de o f th e m o d ern ph e n om e n al i s ts
.

t o t h e pr o ble m o f i n he r e n c e m a y b e i l l u s t r a t e d by th e fo l l o w i n g
“
q u o t a t i o n : T h i n g b o d y m a tt e r , a r e n o t h i n g
, a p a rt fr o m t
,
he i r
c o m plex e s o f c ol o ur s s o u n d s a n d s o fo rt h — n o t h i n g a p a r t fr o m t he i r
, ,

s o c a l l e d a tt ri but e s
-
Th a t P ro t e a n s upp o s i t i t i ous p ro b l e m wh i ch
.
, ,

s pr i n g s u
p s o m u c h i n ph i l o s o phy o f a s i n l e t h i n g w i t h m a ny
g ,

at t r i b ute s a r i s e s w h o l l y fr o m a mi s t aki n g o f t h e fa ct th at s umm ar y

, ,
 N O TE S AND ADDI TI ONS . 2 99

co m pre h e n s i on a nd p re ci s e an aly s i s al th ough b o th are p rovi s i on a ll y ,

j us tifiab l e a n d for m a n y pur p o s e s pro fita bl e c a n n o t a nd mu st n ot b e ,

”
c a rr i e d o n s i m u l ta ne ou s ly (M ach op ci t p , . .
,
.

P a ge 2 4 1 (To p ) O n The o do r us cf e s pe ci al ly D i og La e r t 1 1 8 6
.
, . . .
, .

and 97 s eq S a yi n g s o f h i s be t o ke n i n g fr a n k c a n d o u r a r e r ep o rt e d by
,
.

D i og La e rt l oc ci t a n d by Pl uta rch D e E x i l i o 1 6 (M or 7 3 2 1 8 D )
. .
, . .
, , , .
, , , .

Th a t w h i c h i s gi ven by P h i l o Q u ad O m n i s P r obu s L i ber ch 1 8 (i i 46 5 , ,

. .
,

M an gey) i s o n ly a s p un o ut b o m b a s ti c v er s i o n o f P l u t a rc h s a n e cd o t e
,
-
,
’
.

S e e a l s o C i c ero Tus c i 43 1 0 2 P l ut ar ch A n Vi t i os i tas

,
.
,
.
s ufi ci a t, , ,

3 , fi n (M or . 60 4, 3 5 , D ) S to b ae u s , , Fl or , i i 3 3
.
, (B o tto m) Th e . . .

a s sum p t i o n t h at The o do r us w as a d e n i er o f t h e g o d s i n t h e t r u e s e n s e ,

a l th o u gh fa vo ure d by Ci c e r o , i s c on t ra di c t e d by D e N a tu r a D e or u m, i .

1 , 2 (a n d m an y o the r p a s s a ge s ) Th e w o r d s o f S ex t u s , A d o M a t/i , . . .

. e
i x 5 5 (40 4, 2 0 , B kk r ), e 7 31 r a p d 7 o i s
”
E A A n cu Oe ok oy o bjue m w o m i Aw s
-
'

aua mce udc a s , ca n h ar d ly rel a t e t o a t o ta l , a n d t herefo re s i mp l e , reje ct i o n

o f t h e bel i ef i n g od s An o t her p o i n t i s t he al l ege d i n d eb t e d n e s s o f
.

E p i curu s t o The o d o ru s cr i t i c i s m (D i og La er t , i i 9 7 ) an d l a s tl y w e
’
. . .

h a v e a n a n e cd o t e , w h i ch , be i n g w i t h o ut m o r a l , i s n o t al to ge the r
w o r thl e s s , t o uch i n g a d i al e cti c w ra n gle be t w ee n The o do r us a n d
S t i l p o, i n w h i c h u n q ue s t i o n i n g fa i t h i n t h e g od s i s p r e s u pp o s e d (B i o g .

La ert , i i . P l u t a rc h , D e Comm u n N oti t i z s, 3 1 , 4 (M or , 1 3 1 5 , 2 8, D),

. . .

pr o ve s n o t h i n g I a m i n cl i ne d, t herefo re , t o a ll o w co n s i d er able w e i gh t
.

t o t h e O p i n i o n exp r e s s e d by C le m e n s (P r otr ep t , i i 2 4, 2 0 , P o tt er) t o .

th e e ff e c t t h a t th e n a m e o f a t he i s t h a s bee n u nj u s tly be st o w e d o n
The o d o ru s an d c e rt a i n o ther s o wrppd s Be Bt ci r a s It al n a fle wpax dr as ' '

bfih e pdu r ou nu dwpl 7 0e a i) s 7 0 1 7 0 vs5 «Ad mi t.

“
P a ge 2 42 (To p ) A late . e cc l e s i a s ti cal wr i t e r E p i p h an i us , A d v .

H az r e s e s , i i i . 2, 9, 24 (D ox o gr .
, 59 1 , 2 5) O e dp os 1 56 7 0 pr); l
e vat

gve x e v m i x/7 KAéII TGl V ém opne i v apa ti fe w It a l y),

'

06 7 01 ! it a l 6
7 0 7 0 1; wpo b r p ‘
er e r o 01 3
‘ '

{f i r epa lro flvfio ne w

‘
t he r e re a ll y w ere a ny a mon g h i s p up i l s
1 m 7 pl oo s . If
w h o s o u n d er s to o d h i s t e a ch i n g he h a d a m ple gr ou n d for s a y i n g t h at ,

s o m e t oo k wi th t h e l eft h a n d w h a t he o ffere d w i t h th e r i gh t (P l u t a r ch ,
“
De Tr a n q u i l l i ta te A n i m i ch 5 (M or 5 6 6 3 1 D ) (M i d d le ) J oy a n d , . .
, , ,
.

s o rr o w : x pd a n d )um , (B i o g La e rt i i Th e be s t r i gh t t o be
” ’
a . . .
,

c on s id ere d a t r u e fra g m e n t o f Th e o dor u s bel o n g s t o t he d e m o n s t ra t i o n ,

u t e d by S t o b ae u s Fl o r 1 1 9 1 6 o f t h e u n l a wful n e s s o f s u i ci d e
q o ,
.
, , ,
.

H o w c an t h a t a ct be o t her t h an r ep ugn a n t t o a m an for w h om t h e

a cc i d e n t s o f li fe h av e n o s i g n i fican c e ; fo r w h o m on ly th e b e a u t i ful i s

g ood a n d o n ly th e ug ly e vi l ? (I n s te a d o f i ap u b m a i t i s o b vi ous
,
c 7 y
,

t h a t w e o ugh t t o re a d b iap k oard ) ,

7 a v u.

W e c an no t a cqu i e sc e i n th e t ra d i t i o n wh i ch r an ge s E uhe m er us
a m on g th e m e m ber s o f th e C y r e n a i c s ch o o l — a tr a d i t i o n w h i ch t h o ugh ,

s u bje ct t o a ll m a nn e r o f r e s er va t i o n s an d r e s tr i ct i o n s s ti ll fin ds ,

a cc ep tan c e There i s no t th e s l i gh t e s t h i n t i n an y o f th e a uth o ri t i e s

—so E rwi n Roh de j ustl y re marke d l ong ago w h i ch s pe aks for th i s
.

”
a s s ump ti on (Der g r i e c/z i s c/z e Roma n e d 2 2 41 n ote Th e , . .
,
3 00 N O TE S A ND AD D I TI ONS .

C yre n a i c sc h o ol h as no m an n e r
r e s p on s i b i l i ty fo r th e m i s tak e o f
of

E uhe m e ru s— a m i s tak e du e t o t h e i n flu e n c e o f t he Al e x a n d er c u l t -

w h i c h c o n s i s te d i n m aki n g o n e r e al a n d e ff e ct u a l fa ct o r i n t h e ge n e s i s
o f r el i g i o n s t h e d e i fica t i on o f m e n t h e o n ly fa ct o r i n t h e pr o c e ss (cf
, ,
.

a l s o V o l I p 5 2 3 w here w e m i gh t h av e refe rr e d m o re pl a i n l y t o th e d e i
. . .
,

fic a t i on o f l i vi n g m e n w h i c h i s s t i l l c on t i n u a lly t aki n g pl a c e i n I n d i a)
,
.

P a ge 2 43 (M i dd le) O n B i o n c f B i o g La er t
. i v ch 7 ,
a . . .
, . .

t h o r o ugh i n v e s t i g at i o n i n H e n s e s Te l e t i s Re l i q u i a P r o leg o m e n a p
’
’
.
, ,

x l vi s eq
. I t m u s t be a d m i t t e d t h at t h e cou rs e of h i s e du cat i on a s
.
,

d e s cri b e d b y o ur c h i ef s o u r c e l a b o u r s un d e r c h ro n o l o g i c al i m p o s s i
,

b i l i ti e s . I c a nn o t h o w e v er a gree w i t h t h o s e w h o a t tr i b ut e th e
, ,

s t a t e m e n t t h a t he a t te n d e d t h e s ch o o l o f C r a t e s t h e Ac a d e m i c t o a

c o n fu s i o n w i t h C r at e s t h e C y n i c Fo r th e t e s ti m on y o f D i o ge n e s
.

Lae r ti u s i s c o r r o b o r a t e d o n t h i s p o i n t by t h a t o f a w el l r e a d s ch o l a r -
,

t h e c om p i l er o f t he I n d e x A ca de m i cor u m H e r cu l a ne ns i s (cf t h e .

a u t h o r s D i e ner cu l a n i s cne B i o r ap /z i e d e s P al e m on i n P ni l os oplz i s cli e

’
g
A uf s atz e E d ua r d Z e l l e r g e w i d m e t p I prefer t herefo re o n , .
, ,

o b vi o u s gr o un d s t o a b a n d o n t h e c hr o n o l o g i c a l o r d er o f B i on s s t ud i e s
’
,

r at he r t h an t h e i n d i vi du al fa ct s re co rd e d d er i ve d a s t he s e d o ub t le s s ,

a r e b o t h i n t h i s a n d o t her i n s t an c e s fr o m t he i n s cr i p t i o n reg i s t er s o f
,
-
,

t h e s c h o o l s t he m s el ve s Fo r t h i s v ery s a m e r e a so n t he s e s ta t e m e n t s
.
,

pr ov e n o t h i n g a t a l l a s t o a n y perm a n e n t i n flu e n ci n g o f t h e p up i l b y
t h e t e ac he r ; n or m us t w e fo rge t t h a t e v e n a d va n c e d a ge w a s n o t
i n c o m p at i b le w i t h th e a tt e n d i ng o f l e ct ur e s (B o t t o m) Th e t wo .

b urle s q u e v er s e s a r e di s cus s e d by W a c h s m ut h P oes i s O r ecca ,

L ud i b n n d a j i n O n p 7 5 o f t h a t w o r k t here i s m uch ex celle n t m a tt er

, . .

o n B i o n a n d a g ai n s t h i s d e tra c to r s E r w i n Ro h de s j u d g m e n t i s
’
.

expre s s ed i n Gr i e c/i Rom a n e d 2 p 2 68 n o t e H e n s e (op ci t p

.
, .
, .
, . . .
,
.

x l vi ) s h o w s a d m i r a b l y t h a t B i o n s o wn h u m o r o u s d e s c r i p ti o n o f a
’
.

s uper s t i t i ou s per s o n l oa d e d w i t h a m ul e t s
“
l i k e a peg wa s t ran s fe rre d
”

t o B i on h i m s elf a n d h i s d e a t hbe d con v er s i o n C f B i o g La e rt i v . . . .

,
.

—
5 4 an d i ts a ppe a l to th e l o ca l g o ss i p o f C h a l c i s w here B i on d i e d 1 ,

wi t h Pl uta rch D e S np er s ti t i on e ch 7 (M or 1 99 2 00 D)
, , . .
, , ,
.

B OO K V .
-
C HAP TER I .

P l a t o i s t re a t e d of v ery ful ly i n th e w h ol e of t h e t h i d b o ok o f r
Di ogen e s La e r ti us . O ut of th e al m o st un ma na ge a b l e mass of m od ern
l i t er a t ure we m ay si n gle o ut Z ell er s ’
P /t i l os . d . Gr .
,
ii . 1 (e d .

pp .
3 9 9 86 ;
8 -
G e orge G ro t e , P l a to C o mp a n i o n s of a n d tne o th e r

S ocr a te s , Lo n d on , 1 86 5 , 3 v o l s (pp 46 5 60 2 o f v o l i ii i s a l l t h a t i s
. .
-
. .

d e vo t e d t o t h e o t her S o c r a t i cs) ; s o m e o t her w r i t i ng s o f t h e fir s t

i m p o r t a n c e w i l l be n a m e d i n th e s ep ar at e s e cti on s Of e di ti o ns o f .

P l ato
’
s w o rk s w e Z ur i ch e di t i on c om pl et e i n on e
m a y m e n t i on th e ,

v o l um e for i t s c o n ve n i e n c e i n u s e
,
t h a t b y M ar ti n S ch an z un fo r tu ,

h at el y n o t ye t fin i s h e d for th e c o p i ous cr i t i cal a pp a r a tus ; t h a t o f

,
 N O TE S A N D A DD I TI ON S .

c o n ta i n s a u t o b i o gr a p h i ca l m at e ri a l
he r e a s Luto sl a w s ki h a s a l s o for ,

rema rk e d (P l a to s L og i c p ’
th e v e s t u r e o f di a l o gu e i s br o k e n
, .
,

t hr o u gh and , P l ato di s cl o s e s h i m s elf a s t h e At he n i an s t r an ge r .

“
(B o tt o m ) C r i t i a s : th e ph i l o s o pher a m on g m e n o f th e w o rl d a n d
”
m an o f t h e w o rl d a m on g ph i l o s o pher s (he i s s o s tyl e d i n a
s c h o l i u m t o P l a to s Ti ma n s 2 0 A) s u ffer s t o t h i s d a y fr o m t h i s t w o
’
,

fo l d c h ar a c ter o f h i s W e s ee k i n v a i n fo r a c o m pl et e a c c o un t o f h i s
.

pers o n a l i t y Th e beg i n n i n g s o f o n e m a y b e fo un d i n t w o m e mo r an da
.

o f Th B e r gk (Gr i e ch L i t Ge s ch
. iv. E ve n t h e r e m n an t s o f h i s
. .
,
.

a u th o r s h i p h a v e n o t bee n re un i t e d s i n c e N B a c h s c o lle ct i on
(Le i pz i g
’
.
,

Th e c on s i d er a ble fra gm en t o f h i s b o ok d r a m a S i syp h us h a s -

a lre a d y bee n m e n t i on e d i n th e pre s e n t w o r k (Vo l I p a n d s t u di e d . . .

m or e c l o s ely i n t h e a ut h o r s B e i tr ag e z u r K r i t i /z u n d E r hl ar u ng ’

g r i e ch i s ch e r S ch r if ts te l l e r i 3 6 s e q ; t h e o t her p o et i c al fr a g m e nt s
, .
, .

m a y be fou n d i n B e r gk s P oe t ce Ly r Gr e d 4 i i 2 7 9 s e q ’
t he t e . .
,
.
, .
, .

m a i n s o f h i s P o li ti cs a r e c on t ai n e d i n Fr ag m e n ta H i s t Gr ee t i i .
, .

6 8 s eq
,
. t h e fe w p h i l o s op h 1 c a l fr a g m e n t s ar e w a i t i n g t o b e e di t e d
a fre s h (c f t h e a ut h o r s B e i tr age l oc ci t ) O n h i s pr o s e s ty l e cf th e
’
. .
.
, ,
.

a ut h o r s Apo l og i e de r H e i l k u n s t p H i s P o l i ti cs a r e
’
1 05 s eq ,
.
,
.

d e v o t e d t o t he d e s c r i p t i on o f m an n er s r a t her t h a n c o n s t i tut i o n s Th e .

fra gm e n t o f h i s b o o k O n th e N a t ur e of L o ve wh i c h i s t ak en fr o m
, ,

G a le n s Gl o s s ar y s u b zx oc A o ad os (i n B a c h p exh i b i t s h i m a s a
’ '
. v c .
, ,

pre cur s o r o f The o ph ra s t us i n th e d e li n ea t i o n o f t ype s o f c h ar a ct er .

Th e c h i ef t e s t i m o n y r el a t i n g t o h i s d o ctr i n e of th e s o ul i s fo un d i n
Ari sto tle D e A n i m a A 2 ( fu
, ,
11 t lm )
. a a 1; e .

P a ge 2 5 1 (M i d d le ) Ar i s t o t le R h e t P 1 6 1 4 1 6 b 2 6 s e q
. Th i s , , .
, , , .

“
d e cl a r a t i o n ( I f a n y o n e d e s i re d t o pr a i s e C r i ti a s he w o ul d h av e t o ,
”
t el l h i s s t o ry a t gre a t l e n g th or f fe w kn o w h i m ) h ar d ly a d m i t s o f a n y
,

o the r i n t erpre t a t i o n t h a n t h a t Ar i s to t le reg ar d e d C r i t i a s a s a m i s

u n d er s to o d m an I t i s re m a r k a b l e t h at Ar i s t o tle w h o he r e co up l e s
.
,

C r i ti a s w i t h Ach ill e s i n a no t her p a s s a ge (A n a l P os t B 1 3 9 7 b 1 7 )

,
.
, .
, ,

s e t s Al ci b i a d e s i n t h e s a m e c o m p an y I n b o t h p a s s a ge s he g o e s o ut o f .

h i s w a y t o n a m e th e t w o m e n a n d t re a t t he m a s her o e s w here a s i n h i s ,
’
AOn l wv H k
va i he c ar eful ly a vo i d s m en t i o n i n g t he m P ro b a bly he
e a .

j ud ge d t he p oli t i c a l i n fl ue n ce o f b o t h o f t he m pern i ci o us b ut saw i n ,

e a c h a per s o n a l i t y o f c o m m an d i ng ge n i u s t o w er i n g a b ov e t h e c omm o n ,

s t a t ure . To ex ci t e t h e t ri b ut ar y pe a s an t s Th i s a cti on o f C ri ti a s
“
s ee ms t o u s a s i t d i d t o G r o t e (H i s t o
, f Gr ce e d 2 vii i 3 1 7 : he i s
e e .
,
.
, .

sai d n o t c o m ple tely e s t a bl i s he d a s a fa ct ; t h e s o u rc e o f t h e

s t a t e m e n t 1 5 t he a c c us i ng s pee c h o f h i s m or ta l e n e m y Th e ra m e n e s

(i n Xe n o ph o n H e l l e n i i 3 , (B o tt om ) Th e q u o ta t i o n fr o m
.
,
.
,

Ni e b uh r : K l e i ne h i s tor i s ch e u nd p h i l ol ogz lsch e S ch r zf te n I s t c oll e cti on, ,

47 5 1 55
9 °

P a ge (M i ddl e) Th e i n ti m a cy o f Cr i ti a s an d C h armi de s i s
2 52 .

e vi d e n t fr o m Xen o ph on , M e m , i ii 6 a n d 7 i 2 , 6 a l s o Sy mp , i ni t . . . .

D a m on : cf Vo l I pp 3 86 a n d 5 7 5 .
(B o tto m) C ratyl us : on h i m, cf
. . . . .
 NO TE S AND A D DI TI ONS .
3 03

Ari s to tl e , M e t , A 6 (i n i t ), an d r 5 , 1 0 1 0 a, 1 0 a l s o Pl a to, Th e a te t 1 89
.
‘
. .
,

A, a nd Cr a tyl u s , 440 C .

P a ge 2 5 3 (B o t to m ) Th at P l a to perfo rm e d m i l i ta ry s er vi ce m a y b e
.

a s s um ed as a m a t te r o f
r e t h o ugh th e di ffere n t s t at e m e n t s rel a ti n g
cou s ,

t o t h e s u bje ct h a v e “b le n d e d t r ut h w i t h fa l s eh o o d cf W C hr i s t . .
,

P l a ton i s ch e S t u di en p 5 8 w here i t i s e n d e av o ur e d to gi v e p rob ab i li ty

, .
,

t o th e vi e w t h a t P l a t o s er ve d i n t h e c a val ry .

P a ge 2 5 4 (s e co n d Th e p os s i b i l i ty o f so m e o f th e p u rely
S o c ra t i c di al o gu e s h a vi n g bee n c o m po s e d i n th e m as t er s l i fe ti m e w a s ’

u nco n d i t i o n a lly reje c te d by G r o t e o n t h e fo l l o w i n g gr o u n d s A di al o gu e

s o c o m po s e d e i th e r co n t a i n e d a t r u e rep o r t a n d t he n t h e c o py m u s t
,

h av e p a le d befo re th e ori gi n a l o r e l s e i t p ut un S o c ra ti c t h o ugh t s i n ,

-

th e m o u t h o f S o cr a te s an d t he n P l a to m u s t h a v e bee n g u i l ty o f a n
,

u n d ut i fuln e s s w e s h o ul d n e v er h av e expe c te d o f h i m
(P l a to i ,
.

Th i s d i le m m a d o e s n ot s eem t o m e d e ci s i ve o n t h e p o i n t Al l th e .

l oya l ty i n th e w o rl d n ee d n o t h a v e p reve n t e d Pl a to fro m i n ve nt i ng

o ccas i on s fo r t h e d i a l o g u e s a n d p a r ti c i p an t s i n t he m a s w ell a s t h e ,

s pee che s o f t h e l a tt e r or fr o m m o di fyi ng a n d re a rr a n g i n g s uch

,

s pee ch e s s o a s t o pr o d uc e a w o rk o f ar t far s u per i o r t o th e h a ph a z a r d

c o u r s e o f a n a ctu al c o nv e rs a t i o n (B o tto m ) Th i s rep o rt o f P l a t o s

’
.

fa i l ure i n t h e l a w co urt i s t ak e n by B i o g La e rt (1 1 4 1 ) fr om a l a t e . . .

a ut h o r J u s tu s o f Ti ber i a s (ci r ca 1 00
,
“
Pa ge 2 5 5 (B e l o w) R e s i d e d for a w h i l e a t M eg ar a
. Th i s
i s a tt e s t e d by H e r m o d or us w h o i s c i te d i n B i o g La er t i i 1 0 6 a n d
, . .
,
.
,

i ii 6
. Th e o r de r o f P l a to s t r a v e l s i s g i ve n a cc o rdi n g t o C i cero D e
.
’
,

Fi n v 2 9 8 7 a n d D e R ep u bl i 1 0 1 6
.
, .
, ,
B ut i t i s h a r dl y l i k ely t h a t
, .
,
.

t here w a s a n a b so l u t e l y t r us tw o r t hy t r a di t i o n o n th e s ubj e ct in any

c as e i n ci de n t al vi s i t s t o At he n s a r e v e r y p o s s i ble (cf V o l I I p . . . .

a s n o o n e w o ul d r e ma i n a b s e n t fr o m h i s h o m e fo r s o l o n g w i t h o ut

n e ce s s i ty O n t h e c o n d i ti on o f E gyp t a t th a t d a t e c f E d M eye r
.
,
. .
,

Ges ch i ch te des a l ten Ag yp te n s p 3 94 “

(B ot to m) Yo u Gr eeks a r e , . .

b oy s m au : aa "
i 6és é o
ve Ti m ce n s 2 2 B
1 ra
‘

Th e fo l l o wi n g q u o t a
'
r e, , .

t i o n s a r e fro m H ero d o tus i i 8 4 a n d P l a to s L a w s i i 6 5 6 D , s e q ;

’
. .
, .
, ,

vi i .
7 99 A a nd 8 1 9 B .

P a ge 2 5 6 (B o tto m )S tr ab o , x v1 1 80 6 O n th e l o cal fe a tu re s o f
. . .

H e l i o p oli s , cf D umi ch e n , Ge s ch i ch te Agyp te n s , 2 5 6, s e q

. M a s pe ro , .

H i s toi r e a n ci e n n e de s p e up l e s de l ’ Or i e n t cl a ss i q u e , i p 5 0 5 A us . .

M e h e me t A l i s R e i ch , by t h e a uth o r o f th e B r i ef e e i n e s Ve r s tor be n e n
’

(F urs t P uckl e r M us k au), i 3 5 6 ; J ul o

B ra un , H i s tor i s ch e . . La n d
s ch a/te n p
5 6 M eyer s Re i s e b u ch e r , Agyp te n , p 2 0 6 , s e q
‘
’
. .
, .

P age 2 5 7 (To p ) . S tra b o (l oc . ci t .

) m ak e s Pl a to an d E udo x us
rri ve at H el i o p o l i s t o ge the r he i r s ta y t here he fixe s Th e l e n gt h of t
—
a .

(n o t w i t h o ut r e s er va t i on — e s tpn t 0 ) a t t h i rt ee n ye a r s w here i n he e ra 7 1 1
,

a ppe ar s t o ha ve con fus e d t h e t o ta l d ura t i o n o f P l a t o s t r ave l s w i th h i s

’

E gyp t i an s oj ou rn M u ch gr e a t er c r e d i b i l i ty a tta che s t o th e s ta te m e nt

.

g1 ve n b y D i og La e rt vi i i 8 7 th a t E udox us s pe n t o ne ye a r a nd fo ur
. .
, .
,
 N O TE S AN D A D D I TI ON S .

m ont h s i n E gyp t Th e c h r o n o l o g i c a l i m p o s s i b i l i ty o f th e tw o h avi n g

.

bee n t here s i m ul ta n e o usl y h a s bee n re c en tly c o n firm ed by S u s e m i h l ,

Rh e i n M a s , l ii i 6 2 6 , s e q
.
(B ott o m ) W h a t i s here s a i d a s t o Th e uth
. . .

a n d D h u t i re s t s o n P l a t o s P h e dr u s , 2 7 4 C , a n d t h e i n fo rm a t i o n g i ve n
’

by B rug s ch ,
R e l i gi on und My th ol og i e d e r a l te n E gyp te r , pp .
440 ,
446
P a ge (Top)
P a s s a ge i n P l a to s S ta tes ma n , 2 90 D , E
58 Ac ’
2 . .

c o rdi n g t o a n o r a l c o mm u n i ca t i o n o f m
y c o l l e a g u e , P r o fe s s o r Kr a ll ,
“
t h e E gyp ti an k i n g i s i n t ru th t h e s u pre m e pr i e s t o f all t h e E gyp t i a n
”
d e i ti e s P r o fe s s o r Kr a ll a l s o refer s t o t h e E gyp ti a n a c c e s s i on r i t e s ,
.
-

as by N i gi di us Fi g ul us p 1 2 4 i n t h e e d i ti o n b y A S w o b o da
d e s cri be d , .
, . .

(M i d dle) The o do ru s : cf B i o g La ert i i i 6 Th e o do ru s i s a n i n ter . . .

, . .

l o cuto r i n P l a to s Th e a te t us S op h i s t a n d S ta tes m a n H i s t ra ns i t i o n
’
, , .

“ ”
fr om p ur e s pe cul ati on (a. 23 1 71 63 Adyw ) t o a s pe ci al s ci e n c e i s 7 1 1! 1 1 1 11 v

m e nti o n e d b y h i ms elf i n Th e a te tus 1 6 5 A M o re s el f ch a ra ct eri z a ti o n , .

-
,

i bi d 1 43 B C a n d 1 45 A
.
,
P l a t o m a y h a v e m a d e h i s a cq u a i n t an c e
, , .

a t Athe n s w he re he a ppe ar s t o h av e s t a ye d s h o r tl y b efo re t h e d e a t h

,

o f S o c ra t e s (c f Th e ce te tu s 1 43 A an d Xe n o ph o n M e m
. iv 2 and, , , .
, .
,

w here The ae t e tus be ca m e h i s p u p i l The o d o ru s i s m e n ti o n e d a s a .

m a the m a ti c i a n a l o n g w i t h H i pp o cra te s o f C h i o s ; c f All m a n Gr ee /e

, .
,

G e ome try p 5 8 Th e m o st i m p o r t an t t e s t i m on y i s t h a t o f E u d e m u s
,
. .

(Fr ag me n ta p 1 1 4 S p e n g e l ) t he n I a mb l i ch u s D e Com m u n i M a th e m
,
.
, ,
.

S ci e n ti a ch x x v (p 7 7 s e q Fe s t a)
,
. H e i s a s s i gn e d t o t h e c i r cle o f
. .
, .
, .

t h e P y t h a g o re a n s by I a m b li ch u s D e Vi ta Py th ch xxx vi (p 1 9 3 4 , .
, . . .
, ,

Nau ck) Pl a t o ca l l s h i m a fri e n d o f P y th a g o ra s Th e a te tus 1 6 1 B

.
, ,

and 1 68 E .

P a ge59 2 (To p) P y t h a g o r e.a n Th e

s ,
n a t i ve s n am es o f n um e r o us
o f Ta re n t um , a r e g i ve n by I a m b li ch u s , D e Vi ta Ry th , ch xxx vi . . .

(p 1 98, N a u ck) Ta pa y r tuo r w a s t h e t i tle o f c o m ed i e s by t h e yo un ger

. .

C r a ti n u s a n d Al ex i s (i i 2 9 1 a n d 3 7 8 , Ko ck) Th e P y th ag o re an s ,. .

w e m a y r e m a rk i n p a s s i n g, w ere t h e b utt o f m uc h r i di cul e ,

b o t h i n t he s e an d o the r c o m e di e s Th e tw o p o et s n a m e d e a ch .

pro d uc e d a H vfla yopi fo vrr a , a n d

'
Ar i s t o p h o n a I I vfla yopw r fis
'

' '

(i i . 2 7 9, 2 80 ,
2 90 ,3 7 0 , K) C f a l s o t h e Myfip a r a . . of An t i p h a n e s , i bi d
76 .
, p . .

“
(M i dd le) Ta re n tu m a t C ar n i val t i m e -
c f P l a to , L a w s , i
. 63 7 B . .

O n th e s o c i al a nd p o li ti c a l c o n d i t i on s t he r e, cf Ar i s t o t le, P o l , Z . . .

1 20b 9 T he s i t u a t i o n o f Ta re n t u m i s here d e s cri be d fro m th e

3 ,
.

a u t h o r s per s on a l o b s er v a ti o n O n t h e a dva n t a ge s a n d t h e h i s t o ry o f
’
.

Ta re n t um c f S tr a b o vi 2 7 8 s eq a n d P o lyb i us x 1
,
.
,
Th e fr i e n d
.
,
.
, , . .

s h i p o f P l a t o a n d Ar c hy t a s i s c o u ple d w i t h t h a t o f D a m o n a n d

P h i n t i a s by I a m b li ch u s D e Vi ta Py th ch xxvi i (p 92 s e q Na uck)
, ,
.
,
. . .
,
.
,
.

3 ) Ar c hy t a s i s t re a t e d o f b y D i og La er t v i i i 4 Ar i s tox e n u s w r o t e . .
, . .

a b i o gr a phy o f h i m ( a cco r d i n g t o At he n ae u s x i 5 45 A) ; Ari s to tle ,

.

c o m p o s e d t h r ee b o o k s o n h i s ph i l o s o phy an d i n a d d i ti on c om p i le d ,

ex tr a cts fro m h i s w r i ti n g s (D i og L a er t v W i t h h i s fl ute p l a y i n g . .

,
.
-

(At he n ae u s i v 1 84 E ) a r e c o n n e ct e d h i s i n v e s t i ga t i o n s i nto t h e t he o ry
, .
 N O TE S A N D A DD I TI ON S .

1 57 , 3 ; cf .
9, a n d 7 7 0 , 0 8,
(B o tt om ) Tre i ts ch ke
1 ; 64 1 ,

P ol i ti k, i i 3 3 8 S pee c h o f Al c i b i a de s i n Th ucy d i d e s , vi 1 7 , 2
. . A . .

s pee c h wh i c h co n ta i n s , s o t o S pe ak , th e p h i l o s o phy o f th e S i ci l i a n

y
t r an n y .

P a ge 2 64 Th e a uth o r s pe a ks o f S y ra cu s e from pe r s o n al
.

o b s erva ti o n .

P a ge 2 6 5 (To p) Th e r e m ai n s o f th e m i m e s o f S o p h r o n a n d
.

Xe n a r ch u s h av e n o w bee n c o lle ct e d w i th t h e gre a t e s t c o m pl e t e n e s s ,

a n d expl a i n e d by G e o rg Ka i b e l
Com Gr a c Fr ag m i 1 1 5 2 —1 8 2 , .
’
. .
, .
, .

An i n t ere s ti n g ch a r a c t eri z a t i o n o f t he m i n O tto J a h n A u s de r A l te r ,

t u ms w i ss e n s ch af t p 5 6 Th e i m i t at i o n s bel o n g i n p a r t t o The o c r i t u s
,
. .

a n d M o sc h u s i n p a r t t o H e r on d a s w h o w a s c o a r s er th a n h i s m o d el
, , .

P l a t o s prefere n c e i s a t t e s t e d b y D ur i s i n At he n ae u s x i 5 0 4 B a s w el l
’
.
, , ,

a s by D i o g L a er t
iii 1 8 . O n E p i ch ar m u s c f n o t e o n c h 8
.
, . .
3 ,
. .
, .

“ The o re m o f B e c o m i n g ( g du v s Aby s) a n d i t s s t a t e m e n t
”
O n th e
’
a iz av e o o

by E p i ch a rm us c f B ern a y s Rh e i n M us N e w S e ri e s vi i i 2 80
,
.
, . .
, , .
,

s eq . Ges A bh a n d l u ng e n i 1 0 9
. Th e fra g m e n t s o f E p i ch a r m u s
, .
,

a r e a g a i n t o be fo un d be s t t re a t e d i n Ka i b e l ofi ci t p 8 8 s eq Th e ,
. .
, .
, .

l i n e g i ve n b y u s i n free r e nd e ri n g i s fra g m e n t 1 7 0 i n t h a t co lle ct i o n p , .

1 22 Ka i b e l h o w e ver s ee m s t o h av e err e d i n co m p a n y w i t h v o n
.
, , ,

W il am o w i tz (H er a cl e s i 2 9 e d i n reje ct i n g a s n o t w r i t t e n by
, .
,
.
,

E p i ch ar m us a c o n s i d er a ble n um be r o f ph il o s o ph i c a n d s e n t e n t i o us
,

fr a gm e n ts ; s e e th e a uth o r s c o m m e n ts i n th e c o n t ra ry s e ns e i n ’

B e i tr age z ur K r i ti k u nd E r h l a r u ng g r i e ch i s ch er S ch r ifts te l l e r , vi i .
5,
s eq. (V i e n n a ,

P a ge 2 6 6 (M iddl e) . Th e he avil y l a den t ab l s o f S e y r a cu s e cf .

Rep u bl i c, i i i D : Evpcucoo fa v 66
.
40 4 7
pa 1 r e (c It a l Eme h m hv n o mdt l a v
'
'
. y ‘ '

Al s o Gorgi a s , 5 1 8 B (B e l o w) M o r al s er m on s a dd re s s e d .

t o D i on y s i u s a r e pl a c e d i n P l a t o s m o u t h by B i o g La er t , i ii 1 8, a n d
’
. . .

a g a i n by P l u t ar ch , D i o, ch 5 (1 1 44, 5 , D Oh ne r ) . .

P a ge 2 67 (To p ) Th e m o s t b l o o ds ta i n e d o f al l cr e atu re s,
.

”
a dver s a r y o f a l l r i gh t a n d j us ti c e I a ll ud e here t o H e r o d otus, v .

Th e r e m a i n s
'
0 17 0 177 6 61 81 1 1 1 67 6 p0 u 0 686 1 / 3 0 7 1 0 67 6 ui a t
o ové n po v
9 2 : 7

Gr a c Fr ag m , e d 2 , p 7 9 3 —
.

o f D i o n y s i u s p o e m s , i n Na u ck s Tr ag
’ ’
6 . . . . . .

“
( B e l o w ) D e s p o t i c p ow e r T h e o r i gi n a l i s y ap 7 v a w i s dal lu a s
p
'

p fi7 np 64m .

P a ge (M i ddl e )
2 68 C f D i on y s i us o f H a l i ca rn a s s u s , 7 u di ci um a o
’
. .

p 5 1 9 (R e i s ke ) a n d t h e fra g m e n t t here p r e s erv e d o f Ly s i a s

’
Ly s i a , .

O ly m p i c r
o a t i on al s o D i o d or u s , x i v 1 0 9 . .

P a ge 2 69 rr at i ve of Pl a t o s b e i n g s old i nto s la ve ry
(To p ) . Th e na
’

a ppe a r s i n d i ffe r e n t ve r s i on s C f P l u ta rch D i o c h 5 D i o doru s x v 7 . .

, , .
, .

D i og L a er t i i i 1 9 s e q
. . Ar i s ti d e s s pee ch x l vi 2 3 3 (i i 3 06 D i n d orf )
, .
, .
, ,
. .
,
.

O f t he s e th e m o s t c re d i b l e i n i t s elf i s t h e fir s t n a m e d
,
Th e d o ub t s -
.

a s t o t h e a ut he n t i c i ty o f t h e w h o l e s t o ry s uc h a s a r e exp r e s s e d b y ,

D u mm l e r A ca de m i ca 2 1 0 a r e w h o lly w i t h o ut fo un d a t i o n , a n d as
, , , ,

D i e l s h a s ob s e rv e d, Z a r Te x tg es ch i ch te d er a r i s tote l i s ch e n P hy s i k ,
 N O TE S A N D A D D I TI ONS .
3 07

p . 2 3 , th ey ar e c o n t a d i ct r e d by an i n ci d e n tal a llus i on of Ari s to tl e ,

P hy s i cs , 99 b , 2 0 B Th e c hr on o l o g i cal p os i ti on o f th e e ve n t,
. 8, 1 .

a s Z e ll e r
r e m a rk s , i i 1 , 406 , e d 4, i s fi xe d by t h e ci r cum s t an c e th a t i t
. .

w o ul d h av e bee n i m p o s s i bl e a fter th e P e ac e o f An tal cida s

W i th th i s a gree s t h e s ta te m e n t i n t h e 7 th P la t on i c o r p s e u do-P l a to n i c
ep i s tle, w h i c h , i n a n y c a s e , i s b a s e d u p o n go o d s o ur ce s , 3 2 4 A O n .

t h e p u r ch as e o f a pl o t o f l a n d , Cf , be s i d e s B i o g La er t , i ii 1 9, 2 0 , . . . .

l P l u ta r c h , D e E x i t , (M or 7 2 8, 3 8, D ub n e r) 6) Cf P l a t o ’
a so 1 0 .
, . . s

P h a dr u s , 2 2 9 A, s e q .

P a ge
7 0 (p ar 2 . O n t h e l o c a l i ty , cf . B ur s i an , Ge ogr ap h i e
Gr i e ch en l a n d, i 3 2 3 .
,
W a ch s mu th A th e n i m A l ter t u m i 2 5 5 s eq
an d , , .
, .

2 62 , seq . An ci e n t a cc o u n t s : C i ce r o , D e Fi n , v 1 1 —2 D i o g La er t . .
, . .
,

i ii .
7, se q .
; [Di cae a r ch i ] D e s cr i b ti o
Gr a ci a , 1 (Fr agm H i s t . . Gr , i i . .

P a u s a n i a s , i c h s 2 9 a n d 3 0 ; Ath e n a u s , x i i i 5 6 1
. . . D, E ;
P l ut a r c h , Ci m on , 1 3 fi n (Vi ta , 5 8 2 , 1 8 , D o h n e r) Ar i s t o ph a n e s, . Cl ou ds ,
1 00 6 , s e q (B o tto m ) Fr ug al b an q u e t s : cf Athe n ae us , x 4 1 9
. . . C ; al s o
P l ut a rc h , D e S a n i ta te P r a cep ta , ch 9 , fi n , . .
Q ua s i Con v i ct .
,
pro oe m i um
(M or , 1 5 1 , 40 a n d 8 3 4, 3 3 , D ub n e r) Th e
. . s am e in tEli a n , Va r H i s t .
,

ii . 1 8 .

P a ge 2 71 (To p) . Fo un d er s b i rt h da y b an q u e ts
’
: cf P l uta rch s
.
’

Qua s t Con v i ct , vi ii . 1 ,
1 ,
an d 2 , 1 ; P o rphyr .
,
'

Vi ta P l o ti n , c h 2 . . .

O n th e c ul t o f th e M us e s i n c h il dre n s ’
sc h o ol s , cf
. Th e o ph ra s tu s ,
Ch a r a cter s , 22 (du e l t e vfle
pi a ), E s ch i n e s , I n Ti m a r ch u m , 1 0 , a s al s o

on th e c u t o f l H er m e s i n t h e gymn a s i a , a dd th e sc ne ery of P l a to
’
s

Ly s i s , 2 0 6 D ; fur t he r, E pi gr a m m Gr , e d K a i b e l , N o 2 9 5 D a i ly . . . . .

o fferi n g s i n th e Ac a d e m y t o th e M us e s m a y be co nj e ctu re d fr o m t h e

a cc o un t i n t h e I n dex A ca d H e r cu l , co l vii , o f X e n o c r a t e s c o n du ct
’
. . . .

a ft er t h e e n t ry o f t h e M a c e d o n i an ga rr i so n : as 0 67 6 7 61 Mo ua e i a
‘

5
7 1 7 6
, (B e lo w) Th e d i s t i ch i s p re s e rv e d by Ph i l ode mus i n th e
I n dex Aca d .
, c o l . vi.

Toi 0 86 96 5 m 06 11 Xcip1 7 a s M abo u l s du6 0mc6 v

‘ '
'
s

21 617 1 1 1 1 “ Ao yfwv Bé pa 7 6 Aé w
‘
'
6 .

Th e r e s to ra ti o n A (yi )w i s un avo i dab l e b ut a s th e o rdi na ry m e an i ng

o ‘
v

o f th e w o r d o r a c ul ar re s p o n s e s s ee m s h a r dl y a ppro pr i at e I h a v e
”
, , ,

h az a rde d th e c onj e ct ure th at M y m ay here h ave been u s e d i n th e ra

“ ” “
s en s e o f kno w l e d ge l earn i n g ”
j u s t a s M y d e n o t e s a s ch ol a r
, ,
l o: .

S e us i p p u s w o ul d t he n h av e a dd re s s e d to th e p a t r on g o d d e s s e s o f a l l
p
s c i e n c e th e t h a n k s d ue t o h i s u n cl e for t h e 5 f he h a d re c e i ve d A r a1 6 a .

s ta tu e o f P l a t o t h e w o rk o f th e s culp to r S i l a n i on w a s a l s o pl a c e d i n
, ,

th e ch a pe l o f t h e M u s e s by a P er s i a n n a m e d M i thr ida t e s (D i og .

La er t i l l 2 . O n t h e le ct u re h a ll s re c e n tl y di s c ov ere d i n D e l o s a nd
, .
-

O ly m p i a c f P P a ri s i n t he D i cti o n n a i r e d es A n ti q u i tes Dar e m b e rg

'

, . .
,
”
S a gl i o s u b D oc , E xe d r a (Bo tto m ) O n th e dre s s a n d be a ri n g o f
. .

th e Aca d e m i c s c f t h e s a t i re o f t h e co m i c p o e t s An t i ph a n e s a n d
,
.
,

E ph i p p us (i i . 2 3 and 2 5 7 , Ko ck) .
 N O TE S AN D A D DI TI ONS .

“
7 2 (To p)
P a ge 2 D i on o f S yr a cus e V ar i ous i n s tanc e s a r e
.

r e co r d e d o f h i s pe cu n i ary s e rvi c e s t o P l at o rep aym ent o f th e e m a n ci

a t i on -m o n ey t o An n i c e ri s , an d, w he n t h e l a t t e r refu s e d t o a c c ep t i t ,
p
p ur ch as e o f th e pl ot o f l an d fo r t h e s a m e a m o un t , D i o g La ert , i i i 2 0 . . .

t h e c o s tly w o rk o f P h i l o l a u s p u r ch a s e d fo r P l a t o , B i o g , i i i 9 ; t h e . .

expe n s e s o f a ch o r e gi a b o r n e fo r h i m , D i o g iii 3.
, a n d P l ut a r ch , D i o,
.

7 , 2 (Vi ta , 1 1 5 o , 47 , B oh n er) l A r i s ti de s , ch 1 , 4
'

ch . 1 a so D) . .

(M i d dl e) M o d e st beg i n n i n gs cf
. Ant i g on u s of C a ry s tu s , i n
At hen aeu s , x i i 5 47 D F, . p l i c i t y n at i v e t o
-
w here th e sim th e Ac a d e m y
i s c on t r a s t e d w i t h P eri p a t e t i c l ux u ry An d t h o ugh An ti go n u s i s .

c o n t r a s t i n g th e P er i p ato s u n d er Ly co n w i t h th e Ac a d e m y un d er P l ato

a n d S p e u si ppu s a gl an c e a t P l a to s an d Ar i s t o tle s w i l l s (D i o g La e rt
’ ’
, . .
,

i i i 4 1 s e q an d v 1 1 s e q ) wi l l su ffi c e t o co n fir m w h a t w e h av e s a i d i n
.
,
.
,
.
,
.

t h e t ext O n t h e a b s e n c e o f a s ch o ol l i b r a ry cf th e a u th o r s P l a ton i sch e

’
.
, .

A uj s atz e i i (Vi e nn a O n t h e a b s e n c e o f c o rp o r at e r i gh t s
’

.
, ,

c o n tr a ry t o th e pre val e n t v i e w t h a t t h e p h i l o s o ph i c s ch o o l s o f t h a t

t i m e p o s s e s s e d t h e l eg a l fo rm o f rel i gi o u s a s s o c i a t i o n s o r oi c — s e e ,
a oi

K r z ti h u nd E r h l a r u ng Gr i e ch i s ch e r S ch r zf ts te l l e r ,
’

vi i .
'

B e i tr age z ur

p ‘
91 .Se yo
‘

Th e an a o l gy
i n q u e st i o n h a s bee n ,
p oi n t e d o ut by G Lumb r o so .

(Ri ce r ch e A l es s a n dr i n e , P ubl i ca t i o n s o f t he Turi n Aca de my 1 8 7 3 i i , ,

.

2 60 , s e q ,
.
4 )ch
a n d U s ene r (
. P r e u ss .
7 a h r b v ol l ii i p a rt 1 Org a n i s a ti on
.
, . .
,

der w i s s e n s ch af tl i ch e n A r be i t , p . . V o n W il am ow i t z d e cl a re s m o re
d e fin i t el y for t h i s i d e n ti fi c a t i on (A n tzgon u s K a ry s tus , 2 63 , and

s o n o w d o e s E ri c h Z i eb a r th , D a s g r i e ch i s ch e Ve r e i ns w e s e n , P re i s
”
s ch r i ft e n d e r J ab l o n o w s ky s ch e n G e s el l s ch a ft , Le i pz i g , 1 896 Th e l a tt er
’
.

s peak s o f th e Al ex a n d r i n e M u s eu m a s a pro mi n e n t ex am ple i n w h i ch

“
w e s til l cl e a rly re co gn i ze th e i n fl ue n c e o f t he o rg an i z a ti on o f th e Atti c
”
ph i l o s o ph i cal a s so c i at i o ns (p w i t h o ut n o ti c i n g t h at th e s t ate m e n t
.

o t e d i m m e d i a t e l y a ft er w a rd s fr o m S t r a b o (x v i i t o th e effe c t
q u .

t h at th e M u s e u m p o s s e s s e d x plm w d i s i n fl a t c o n t r a di ct i o n w i t h
'
a r a no .

w h at w e re a d i n th e ph i l o so pher s w i ll s The s e s o— c a lle d a s so c i at i o n s

’
.

l a c k e d al l c o rp o ra t e r i gh t s a n d a ll leg a l p o s i t i o n r e l a ti vely t o th e o u t
s id e w o rl d n o t i n d ee d i n th e l a t e R o m a n t i m e s b ut a t th e peri o d
, , , ,

i n t o w h i c h w e a r e i n t r o du c e d by th e ph i l o s o pher s w i l l s w h i c h h a v e
’
,

b ee n pre s er ve d They p o s s e s s e d a n i n wa r d t en d e n cy t o be co m e
.

c o rp o r a t i o n s ; b u t e vi d e n t ly th e Att i c leg i sl at i o n d e n i e d t he m t h e
p o s s i b il i ty o f re al i z i n g t h i s t e nd en c y o ther wi s e t h a n by th e ci r c ui t o us
m e th o d o f fi c ti o n s an d m o r al pre s su re Th at i n t he s e i n s ti tu t i o n s a s . ,

i n a l l o t he r s d ev o t e d t o i n s tr u ct i o n pr i vat e r el i gi ou s O b s erva n c e s h a d ,

s o m e t h i n g t o d o w i t h th e lega l fo r m o f t h e a s s o ci a t i o n s m a y be .
,

a s s ert e d b u t c an n o t be pr ov e d T h e q u o ta ti on from Th e o ph r a s tus ’

.
,

w i ll i s a s fo l l o w s i n t h e o r i g i n a l : 6000 as a i pbv wfi n m ny é u ‘

s e na e 'o

( B i o g L a ert .v W h at i s here s a i d a s t o th e pr o c e du re a t th e
.
, .

el e ct i on o f th e s ch o ol he a ds i s t ak e n from v a r i o us p a ss a ge s o f t he
-

I n de x A ca d p a rt i cul ar l y c o l vi i al s o fr o m Di og La e rt i v 3 2
.
,
. cf .
,
. .
, . .
 N OTE S AN D ADD I TI ON S .

B OO K V —C H AP TE R I I. .

“
P a ge 2 7 6. W e l e a rn fr o m Ar i s to tle a x e abu at wa pmrx na l ws x a l
u 6p i 7 0 17 s b uo vs 6x 6i $ ‘
0 7 6 ov 7 a 6u7 a s
7 01 I s
p p ¢ (P ol , B . . 6, ad i n i t ) cf .

D i og La ert , i i i 3 7 . . . .
(B e l ow) Th e d i sti n ct i o n b e tw ee n ge n ui n e (y vfim oi ),
u n an i m o u s ly reje cted and d o ub tful
d i a l o gue s , i n D i og L a er t , i i i 5 7 c f i i 64 a n d 1 0 .
5 . . . . .

“
P a ge 2 7 7 O f t h e r e m a i n i n g t hree fo u rt h s
.
co n d e m n e d a s
-

s pu ri o u s by C S c h a a r s c h m i dt, D i e S a m ml u ng de r p l a ton i s ch e n
.

S ch r if te n , e t c (B o n n , Ar i sto tle s w ar n i n g : P o l , B 6 1 2 6 5 a ,
.
’
. . .

“ ”
1 0 (B.e l o w ) A h o t he a d e d c r i t i c z J o s ef S o c he r, Ub r P l a to n s
e
- ’

“
S ch r if te n , p 2 6 5 (M un i ch, .
(B el o w) A s e c o n d h a s b ee n c o n
”
d e mn e d I q u o t e U e b e r we g , U n te r s u ch u ng e n ube r d i e E ch th e i t u n d
‘

Z e i tf o lge p l a ton z sch e r S ch r if ten , p . 1 80 (V i e n na ,

P a ge 78 2 (To p ) S chle i erm a che r : i n h i s t r a n s l a ti on o f P l a t o ,
.

“
i . 1 . 2 5 (3 r d (B e l o w ) C i ta ti on s c o n t ai n e d i n th e wr i t i ngs o f
Ar i s to tle th e pri n c i p al co ll e c t i on i n U e b e r w e g , op ci t , 1 3 1 , s e
q , . . .

w h o n a m e s h i s pre d e c e s s or s , an d i n B o n i t z, I n d e x A r i s tote l i cu s

( fi ft h v o l u m e o f t h e B er l i n A ca d e m y ’
s e d i t i o n ), s o H a d-
raw
(M id d l e ) . .

Th e m i s u s e o f th i s m e th o d m ay b e ex e m pl i fie d b y t h e fo ll o wi n g
q uo t a t i o n s : S u c k o w , D i e w i s s e ns ch u n d h ii n s tl For m d e r P l a t . .

“Th
S ch r if te n , p 1 80 : e .l i s t t e a ch e s u s w h i c h di a l o g u e s be s i d e s
t he s e be e e g pr p r e e b e “
”
( i e s i d s . i. h t i n c i al w o k s m n t i o n d a ov ) m ay
p o s s i b l y be ge nui n e, so th a t th e c ol l e cti o n m a y be co m pl e t e d fr o m
” “
t he r
i n u m b er S i m i l ly, h r h
ar S . c a a s c m i d t (p o c i t, p Fo r a s . . .

s oon a s i t i s e s ta bl i s he d t h a t s o m e p a rt s o f t h i s corp u s h a v e t o be

s ep a r a t e d a s s p ur i ou s, fo r th e re m a i n i n g p a rt s a l s o t he i r m erely

ext ern al a tt e st at i o n s ee m s t o l o s e a l l va l u e a s a t e s t i m on y t o t he i r
ge n ui n e n e s s W h o e v er t h i nks w e m a y a s k o f pro c ee di n g i n s u ch
.
”
, ,

a w a y w i th o t h e r a n ci e n t w r i t er s ? O f Ly s i a s fo r i n st an c e t here w ere , ,

i n a n t i q ui t y 42 5 o r a t i o n s o f w h i c h th e c r i t i cs re co g n i ze d l i ttl e m o re
,

t h a n h a l f a s ge n u i n e (cf [P l ut a r ch ] Vi ta D e ce m Or a tor u m 3 M or a l i a.
, , ,

1 0 1 8 48 D ub n e r ) N o n e o f u s rega r d s t h a t j u d gm e n t o f C ae ci l i u s a n d
, ,
.

D i on y s i us a s d e c i s i v e ; ye t n o b o d y th i n k s o f refu s i n g t o reg a r d an
ext a n t s pee ch a s gen ui n e ex c ep t w he n i t i s g u a ra nt eed b y c o n t e m ,

p o r a r y o r n e a r l y c o n t e m p o r a ry e v i d e nc e T h e b ur d en o f pr o o f a l wa y s .

fal l s o n o n e w h o d i s p ut e s t h e t r a di t i o n n o t o n o n e w h o a cc ep t s i t ,

i t m a y n ot i n i t s elf p o s s e s s ful l c o ge n c y b ut i t a l wa y s c re a t e s a pre ,

s um p ti o n t h a t w e i gh s he a v y i n th e s ca le (B el o w) An d i t i s o n ly i n .

r e c e n t ye ar s : c f B o n i t z i n H e r me s i i i 447 s e q .
, ,
.
, .

P a ge 2 7 9 (M i dd le ) I t ak e th e s t a ti s t i cs o f l an g ua ge fr o m th e
.

p i o n eeri n g re s e a r che s l o n g left u n k no wn o f Lewi s C am pbell S op h i s tes

, , ,

a n d P o l i ti c us of P l a to p xxx i (O xfo r d ,
. .
,
“ ”
P a ge 2 8 1 (M i ddle ) R epl i e s t o t he m I refer t o t h e w r i ti n g s
. .

o f C o l o te s (a fa vo u r i t e p up i l o f E p i cu r u s ) a g a i n s t P l a to s L s i s a n d
’
y
 N O TE S A N D A D D I TI ON S .
3 I I

E n thy de m us , o f wh i ch th e H er cul a n e an ro ll s h ave pre s e rve d mi s e rabl e

re m nan ts M u ch m o re co n si d er a b le rem ai n s o f t h e L a ch es (B r i t
. .

M u s P ap 1 8 7 ver s o) wi th o u t a n a uth o r s n am e b ut i n m y j ud g m e n t
.
, ,
’
,

no t w i th o u t be a r i n g o n t h e q u e s t i o n (B el o w) Th e l i s t o f Ar i s to ph an e s .

i s pre s er ve d t o u s by D i og La e rt (i i i t h a t o f Th ra syll us (gen era lly . . .

b ut w i th o ut d e ci s i v e re a s o n s i d e n t i fie d w i t h t he m a t he m at i c i a n o f t h e
s a m e na m e a co n t e m p o r a ry o f Aug u s tu s a n d Ti ber i us
,
cf C o b e t .
,

M n e m osy n e N S i i i 1 60 ) by B i o g L a ert i i i 5 6 s e q Th a t Thra

, . .
,
. . .
,
.
,
.

s yl l us d i d n o t c o m p i le h i s l i s t o n t h e gr o un d o f h i s per s on a l i m pre s s i o n

h a s been r i gh t ly c o nc l ud e d fr o m t h e fo ll o w i n g fa c t To a c er ta i n .

d i a l o g u e o f w h i c h he i n ci d e n ta lly expre s s e s a d o u b t— pr o b a bly n o t

,

e v e n t he n a m erely s u bj e ct i ve d o u b t— h e s t i ll d o e s n o t refus e a d m i s
s i o n i n t o h i s l i s t (B i o g La er t i x 3 7
’
l nx d w
'

t p i A p . .
,
.
,
s r e o V7 6 a 17 7 a r vo s

2m )
6 1 .8 0 he m us t be g ui d e d by a n a u t h o r i t y a n d t h a t c an s c a r c e l y ,

b e a n y o the r t h a n Ar i s t o ph a n e s w h o s e l i s t s o far a s i t i s k no w n t o u s , , ,

c o m pl e t ely c o i n c i d e s w i th h i s o w n (c f G r o t e P l a to i .
, ,
.

“
P a ge 2 8 2 H a d t he i r o r i g i n
. i n t h e ca ta l o g u e s o f th e gr e a t
l i br a r i e s C f D i el s i n H er m es xx ii p 4 1 4 (B el o w) Th e ge n ui n e
”
. .
, ,
. . .

n e s s o f t h e H i pp a r ch u s i s d o ub t e d i n f E l i a n Va r H i s t v i i i 2 ( 2 Si; ,
.
, . 6

i m ) t h a t o f t he A l ci bi a d es I ] i n At he n ae u s
"
4? T
i
I IA w b
’
6 I n
px a os 0 o7 1/ s 6 7 1 7
'
s
, .
,

vi 5 06 c
( 9 5 d 6 ) t he 5 10571 071 1 1 19
' l
. O y p 8 p
“
e 61 7 6 A 7 os 1 n 67 a1
,

i n D i og La er t ii i 3 7 ( 1 at cf a ls o
’
. l n Em nfo p l
.
,
. 7 0 1 7 01) it a 7 u uo a ( aa y .

t h e P r o l eg om e n a o f O l ym p i o d o ru s ch 2 5 (v i 2 1 8 H er m a n n ) a n d ,
. .
, ,

S ui d a s s ay O x b o, (B el o w) M y co nje c tu re t h a t P h i l i pp u s h a d
. i ao os .
,

been P l ato s a m a n ue n s i s re st s o n th e I n de x A ca d c ol i i i w he r e t h e
’
, .
, . .
,

d yp pd
va
'
at 7 I IAd w
is 7 01 l dn h i s a l so ca ll e d fl os Th i s
It a o vo n s

d e s cr i p t i o n a pp l i e s t o P h i l i pp u s P l a t o s gr e a t a ge i s t here i n q u e s ti o n ;
’

a n d t here i s c er ta i n l y a n i n t r i n s i c pr o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h e pri va t e s e c re t a ry

o f Pl a t o w a s a l s o t h e e di t o r o f h i s r e m a i n s I t m a y be re m a rk e d i n .

p a s s i n g th a t I c ann o t a gree w i th th e pr a cti ca l ly un i versa l a s s u m p t i o n

t h a t P h i l i pp u s w a s th e a ctua l a u th o r o f t h e Ep i n om i s G o i n g t o th e .

b ot to m o f th e m a tter o n e c a n fin d n o th i n g beyo nd t he i n co n cl us i v e ,

p l y o f D i o ge n e s a n d t wo w e a k a rg um e n t s o f O l ym p i o d o r us l oc ci t
( a rt , . .
,

exc ept th e re m a rk t hrown o ut by B oe ckh i n a n e a rly w ork (I n P l a to n i s

M i na m t h a t th e Ep i n om i s c o n ta i n s m u c h a s tr o n o m i ca l m a tt er
.
, ,

a n d t h a t P h i l i pp u s w a s a n a s t ro no m e r B oe ckh t he n i n h i s tw e n t y .
,

fir s t y e a r i n t e nd e d t o s t re n g t he n t h i s pr o o f (p
,
i n fa ct he o ft e n .
,

repe a t e d t h i s v i e w i n h i s l a t er w ri ti n g s w i t h o u t s upp o rt i n g i t by a n y n e w ,

gr o un d s N e i t her h a s t h a t bee n d o n e fr o m a n y o t he r q ua rt er a n d s o
.
,

I s h o ul d l i k e t o r a i s e th e q u e s t i o n w he t her t h i s so m e w h a t w e a k a rg u
m e n t o u t w e i gh s t h e i n t r i n s i c i m pro b a b i l i t y t h a t P l a to s t r us t e d fr i e n d
’

h a s s o gro s s ly be t r a ye d h i s t r us t For t h e a uth o r o f t he Ep i n o m i s .

,

i f he i s n o t P l a to c er t a i nly w i s he s t o p re s e n t t h e a ppe a r an c e o f be i n g
,

Pl a t o Any o n e e l s e w o uld be m o re l i k ely t o d o th a t t h an th e p up 1 l

.

e n trus te d w i th th e e d i ti n g o f th e re m a i ns And l e t i t n ot be o bje c t e d .

,

t h a t i n t h e j ud gm e n t o f t he s e q u e s t i on s a n t i q u i t y h a d a l e s s s e vere
 N O TE S A N D A D D I TI ON S .

s ta n d ar d t h an o u s r . Th at i s tr u e for
e e rta i n ki n ds c erta i n t i m s a nd c
o f l i t e r at u re b ut n o t fo r t h i s c a s e
,
I n th e c as e o f t h e Ti m a ns w e .

s h all o b s er ve t h e e a rn e s t n e ss a n d ze a l w i t h w h i c h t h e i m me d i a t e
d i s ci ple s a S p e u s i p pu s a n d a Xe n o cr a te s s t r ov e t o el i ci t th e t ru e
, ,

o f t h e m s t e r fr o
“
op i n i o n a m h i s w r i ti n g s (B el o w) Th e i n e p t i .

”
t u d e s o f c e rt a i n S to i c s a n d N e o Pl a to n i s ts P an aat i u s w h o rej e ct e d
-
.
,

t h e P h a do h a s bee n m e n t i o n e d a b o v e (p
,
Th i s reje c t i o n i s s o .

m on s t ro u s t h at t he u tm o s t t o i l h a s bee n expe n d e d i n expl a i n i n g

a w a y th e s ta t e m e n t a n d c o n ve rt i n g t h e r eje c t i o n o f t h e ge n u i n e
,

n e s s i n t o a d i s l i k e o f th e c o n t e n t s S o Z e l ler i n t h e Comme n ta ti o n es .
,

M o m ms e n i a n a p 40 2 s e q ,
. B ut h i s pr i n c i p a l a rgum e n t t h a t o n e
,
.
,
“
w i t n e s s t o t h e s t a t e m e n t be t r a y s h i s i g n o r a n c e by S pe a k i n g o f a

c ert a i n P a n ae ti u s i s n o t v al i d Th a t H s i s a s G r o t e a l re a d y
”
,
f ds .
'
a va r t 7 1 ,

s aw (P l a to i ,
s a i d r at he r i n c o n t e m p t
.
Q ui t e s i m i l a rl y th e by .
,

n o m e a n s u n l e a r n e d Ar i s to cl e s i n E u s eb i u s P r a p E u a ng ,
x iv 1 8 , . .
, . .

2 7 m e n t i o n s A f lpx s o t h e fa m o u s s c ep ti c i s ca l le d by h i m
’
,
w bs
va c ou q
-
,

Ai nc l annbs
y s ( i bi d
7 1 Th e c a pr i c e o f P a n ae ti u s m ay be c o m p a re d
.
,

w i t h th e N e o P la t on i c d a r i n g w h i ch di d n o t s hri n k fr o m reje cti n g t h e

-
,

R epu bl i c ; c f Fre ud e n th a l i n H er m e s x v i 2 0 1 s e q
.
, ,
.
, .

P a ge 2 8 3 (To p ) Th e w e ak e s t gro u n d s for reje c ti o n s ee m t o

.

bel o n g t o t h e I on w h i ch t h e ge n i us s h o wn i n t h e s i m i le o f t he m a g n e t
,

w o ul d b e a l on e e n o ugh t o d efen d (5 3 3 D ) (As t he m ag n e t a tt ra ct s t he .

i ro n a n d t h e i r on at tr a c t s o the r i r o n a s s o o n a s i t be co m e s m a g n e t i c
, ,

s o t h e M u s e i s re l a t e d t o t h e p o e t a n d t h e p o e t t o th e he a rer s a n d , ,

t he s e a g a i n w he n t hey re c i t e t h e w o rk t o o t her he a rer s ) A v i g o r o u s

, ,
.

d efe n d er of th e m u c h a tt a ck e d d i a l o g u e h a s l a t ely a ppe a re d i n W a l the r

-

“
J a nel l Q u a s ti on es P l a to n i ca 3 2 5 s e q (B el o w ) Th e l e tt er s
, , ,
t he .

ca s e w i t h t he s e i s t h a t n e i t her a ge n era l rej e ct i o n n o r t he c o n t r a ry ca n

b e pr ov e d t e n ab l e I n fa ct s o m e s uc h c o n cl u s i o n i s n o l o n ger co n
.
,

t e s te d . E v e n vo n W i l a m o w i t z w h o i n t h i s l i n e s o m e t i m e s g o e s ,
“
fur the s t i n s cep ti ci s m d e cl a re s I c o ul d e a s i ly a cc ep t t he Pl a to n i c
, ,
“
l e tt er (i e t he s i x t h ) a s ge nu i n e (A r i s to te l e s u n d A th e n i 3 3 4
” ”
. .
. .
,

An m .
, O n t h e o t her h an d B l a s s (Rh e i n [Mus l i v p 3 6 ) ,
. .
, . .

s t ri k e s o u t t h e fi r s t l e t t er (b u t t h at i s a l e tt er o f D i o n t o D i o n y s i u s )
”
,
“ ”
expre s s e s o bje cti o n s a l s o t o th e t w elft h a n d w i ll s i m ply n o t s pe ak ,

o f t h e five w h i c h a r e n o t t r a n s m i t t e d i n t h e M S S o f P l a t o C hri s t . .

a l s o reg a rd s s e v er a l a m o n g t he m t h e s e v e n t h a n d e i gh th a s s u s p i c i o u s
, ,

(P l a ton i s ch e S t u di e n M un i c h 1 88 5 p , H e re m a rk s v ery per

, , .

t i n e n tl y t h a t t h e t h i r t ee n l e t t er s w h i c h Th r a s yl l u s m e n t i o n s (D i o g .

L a er t i i i
.
,
. a n d w h i c h t herefo re o n t h e gr o u n d s s ta t e d a b ov e a r e , ,

a l m o s t c ert a i nl y m e a n t by t h e é m a A f o f t he Ar i s t o ph a n i c l i s t (D i o g
r o a .

L a er t i i i
.
, . a r e i n a n y c a s e t o o o l d fo r a n y o n e t o s pe a k o f

s o ph i s t s s ch o ol exer c i s e s a n d t h e l i k e (p 2 Th e m a i n a p r i or i
’ -
.

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,
ov .

s i n c e ma fl c p pf i s m e n ti on e d i m m e di at ely a ft erw a r d s w e can n o t help

o o a
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t h i n ki n g o f t h e l e a d i n g d e m o c ra t i c s ta t e s m e n i n th e n i n e ti e s o f th e

fo u r t h c e n tu ry w h o l i k e Agyr r h i u s ex t e n d e d a n d i n cre a s e d th e p ay
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m e n ts a n d s o c o n t i n u e d t h e w o rk o f P eri cle s (cf Ar i s t ot le Aenv

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n o r o o m for d o ub t Li b an i u s h a s c ert a i n ly u s e d s o m e n o t ex t a n t .

s o u rc e t here a r e a n u m ber o f p a s s a ge s w h i c h a b s o l ut ely ex c l u d e t h e ,

i d e a of free fi ct i o n w h i c h ar e o n ly i n t ell i g i ble a s r epl i e s t o a cc us a t i o n s

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r e co r d e d i n a t r a di ti o n fo r w h i c h P l a t o s Ap ol ogy a n d Xe n o ph o n
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a l ik e l e av e u s i n th e l ur c h eg a b o ve a ll t h e p a ss a ge j u s t m e n t i o n e d . .
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No w, fe w po i n ts w h i ch w e k n o w i n
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P o ly c r a t e s p a m ph l e t i s th e refere n c e t o C o n o n s s e r vi ce s (Favo r i n u s
’ ’

i n D i o g La er t i i . a n d t h i s v ery C o n o n w i t h h i s co m r a d e
.

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.
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rel at i o n (B er l i n S i tz u ng s B e r i ch te O ct 2 6 . i t w i ll be t i m e -
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e n ough t o j udge w he n w e a r e m a d e a c q u a i n t e d wi t h th e gr o un d s o f
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.
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47 4 E s e q 47 6 B s e q, th e fi r s t m e m be r o f t h e s e co n d p a i r (p 3 49)
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i n d e r yur i sp r u d e nz (Le i pz i g p 2 45 s eq : l m j uri s ti s c he n ,

.
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.

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B e gr i ffs h i mm e l .

P a ge 3 5 0 . P re c i s ely as i n th e L a ws 7 3 4, C D
v .
-
.

P a ge 3 5 1 . S om e t i m e s re cog n i ze s a v a ri e t y o f g o o ds , wh i ch of

w i s do m ist he h i ghe s t L a w s , 1 63 1 B - C . . N o t m erely t he h i ghe s t ,

“
b ut th e o n ly g o o d : E u thy d e m u s , 2 8 1 E .
(B o t to m ) A pre vi o us
wa nt . H ere m a y be
m e n ti o n e d G uya u , E s q u i n e d u n e m or a l e s a n s ’

o bl i ga ti on n i s a n cti on , w h o pr o ve s v ery c o n vi n c i n gly t h a t t h e d e s i re

w h i c h pre ce d e s th e e nj o y m e n t n ee d by n o m e a n s h e a l wa y s fel t a s
p a i n E xt re m e h un ger i s t o r tu re , a ppe ti t e i s ple a s a n t B efo re t h e
. .

s a t i s fa ct i o n o f a d e s i re c o m e s , n o t p a i n , b ut a s e n s a t i o n o f pl e a s ure , i f

t he d e s i re k eep s s h o rt o f a c er ta i n d egree o f i n t e n s i t y, a n d i ts s a ti s
fac t i o n i s hel d t o be a t t ai n a ble and ea s ily a t ta ina ble .

P a ge 3 5 3 (To p ) Th e t w o . c o n t r a d i c to ry p a s s a ge s
Gorg i a s , 460 B ,

1 1 ! Aby o v It a l 6 7 61 Bi na t a p e p a flnn cbs Ma m a s ) an d

(Oi mo ii v 11 01 7 21 7 0 87 01 ! 7 2
52 5 C
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[ i e w i.t h o u.t p u n i s h m e n t ] d ducl a s dwaM oi r r w Ga I ) .

P a ge 3 54 (M i d d le ) . Th e j ux t a p o s i t i o n of th e d i ffer i n g e th i ca l
t
s a n da rds L a w s i i 6 6 3 D a n d v 7 3 4 ,
. . .

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P a ge 3 56 P a ss a ge o n t h e j u d g m e n t o f th e d e a d 5 2 5 D (B e l o w )
.
, .

P i n d a r Fr ag m 1 3 3 ,
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.
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E m pe d o cle s (45 7 s e q e d S te i n) , .
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B OO K V .
—
C H APTER VI .

P a ge 3 5 8 Pi e ty (é a i br ns ) a ppe a r s a s o n e o f th e c a r di na l v i rtue s i n
.

P r otag , 3 3 0 B , Gorg , 5 0 7 B (It a l ni p! 1 r6 pl 71 h! dy flpam o vs 7 d 7rp0 0 1 7n 0 v7 a u pdr

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. .

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p p L a ch e s , 1 99 D o n t h e o ther h a n d,
t h e R ep u b l i c, i v C— 443 B , o n ly k n o ws th e o t her fo ur ca r d i n a l v i r tue s
.
44 1 .

O ur d i a l o g u e w a s u n d er s t o o d a s e a rly a s S chle i er m a c her (i 2 , 3 8, 3 r d .

e d ) t o be a n e c e s s a r y h i nt t o w a r d s t h e e l i m i n at i on o f 66 1 67 71 : (b u t
.

wi t h r efere n c e o n ly t o th e P r otag or as ) O the rs , a s Lut o s l a w s k i .

n o t i c e s , P l a t o s L o i c, p 2 00 , h a v e a l s o bro u gh t i n t h e G org i as
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g O ur . .

hro n o l o g i ca l o rder t h o ugh for q ui t e di fl e re nt re a s on s l ppe a r s i n

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 N O TE S A ND A D D I TI ON S .

K . FH er m a n n , Ge s ch i ch te a n d Sy s te m, e tc , p 480 O n th e reje c ti o ns
. . . .

o f As t a n d o ther s , I prefer s i le n c e .

P a ge 3 5 9 W i t h th e c r i ti c i s m of th e m y th s o f Kron o s a n d U ra n u s ,
.

c f Re. ii 3 78 . .

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P a ge 3 6 1 (B o tt o m ) I t h a s l on g bee n r e co gn i ze d
. I a m here .

t h i n k i n g o f B o n i tz s ex celle n t d i s cus s i o n , P l a to n i u h e S t u di e n , 2 2 7 ,
’

s e q (3 r d
. e s pe ci all y p 2 3 4, s e q . .

P a ge 3 66 M a n y bel i e v er s i n re ve a le d rel i g i o n
. o n th e m o r a l

p os i ti vi s m o f c er ta i n n o m i n a l i s ts , c f U e b e rw e g H e i n ze , Gr u n dr i s s , .
-

i i 2 2 6 ; a l s o 3 0 9 , s e q (8 th
. I n fo rm a ti o n o n m a n y d e t a i l s i n
.

C a th r e i n , M or a lph i l os op h i e , i 5 3 0 (z u d N o t o n ly O cca m a n d .

G er s o n , b ut D e s ca rt e s a n d P ufe n d o rf a ppe a r a m on g t h e c l a s s i cs o f
m o r a l p o s i t i vi s m .

P a ge 3 67 (To p) Kan t , We r h e , x 1 84, s eq (e d Ros en k ra n z a n d

. . . .

S ch ubert ) A l o ft y i r on y , pl a y i n g w i t h t he fa ct s , i s c h a r a ct er i s ti c
.

o f th e E u thyp h r o, a n d pr o cl a i m s i t s elf a t t h e v ery b eg i n n i n g Th e

—
.

a c cu s er o f S o cr a t e s i s n o t re v i le d a s i n th e Gorg i as ( 4 8 6 B ,
x a r ny é ot
p
7 0 x 1 1”! m nt) (pa ti i t o v It a l uox flnpo ii ), b u t t re a t e d w i t h co l d a n d t o w er i n g
i

c o n t e m pt Th e a rt i s a l s o l o ft y , w h i c h k n o w s h ow t o i n t erw e a v e ,
.

u n c o n s t r a i n e d a n d a s i t w ere u n i n t e n t i o n a lly , t h e s i n gle c a s e w i t h t h e

d i s c us s i on o f fir s t pr i n ci p l e s t o w h i c h i t g i v e s r i s e G re a t a l s o i s th e .

l o g i ca l m a t ur i ty o f th e w ri t e r N o t i c e t h e d i s t i n cti o n be tw ee n ofia i a .

A 6 1 rl 71 71 60 1 !
(th e fur t he r ext e n s i o n ) o f a c o n c ep ti o n , th e
’
a nd d os
(1 1 ),
a ppl i c a t i on o f t h e w o rd 1 m 60e a 1 s , w h i c h s ee m s t o be e n t i rely w a n t i n g
‘

i n t h e P r otag or as gr o u p , a n d i s here u s e d m o r e t e c h n i c a lly t h an i n

t h e Gorg i a s (4 5 4 C ) Fi n a l l y, t h e p r e ci s i o n w i t h w h i c h t h e c on
.

c e pt i o n o f 80 1 W i s s ub o r d i n a t e d t o t h a t o f 801 11 1 0 1 ! (1 2 D ), i n s h a rp

c o n t r a s t t o t he i r c o -o r d i n a t i o n , a gree i n g w i t h t h e p o p u l a r v i e w , i n t h e

Gorgi a s (5 0 7 B ), o ffers a fu rthe r a n d d e s i r a ble pr o o f o f t h e c hr on o

l o g i cal o rd er w h i c h w e s upp o r t M o r e ov er, th e E u thyp h r o a fl o r d s .

perh a p s th e m o s t d e ci s i ve i n s t a n ce t o di s pr o ve G r o te s v i ew o f t h e
’

”
d i al o g u e s o f s e a r c h a s ge n u i n ely c o m i n g t o n o r e s ul t (B el ow .

ge n ui n e n e s s o f t h e M e n o d oub t e d by As t an d S ch a a r
Th e ,

s c h m id t i s t h an k s t o Ari s to tl e be tter a t t e s t e d t h a n t h a t o f t h e
, , ,

C f t h e p a s s a ge s i n U e b e r we g s (I n te r
’
P r otag or a s an d Gorg i as . .

s u ch u ng e n p 1 3 9 , . .

P a ge 3 6 8 (M i ddl e) O n G org i a s s d e fin i ti on o f col o u r s e e Vo l I

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. . .
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P 5 94
P a ge 3 6 9 . U tter a n c e of Xen o p h a n e s cf . M e n o , 80 D, I) e ? real 3
6 (I i) 0 1 I Ic 77871 0 901 ; w i t h
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X e n o ph an e s ,
Fr ag m . 1 4 (M ull ac h ) (referre d to i n Vol I . . pp . 1 64 and

2 y ap It al 7 81 MA 0 7 a 6x 2 61
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P a ge 3 7 0 (To p ) . P i n da r, Fr ag m .
,
13 4 (B e rg k, P oe ta Ly r . Gr .
,
i .

42 8) (4th On th e ge o m e t ri c a l d i s c us s i o n i n c h a p t er 1 5, cf .

C a n to r, Vor l e s u ng e n i cber Ges ch i ch te de r M a th e m a ti h , i . 2 0 4, s eq .

“
(2 n d W hat i s here g i ve n i s th e pr o o f o f th e t he o re m
t of
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P y th a g o ras fo r th e c a s e o f th e i s o s ce l e s r i gh t a n g l e d tri an gl e -
.
 N O TE S A N D A D D I TI ON S .

E g a t, fa s c i i i , e d H il l e r von G ar t r i n ge n , N o 5 3 6, s e q
. . . O n S p a rt an . .

c u s t o m s , cf Gi l b er t, H a n dbu ch de r Gr i e ch S ta a ts a l te r t u mer , i 7 0 , o n
. . .

C re ta n c u s t o m s , e s pe c i al ly E ph o ru s i n S tr a b o , x (483 (B o ttom ) .

“ ”
A l ba n i a n S t udi es , p . 1 66 . Th e i n s t ru cti v e w o rk o f H a vel o ck E ll i s
on S e x ua l I n v er s i on p 5 , h a s gi v e n m e th e
, . referen ce .

P a ge 3 8 1 (M i ddle ) Th e s t o ri e s o f Ag e s il a u s a n d X e n o ph o n i n
.

Xe n Op h , Ag e s , 5 5, a n d I on i n At he n aeu s , x i i i 60 3 —4
. . .
(B el o w ) O n . .

t h e l a t er pe r ver s i o n o f t h e fr i e n d s h i p o f Ac h i lle s a n d P a tr o cl us , cf th e .

c o l l e ct i o n i n R o s c h e r s L e x i co n d e r M y th o l og i e , i 4 3 , 4 5 s e q
’
. .
,

P a ge 3 8 2 (To p) C f M a h a ffy , Gr e eh L ife a n d Th oug h t f r om

. .

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A l e x a n de r s D e a th , p 2 5 4 (2 md (M i ddle ) W e m a rry i n
’
.

o r d er t h a t , e t c (B o tto m ) Th e ge n u i n e
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[D e m o s t ] Or ,
. 1 22 . . .

n e s s o f t h e Ly s i s , a t t a ck e d by As t, S o cher, e t c , i s s u ffi c i e n t ly a s su re d .

by t he n um ero u s a ll us i o n s o f Ar i s t o tl e a l o n e (cf U e b e rw e g , U n te r .

s u ch u n
g e 72,
n, 1 b u t o f c o u r s e a f or ti or i by i t s i nt r i n s i c q u a l i t y .

Th e p a ra llel w i th th e Sy mp os i u m , w h i c h i n s om e p a s s a ge s b e co m e s
v erb a l a gree m e n t, w h i le t h e Sy mp os i u m i s w o r k e d o ut i n a n i n

c om p a ra b l y gre a t e r s tyl e a n d s ep a r at e d fr o m th e S o c ra t i c ph a s e o f
,

a pp a re n t i n co n c l u s i v e n e s s by i t s p o s i ti v e s ol ut i on s s ca r c e l y a ll o w s a ,

d oub t e i t her o f t h e chr o n o l o g i c al n e i gh b ou r h o o d o f th e t w o d i a l ogu e s

o r o f t h e o r d er Ly s i s Sy mpos i u m , .

P a ge 3 8 3 2
, Th e fra g m e n ts o f Ag a th on i n Nau ck 5 9 2 s e q
.
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.

(z u d
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P a ge 3 9 3 (B o tto m ) . An a l l us i o n t o th e Ch a r m i de s i . e. 205

E, c o m p a re d w i th Ch a r m i de s , 1 63 B . As reg a rd s th e rel ati o n to t he

Al e n e , c f Sy mp
. . with M eno
202 A, , 9 7 A, s e q .

P a ge 3 94 . J udgm e n t pro n oun c e d o n th e p o e ts c f 2 0 9 A s eq .

, .
,
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a s a g a i n s t Gor g i a s 5 0 2 B ,
J us ti fica ti o n o f a m b i t i o n 2 0 8 C c o m
.
,

p a re d w i th R ep i 3 47 B (B el o w) O ur v i e w o f t he i n ter n a l s tructure
.
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. .

i s a ppr o a che d m o s t n e a rly by Ar n o l d H ug (P l a t on s Sy mp os i u m

’
,

Le i pz i g ,

P a ge 3 96 . D i o n t o w h o m P l at o d e d i c a t e d a n ep i ta ph
,
”
Th e .

s m a ll p o e m (i n B e rgk
P oe ta Ly r Gr i i p 3 0 1 4t h e d ) e n ds
O n t hi s o ne p o i nt —
. . .
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w i t h th e l i n e 65 g ufi 0 7 8 é pw n Af -
-
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referen c e t o D i o — I h a v e th e ple a s ure o f fin di n g m y s elf i n a gree m e n t

w i t h P a ul N a t o rp i n h i s l a t e s t w o rk P l a to s I d e e n l e h r e e i n e E i nf uh r
’
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u ng i n de n I de a l i s m us (Le i pz i g p 1 66 n o t e 1 Th e ex ten t t o ,
.
, .

w h i c h o ur v i e w s d i v erge o n o t her m a tt er s m ay be be s t s een fr o m th e

'

m a n n er i n w h i c h N a t o rp (i bi d p 1 7 1 ) c o n c e i v e s th e fi na l g o a l o f t he
.
,
.

l o ve t hr o e s d e s c r i be d by D i o t i m a
-
B ut i f t he be a u t i fu l repre s e n t s
s i m ply t h a t w h i c h i s a c c o rd i n g t o l a w t he on e be au ti fu l n e c e s s ar i ly ,

s i g ni fie s t h e l a w of u n if or m i ty i ts elf ; t h a t i s th e u l ti m a t e c e n t r a l , ,

u n i o n o f a l l p a r t i c ul a r k no w le d ge i n t h e pr i m a ry l a w o f k n o w le dge
”
i ts elf i n i t s b a s i s o f p u re m e th o d
, Th at t here i s n o gr o u n d for .

d o ub t i n g th e ge n u i n e n e s s o f t h i s a n d o t her Pl a t o n i c p o e m s I s h a re ,

t h e co n v i c t i o n w i th vo n W il a m o w i tz .
 N O TE S A N D A DD I TI ON S .

VO L . I II .

B OO K V .
-
C H AP TE R V I I I .

P a ge 1 , 1 . Cf
Cu l tu r e , 1 1 2 2 2 . ab ov e a ll Tyl o r, P r i m i ti v e . .

D Ac o s t a s H i s tor i a d e l as I n di as i s a cc e s s i ble t o m e o n ly i n th e
’ ’

Fren c h t ra n s l a t i o n (Par i s , There th e p a s sa ge q u ot e d by

Tyl o r i s o n p 2 1 4, s eq La fli te a u , M a u r s d e s S a u v ag e s A m er i ca i n s ,
. .
’ ’

i p 3 60 , a l s o q u o t e d by D e b r o s s e s , D u Cu l te des D i e u x f e ti ch e s ,
. .
’

p 5 9, g i ve s t h e i n fo rm at i on o n t h e bel i ef o f t h e I r o q uo i s , th a t e very
.

k i n d o f a n i m a l h a s i ts ar che type i n t h e l a n d o f s o ul s , cc q u i r e v i e n t
’
a ux i de e s de P l a ton .

(To p ) H erb a rt Ges W e r h e , x 1 1

P a ge 2 .
,
. . 81 . Th e a cc o u n t by
Ari s to tle M e tap h , A 6 an d s i m i l a rly M 4
, . .
,
. .

P a ge 4 (To p) (H i pp o c r a t e s H pl Te x vns 2 , vi Li ttr é ),

’

.
,
c , .
3 , 4, ed .

cf th e a uth o r s Ap o l og i e de r H e i l h u n s t, pp 44
(M i ddle )
’
. . a nd 1 0 7 , s eq .

E p i c h a r m us I n Ka i b e l , Co m Gr a c Fr ag m , i 1 , p 1 2 3
. . . . .
(Fr a g m .

“
1 71 4 1 L o re n z ) ( B e l o w ) I n t he w o r d s o f H er m an n B o n i tz z
.
”

P l a ton i x h e S tu d i e n , p 2 0 1 (3 r d
’

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P a ge 5 As J o h n S tu art M ill a s s um e d
. i n D i ss er ta ti on s a n d
D i s cus s i on s , 11 .
3 48, s eq .

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P a ge 7 e m pte d re c o n c i l i a ti o n
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e s pe c i a lly t h e s e cti on s o n th i s m a tt er i n M i ll s L og i c a b ove a l l b o o k ’

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exc u r s u s es o n t h e the o ry o f kn o wl e dge wh i ch he h a s a ppe n d e d t o h i s

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o f t h e d o c t ri n e o f th e r e tu r n o f t h e c o m p o n e n ts o f m a n to th e
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.

t h i s a n d s i m i l a r fra gm e n t s (B e i tr age z u r K r i ti h u n d E r h l a r u ng , e t c ,
’

vi i . p .
5 , and al s o th e fa r -re a ch i n g co rre s p o n d e n ce s be tw ee n
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co u r t o f H i e ro a c c o r di n g t o t h e M ar m o r P a ri um i n C I G , ii p 3 02 , . . . . .

C le m . Alex .
,
S tr o m .
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.

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’

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. .

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P a ge 1 4 R e n a n , L e s Ap btr es , I n t r o d , p lx i v
. C f al s o h i s . . . .

p r o foun d r e ma rks i n H i s t d a P e up l e d I s r a e l , i v 3 5 9 60
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-
.

B O OK V .
—CH APTER IX .

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p . 1 01 .

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c f B l a s s , A tti s ch e B e r e ds a mh e i t, i i 3 6 7 , s e q (2 n d
. . .

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.

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p . An o ther e ch o o f t h e Gorg i a s (45 2 E ) i n P h a dr us 2 6 1 A ,

Th e h a s ty gl idi n g o ver th e n a m e o f t h e v e n era te d o r a to r

c o rre s p o n d s b e s t w i th t h i s c hr o no l o g
é da wn ev
y Pl a t o c o ul d n o t .

h a v e pe rm i tte d h i m s elf th i s l i b er t y un le s s he h a d a l re a dy d e a l t wi th ,

h i m t o th e b e s t o f h i s p o w e r 2 60 A a n d 2 60 D a l s o re m i n d u s o f .

t h a t di a l o gu e .

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P a ge 2 1 (M iddl e ) O rg an i c u n i ty Th e co m p ar i s o n o f a w o rk
. .

o f l i t er a ry a r t t o a n o rg an i s m a ppe ar s here fo r th e fir s t t i m e (P h a dr u s ,

2 6 4 C a n d 2 6 8 D ) a n d re cu r s a s Th o m p s o n p o i n t e d o u t (
,
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.
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s o o ft e n Ar i s to t le fo ll o w s th e s t ep s o f h i s m a s t er (P oe ti cs
, ch 23 , .
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(W e i m a r e d 3 7 .
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P a ge 2 2 (B o tt o m ) Th i s p a s s a ge s e a r c h fo r t he m s el ve s
.

c f S chle i er m a c her E i n l e i t u ng z u P l a to n s W e r b e n i 1
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. .

P a ge 2 4 (To p) P l a to s p o l i t i ca l a v er s i on fr o m Ly s i a s a n d pre
’
.

fere n c e fo r I s o c ra t e s i s t re a te d ex c elle n tly by Ni eb uhr Vor tr age iéber ,

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a l te Ge s ch i ch te ii 2 1 2 (M i dd le) Th i s a r t o f c h ar a ct er d ra w i n g :
, . .
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c f t he a n ci e n t j u dg m en t s i n B l a s s
. op ci t i 3 9 2 (z ud I f th e , . .
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r e a l i s t i c q ua l i t y o f S Op h r o n s m i m e s a tt r a ct e d Pl a t o ( c f Vo l I I p
’
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b ut repelle d h i m i n Ly s i a s fo ren s i c s pee c he s th e c on t r a di c ti o n i s m o re

’
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i n th e w o r d s th a n i n t h e fa c t Th at ki n d o f m i m e w h i ch we p artl y .
,

kn o w fr om t he fr a g m e n t s a n d s t i ll m o re fr om The oc r i tus i m i t a ti on s
’
 N O TE S A N D A DD I TI ON S .

an d (l e s s d e c i d e dly ) Th o m p so n , op h r gh . ci t .
, p . 1 20 . Th e m o s t t o ou
p ro o f i s g i ven b y S i ebe ck l c wh o h a s m o st s tr i ctl y i nv e s ti g a te d t h e , . .
,

rel a ti o n o f b o t h w o rk s C l o s ely c on n e ct e d w i th t h i s i s th e i m p o rt a n t
.

q u e s t i o n o f th e d a t e o f t h e P h a d r u s T h e a n o n y m o u s a n c i en t s t a t e m e n t .

t h a t i t w a s P l a to s fir s t fr ui t (c f V o l I I p 2 8 3 ) h a s fo u n d m u c h s u pp o rt
’ -
. . . .
.

S c hle i er m a che r t h o ugh he g i ve s n o a ut h o r i ty t o t h at t ra di t i o n (P l a ton s

,
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W e r he i 1 p 5 3 3 r d , .
,ye t bel i e ve s t h a t th e p u rp o s e o f th e d i a l o g u e
.
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a n d t h e m e th d o o f i ts ful fil e n t
m i n d i s p ut bly
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e a rl i e s t pl a c e a m o n g a l l th e w o r k s o f P l a t o (op ci t p B on i tz . .
, .

a l so d efe n d s t h e e a r l y c o m p o s i ti o n o f th e P h a dr u s H e fin d s br i efly .
,

s ta t e d t h a t t h e v a r i o u s s u bje c t s t re a te d a r e n o t b r o u gh t i n to s u c h
,

c o m ple t e a n d un co n s t r a i n e d c on n ex i o n a s m i gh t be expe ct e d fr o m

Pl a t o s perfe ct e d s k il l To ex c elle n c e s w h i ch c an o nly be a tta i n e d

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by a n a r ti s t o f ge n i us a r e u n i te d d efe cts i n w h i ch w e m u s t r e co gn i ze
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t he a r ti s t j u s t begi n n i n g (P l a ton S t u di e n 2 92 3 r d W e may .
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a n s w er I t h i n k t h a t t h e b l a m e fo r th e d efe ct s m e n t i o n e d by B o n i tz
, ,

l i e s n o t w i t h i n s uffic i e n t s k i ll i n t h e m a s t ery o f th e t a sk b ut i n i t s t o o ,
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gre a t d i ffi cul t y Th e t h i n n e s s o f th e c on n e cti n g t hre a d s t h e
.
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o b vi o u s n e s s o f th e j o i nt s i n th e s tr uct ure b o th re cur t o an i n cre a s e d ,

d egr ee i n th e R ep u bl i c a n d t h e L a w s To j udg e th e P h a dr u s wi t h .

c o m pl e t e e q u i t y B o n i t z s h o ul d h av e c o m p a re d i t w i t h t he s e w o r k s n o t
, ,
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w i t h th e s m a ll w o rks un i m p o r ta n t i n co n t e n t n or ye t w i t h th e , ,
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perfe ct ed w o r ks o f wh i c h t h e c o n t e n t w h i le s u pre m ely i m p o r ta n t
, , ,

i s i n co m p a r a bly m o re un i fo rm Th e l at e s t a t te mp t t o c l a i m th e .

P h a d r us fo r P l a t o s e a rly peri o d h a s bee n m a d e by U s e n e r (R h e i n

’
.

M u s xxx v 1 3 1
.
, Acc o rdi n g t o h i m P l a t o w ro t e t h e P h a dr us
.
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s u rpri s i n gly e a r l y a s e a rly a s h i s t w e n t y fifth ye a r ,
i e 40 3 o r 40 2 -
,
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“
ex cl ude d by t h e w ay i n w h i c h Ly s i a s a ppe a r s a s th e m o s t i m p o r ta n t
s pee c h w r i t e r o f h i s t i m e
-
8 5 7 : 63 V3 1 7 pd4> w (2 2 8 A) Fo r 6 1 1 1 1 7 111 0 7 1! ! 6 .

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, , .
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d el i v ere d a s pe e ch i n 40 3 i n w h i c h h e s pe a k s o f h i s i n exper i e n c e ”
, .

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, ,

i n p ubl i c a ppe a r a n c e B ut t h e s urrou n di n g w o r d s I ”) .

h ,
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m ak e i t e i m p o s si bl e
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op
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ci t. i 5 42 (z u d
, . t h a t he w a s t he n a l re a d y a c elebra t e d s pee c h
w r i t er Al s o th i s o r a ti o n d e s cr i be s h i s per s o n a l fo rt u n e s a n d th e
.

o v er thr o w w h i c h t hey re c e i v e d u n d er th e r ule o f th e Th i rt y Tyra n t s .

B efo re i t he w a s v ery w e l l o ff a n d h a s o n ly l a t ely be com e p o o r ,

.

Th i s i s a s e co n d d e ci s i v e re a s o n a g a i n s t th e v i e w t h a t b e fo re t h a t
h e h a d bee n a n o r a t or by pr o fe s s i o n a n d a n expert s o t h at he , ,
“
c o ul d be o pp o s e d t o t h e l aym an a s i s d on e i n t h e
”

P h a dr us l c C o m p a r e w h a t w e h a v e c o l l e ct e d o n th e l o w e s t ee m o f
, . .

s u ch a b a n a u s i c o c c u p a ti o n i n Vo l I p 5 80 (no t e o n p O n ly . . . .

r e a s o n s o f a b s o l utely o verw hel m i n g s tr e n g t h w o ul d e n a ble u s t o m a k e

 N O TE S AND A DD I TI ONS .

s uc hpre supp o s i ti o n I n t r ut h th e d a t e o f n o n e o f Ly s i a s o r at i o n s
a .
,
’

le a d s us furt her b a ck t h an t h a t ti m e U s e n e t s pro of re s ts ch i efly o n .

’

t h e n o t i c e i n C i c er o B r u t us x i i 48 : “ Na m Lys i a m pr i mo p r o fit e r i
, ,
.

s o l i t um a r t e m di ce n di d e i n de q u o d The o d o r u s e s s e t i n a rt e s ub t i l i o r
, ,

i n o r a t i o n i b u s a ute m i e i u n i or o r a t i o n e s e um s c r i b e r e al i i s c oe p i s s e, ,

a r t e m r e m o vi s s e
”
Al th o u gh Ar i s to tl e m a y be C i c e ro s a u th o r i t y
.
’

(cf . t he w o r ds o f h i s s tat e m e n t a r e n o t befo re us a n d th e p o s s i ,

b il i ty o f a free repr o d u ct i on by Ci c er o c a n no t be ex cl ud e d In a .

w o rd w e a r e n o t a t a ll dr i v e n t o a s s um e t h a t th e t wo a cti vi t i e s o f
,

Ly s i a s w ere m u t ua l l y ex c l us i ve a n d t h a t h i s c a reer a s a t e ac her h a d ,

a l re a d y pre c e d e d h i s e a rl i e s t fo re n s i c s pee che s P refer ab l y t h e c o n .

el us i o n s a r i s i n g fro m th e fac ts o f h i s l i fe c o m pe l u s t o i n t erpre t t h e

n o ti c e i n Ar i s to tle a n d C i c er o a s m e a n i n g t h a t a t fi r s t b u t n o t befo re ,

40 3 he w as a t e a cher o f rhe t o ri c a n d t h a t t h i s o ccu p a t i o n m o re a n d

, ,

m o re g a v e w a y t o h i s a c t i vi ty a s s pee c h w r i t er a n d a d vo ca t e Th e -
.

s t a te m e n t o f I s o c ra t e s (Or x v q uo t e d by R e i n h a rd t (D e I s ocr a t i s
.
, .

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, .
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c an n o t m ak e u s d o ub t o ur v i e w Tak e n s t ri c t ly i t m a y be t r u e b ut .
, ,

s o t a k e n n e i the r d o e s i t co n t r a d i ct th e a cc o un t o f Lys i a s l i fe t o wh i c h
’
,

w e ar e c o m pelle d by th e fa ct s Th a t th e t r a n s i ti o n fr o m o n e t o t h e .

o ther o f t he s e o ccu p a t i o n s w a s e fl e c te d by e n t i r ely g i v i n g u p th e fir s t

befo re th e s e co n d w a s beg un m ay be t r ue o f I s o cra t e s w h o bega n a s a n , ,

a d vo ca t e a n d e n de d a s a t e a cher a n d w h o m o re o ver w a s a n x i o u s t o , , ,

o bl i tera t e t h e t ra c e s o f h i s s h o r t ca reer o f a d v o c a c y (cf V o l I p . . . .

B ut t he r e c a n n o t h av e bee n a r ule w i t h o u t ex c ep t i o n w h i c h e ve n i n , ,

t h e re ver s e o r d er w a s b o un d t o a pp l y t o L y s i a s o r An ti ph o n
,
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Th e v ery re m a r k a ble e ch o o f th e P h a d r us 2 7 5 D 2 7 6 D E 2 7 7 E , ,
-
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i n t h e O r a t i on o f Al c id a m as 2 7 a n d 3 5 h a s bee n n o t i c e d by Z y ob a
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(op ci t p 2 5
. .
,
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,
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, . p 1 6 ) Zych a . .
, .

h a s be s t u s e d h i s o b s er va t i o n fo r th e c hr o n o l o g i c al fi x i n g o f t h e
P h a d r us Th e d a t e o f 3 80 o r 3 8 1 w a s t h e m o s t us u a l fo r th e
.

P a n egy r i cu s (cf B l a s s op ci t p 2 5 1 2 n d a n d h a s l a t e l y bee n

. .
,
.
,
.
,

d e t er m i n e d m o re ex ac t ly by v o n W i l a m o w i tz (Ar i s to te l e s a n d A th e f t ,

i i 3 80 ) by m e ans o f t h e o b v i o u s r e fere n c e t o th e O ly m p i a n fe s t i va l
.

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(M id s u mm e r W he ther th e o r a ti o n w a s a lre a d y fin i s he d i n
,

t h e s e co n d h a l f o f a s J ude i c h a ffirm s (K l e i n a s i a t S t u di e n .
,

p 137
.
, a n d B el o c h d e n i e s (Gr i ech Ges ch ii n ee d n o t . .
,
.

t ro ub l e us O n t h e d a t e o f th e S oph i s ts c f B l a s s op ci t pp 1 7 2 2
.
,
.
,
. .
, .
, .

“ ”
P a ge 2 8 (To p) Th e gre a t p o e t s a n d l a w g i v er s Th e tw o p a s s a ge s
. .

h ere m e n ti o n e d a r e Sy mp 2 00 C— D a n d P h a dr us 2 7 7 E w i t h 2 7 8 C
.
, , , , .

I t m a y be o bje cte d t h a t i n Rep x 5 99 D E Ly c u rg u s a n d S o l o n ar e .

, .
-
,

a ga i n n a m e d wi t h h o n o u r Y e t i t m u s t n o t be fo rg o tt e n t h a t P l a t o
.

a l w a y s p a i d h i gh h o n o ur t o S o l o n per s o n all y a s a fr i e n d o f h i s ,

a n ce s t o r s a n d i n t h a t p a s sa ge b e re ui re d Ly cu rg us t o co n t r a s t w i t h
, q
H o m er w h o m he i s t here bl a m i ng
,
I n th a t p ar t o f th e Rep u bl i c t h e .
,
3 2 8 N O TE S A N D A D DI TI ON S .

S o ph i s t s , as l eg i s l at o r s a re t re at e d very l e n i e ntly Th e
wel l as th e , .

l a t e s t a t te m p t t o pro v e t he pr i o r i t y o f th e P h a dr us (I vo B r un s A tti s ch e ,

L i e bes th e or i e n N e ue ya h r b ii ch e r 1 90 0 p 1 7 s e q ) i s i n ge n i ou s b ut
, , ,
.
, .
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by n o m e an s free fro m a rt i fici al a n d v i o le n t co n s tru cti on s Th e m ai n .

ar g u m e n t m a y be ex actly re ver s e d Th e S y mp os i u m k n o w s n o th i n g .

o f per s o n al i m m o r t a l i t y ; i t s pl a c e i s t a k e n by t he c on t i n u at i o n o f
i n d i v i d u a l ex i s t e n c e t hr o u gh b o d i ly a n d i n t elle ctu a l p o s t er i t y B ut .

i n t h e P h a d o th e Rep u bl i c a n d t h e L a w s t h e q ue s t i o n o f i n d i v id u al
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, .

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a s i t pro ve s a n y t h i n g pr o v e s i t s o w n pr i o r i ty n o t t h a t o f th e P h a d r u s
, , .

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i n h i s o w n he h a d p ut i t i n to th e m o u t h o f t h e pr o phe t e s s D i o ti m a
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.

d i t i o n a l a n d re l a t i v e pr a i s e (cf pp 2 5 Th a t o n th e o cc a s i . .
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o f a re vi s i o n o f t h e t ex t w h i c h i s al l t h a t w e s u pp o s e th e a uth o r o f
, ,

t h e a lre a d y w i d e l y k n o wn w o r k w a s b o un d t o c a n c e l a n exp re s s i o n
w h i c h bel o n ge d t o i t s s ub s t an c e —w e t h i n k t oo h i ghly o f P l a t o t o ,

a s s um e t h a t (B l a s s a gr ee s w i th u s i n Att i s ch e B e r e ds a mh e i t i i i 2
.
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)

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—C H APTER X .

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b an d (P l a ton , p I p o i nt t h i s o ut t h e m o re g l a d ly b e cau s e th e
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s i t i o n t h a t P l a t o w a s m i s u n d er s to o d by Ar i s t o tl e i n reg ar d t o h i s

pr i n ci p a l d o ct r i n e h a ve i n t he s e d a y s bee n very co n s i de ra bly d i ffus e d

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.

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3 3 0 N O TE S AN D AD DI TI ONS .

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r e ce i v e s w h at i s pl a i n ly th e on ly ri gh t a n s w er : P l ato i s n o t g i vi n g
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a dm i r a ti o n a n d d i s i ll u s i o n m e n t w h i c h S o c rat e s re ce i ve d fro m th e

t e ach i n g o f An a x a g o r as Cf wh a t wa s re m a rk e d o n pp 46 47 o f Vo l . . .
, .

a b o u t h i s e a rl i er i n t er co u r s e w i t h t h e An a x ag o re an Arc he l a u s .

P a ge 43 Th e v i e w o f th e s ou l a s a h a r m o n y o f t h e b o d y a p pe a r s
.

a s repre s e n t e d by D i cae ar ch u s i n Ae t i u s (cf D ox ogr ap h i p 3 87 '

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. We r -

o f th e M e n ex e n u s a s s e c u re d by Ar i s t o t l e s a ll u s i o n s (Rh e tor i c A 9
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,

a n y o ther w r i t i n g s th a n P l at o n i c d i a l o g u e s i n t h i s m an n er
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expe di e n t 1 46) bre ak s d o wn o n p a s s a ge s 1 1 k e

P ol i ti cs B 6 1 2 6 5 A 1 0 w here 2
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c i s e l y t h e c o lle c t i ve n a m e fo r th e P l a t o n i c d i a l o gu e s I reg a r d a l s o .

t h e ge n u i n e n e s s o f R h e tor i c i i i a s c e rt a i n fo ll o w i n g D i el s exp o s i t i o n , .
,
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i n t h e A bh a n d l u ng e n d e s h On z gl p r e u ss A h a d de r W i s s e n s ch , 1 886
’

. . . . .

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Gr o t e (P l a to, i i i D i el s , op ci t , p 2 1 , a n d W e n dlan d , H er m es ,
. . . .
 N O TE S A ND A D DI TI ON S .

x x v. 1 80 . G ro t e i s
l y w ro n g i n refus i n g to a ckn owl e dge ra i ll ery i n
on

t h e w o rki n g o ut o f t he s ubje ct w h i l e o t her s o v erl o ok t h a t P l a to c a r r i e d , ,

a w a y by h i s s ub j e ct s o m e t i m e s h a s q u i t e fo rg o tt e n h i s p ur p o s e o f
,

p a ro dy .

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.
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p a s s a ge s o f t h e P eri cle an fun e ra l o r at i o n (Th u c i i c an s ca r cel y .

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be d e ci d e d Th e je s t (2 3 6 B ) t h a t As p a s i a h as gl ue d t o ge the r s cr a p s
.

fro m her o wn o r a t i on s eem s t o fa v o ur o ur c o nj e ctu re I d o n o t ,

.

a c c ep t th e o bj e ct i o n t h a t P l a t o d i d n o t k n o w t h e h i s to ry o f Th u cy did e s .

I t i s i n cre d i ble i n i ts elf an d be s i d e s t here s ee m s t o m e a n a gree m e n t , , ,

w h i ch c an n o t be a cc i d e n tal b e tw ee n Rep vi i i 5 60 D—E a nd , .

, .
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e s pe c i al ly i 3 3 5 B D .
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P a ge 5 1 (To p ) As h a s bee n re c e n tl y p o i n t e d o ut : b y Dr
.
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.

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Z e i ts ch r f P h i l os u n d P h i l os K r i ti h v o l c i x pp 1 7 6—
, ,

. . . 1 79 2 ) To .
, . . . .

g o t h o r o ughly i n to t h e o pp o s i n g v i e w s o n t h e co m p o s i t i o n o f
t he Rep u bl i c a s they a r e repre s e n te d e s pe c i a ll y b y A Kro h n D er
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t on i s ch en Fr ag e (Fre i b u rg a n d al s o by W i n delb a n d P l a to n , ,

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a l l t o t h e r epl i e s o f Z eller i i a n d C a m pbell

, 1 5 5 8 s e q (4t h ,
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, ,

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b o o k s o f t h e Rep u bl i c w h i ch i s cl e a r fro m t h e co m pa r i s on o f R ep v .
, .

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s ee n ,
l oo k b a ck t o th e P h a do Th a t th e B h a do i t s elf mus t h av e .

b ee n c o m p o s e d a ft er R ep i i a n d i ii i s a n a pp a r e n t b ut n o t re a l l y .
,
. .
,

c o ge n t i n fe r e n c e I t i s t r u e t h a t i n t he s e b o ok s
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a d o c t r i n e o f i mm o r ta l i t y s tr i ct ly s o c al l e d (Ro h d e P sy ch e i i 2 6 7 , ,
.
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a ft er d e a t h a r e o n l y m e nt i o n e d i r o n i c a l ly No m o re i r o n i c al ly t h a n .

t h e pr o s per i t y o n e a r t h w h i c h i s a pp o i n t e d fo r t h e j u s t m a n by t h e
g o d s o r th e g o od a n d e vi l fa m e wh i c h a re a s s i g ne d t o t h e j us t a n d t h e
,

u nj us t m an i n t h i s l i fe (i i Th e o bje ct i n t he s e p a rt s i s r i g o r o u sl y
.

t o d e m ons t ra t e t h e po w e r o f j us ti ce i n i t s e l f t o g i v e h a pp i n e s s t o cut i t ,

fr ee fr o m al l re w a r ds an d p u n i s h m e nt s w h e th e r re al o r s uppose d i n th i s , ,
3 3 2 N O TE S A N D A DD I TI ONS . .

l i fe o r th e n ex t Th i s p oi nt o f vi e w th e e ff o rt t o m ak e th e s tr i ct e s t a p
.
,

pl i c a t i on o f t he m e t h o d o f d i fl e r e n ce pre va i l s here w i t h o ut l i m i t P l a t o
'

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h a s t o d o o n l y w i th t h i s i s o l a t i on w i t h th e u n co m pro m i s i n g
co m pl e t i o n o f h i s t he s i s ( M nn -
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.
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p o le mi c a g a i n s t th e v ulg ar v i e w o f t h e u n d er w o rl d wh i c h s ee s i n -
,

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s t eele d a g a i n s t t h i s feel i n g w h i c h e n feeb l e s t h e s o u l

, (B egi nn i n g o f .

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.
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t h e O rph i c v i e w— a v i e w s h a re d a n d i n m an y d i a l o g u e s expre s s e d by ,

P l a to h i m s elf— here w e m ay s a y n e ver c o m e s i n t o h i s s p i r i tu a l fi e l d

, ,

o f v i s i on ; a n y reg ar d t o i t w o ul d i n fa ct i n tr o d uc e a n ele m e n t , ,

i nj u r i o us t o t h e exp o s i t i o n a n d w e ak e n i n g t o i t s p o w e r Therefo re .

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a l s o t h e w a y i n w h i ch t h e m u d d y p oo l (3 6 3 D ) i s m e n ti on e d pr o ve s
n o th i n g a g a i n s t t he pr i o r i ty o f B h a do 6 9 C , .

P ag e 5 8 Th e fe w fr a g m e n t s o f t he s pee che s o f Th ra s ym a ch us
.
,

i n Or a tor es A tti ci (Zii r i ch pp 1 6 2 1 64 .

-
.

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.

s ch o l a r s —t o w h o m h o w ev er C am pbell (o n Rep i l l 8 6) d o e s n o t
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, .
,

rep re s e n t t h e C y n i c i d e a l The r e i s n o l a ck o f p o i n t s o f c o nt a c t b ut
.
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a l s o n o l a ck o f c h ar a c t er i s ti c d i ff ere n c e s An y i r o n i ca l i n t en t i o n o f .

P l a t o i s a b s o l ut e l y o ut o f t h e q ue s t i on Th e a b u s i ve n a m e pi gs .
,
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c o m m on w e a l t h i s p u t i n t o t h e m o ut h o f G l au con w h o s e d e s i re fo r
, ,

m o re l ux u r i o us furn i s h i n g o f s o c i et y i s i m m e di a t el y e xpre s s e d a t ful l

l e n g t h by S o c r a t e s i n th e w o r d s 5 4 8 h It l ufip al 0 7 4 01 11 2 6
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i d e a l d e m an d s i n P l a t o s s e n s e An d m o s t i m p o rt an t o f a l l t h e
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d e s c r i p ti on he a l t hy (850 e 77 s i s a ppl i e d t o t h e e a rl i er m o d e l
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o f pr i mi t i v e s i m pl i ci t y w h i le t h e s ucc ee di n g s o ci a l l i fe o f gre a t e r
,

l ux u ry i s c a lle d by S o c r a t e s ph yu l v a Ar t h ur
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A s (3 7 2 E ) ( e a ov a r o t .

Fa i rb a nk s a l s o a gr ee s w i t h m e Th e S to i cal Ve i n i n P l a to s ’

Rep u bl i c P h i l os op h i ca l Re v i e w x
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P a ge 6 6 (To p ) W h a t i s here s a i d a b o ut th e s t age s o f a pr oc e s s

.

o f n at u r a l d e v el o p m e n t re q u i re s j u s t i fi ca t i o n a n d l i m i t a t i on I n fa c t , .

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Rep u bl i c, vi i .

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. I t h a s b ee n r

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 N O TE S A ND A DD I TI ON S .

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t o t he B h a d o (c f n o t e t o p Th e c i r c um s t an c e t h a t t h e wh o le
. .

q u e s t i o n o f i m m o rt a l i t y a ppe a r s here i n t h e g u i s e o f a n e w ly a r i s e n
pr o bl e m i s a n d m u s t re m a i n s t r a n ge w h a t ever v i e w w e t a k e o f th e
, ,

o r i g i n al o rd e r i n w h i c h th e b o o k s o f th e Re u bl i c w ere w r i t t e n
p It .

m ay be p a r t ly exp l a i n e d by t h e r e fl e x i o n t h a t th e i nt r o duct i on o f a
n e w a rgu m e n t fi n d s i t s b e s t m o t i v e i n a n a n te c e d e n t expre s s i o n o f

d o ub t a n d t h a t i t s co n v i n ci n g fo rc e s t an d s o ut m o s t s t r o n gly a g a i n s t
,

t h e b a ck gr o un d o f e m ph a t i ca lly s ta t e d d i s bel i ef I n t h e us e o f t h i s .

a r t i fic e h o we ver th e gr e a t a rti s t h a s for o n c e o ver s h o t t h e m a rk

, , .

Th e l i t er a ry e c o no m y o f a p a r t h a s bee n s er ve d a t th e expen s e o f t h a t
o f t h e w h o le I t m a y be s e t d o wn a s a n err o r o n P l a t o s p a r t t h a t i n
’
.

b k v i (496 'E 49 8 C D ) he m a k e s h i s br o ther G la u co n a s s e n t t o

. .
, ,

s e ver a l d o ct ri n e s w h i ch i n vo l v e th e be l i ef i n i m m o r t a li t y a n d t he n i n , ,

bk x . m a k e s h i m rej e ct th a t be l i ef i n th e fi r s t i n s t an c e
.
, B ut t h i s .

err o r g i v e s u s n o t rust w o r thy i n s t ruc ti o n o n th e c hr on ol og i c a l o rd e r o f

th e b o oks I t t e a c he s u s a t t h e m o s t t h at t h e a u th o r o f th i s h i ghly
.

c o m plex w o rk o n e w h i c h o c cu p i e d h i m d u r i n g a l o n g s eri e s o f ye a r s
, ,

di d n o t wr i t e w i t h a l l th e d e t a i l s o f h i s p l a n c o n t i n u a l ly pre s e n t t o h i s
m i n d a n d t h a t h i s fin al re v i s i o n left s om e t h i n g t o b e d e s i re d i n p o i n t
,

o f t h o r o u gh n e s s a n d a cc u r a c y Le t m e here s a y a l a s t w o r d o n t h e .

c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e R ep u bl i c To t h o s e w h o bel i ev e t h at b ks v i i i
. . .

and ix w ere w ri t t en befo re b k s v i a n d vi i th e fo ll o wi n g reply m a y

. . . .
,

b e m a d e : I t i s q u i t e i n co rre ct t h at b ks v i ii a n d i x c o n n e ct . . .

i m m e d i a t ely w i t h th e e a rl i e r b o o k s Th e s e c t i o n s w h i c h tr e a t o f th e .

d o ct r i n e o f i d e a s a r e i n d i s pe n s ab l y pre s u pp os e d by t h e prefere n c e
g i v e n t o ph i lo s o ph y t o t h e k no wle dge o f t h e e ter na l e s s e n c e s a
,
-

prefere n c e s o s t r ongly m a rk e d a t t h e c l o s e o f b k i x t h a t i t le ad s . .

t o t h e m o ral ly s u per i o r o r j u s t m an be i n g c o n fo u n d e d w i t h th e
ph i l o s o phe r fr o m w h i ch e v en th e B mA bs a lm o s t c e a s e s t o b e d i s
,
a e

t i n g ui s h e d (cf e s pe c i a lly 5 8 7 B ) I t m ay be t erm e d a s heer

. .

i m p o s s i b i l i ty t h at t he s e s e ct i o n s w er e w r i tt e n a s t h e i mm e di a t e c on
t i n u a ti o n o f th o s e p a rt s o f th e w o rk w h i c h kn o w n o th i n g o f ph il o s o ph i ca l
t r a i n i n g o r i n t elle ct u al t r a i n i n g o f a n y k i n d i n w h i c h m u s i c a n d
, ,

gym n a s t i c a r e reg a r de d a s s uffi ci e n t i n s tr um en t s o f e ducati o n e ve n for

t he r ul i n g cl a s s .
 N O TE S A ND A D D I TI ON S .

B O O K V —C H APTE R . XI I I .

Pa ge 1 0 6 (B o ttom) . S l a v ery cf . th e i m p o rta n t p a s sa ge ,

ix .
5 90 C , D .

P a ge bee n r i gh t ly re m a rke d
1 07 (To p) by J o w e tt a n d
. I t h as
“
C a m pbell (P l a to s Rep u bl i c i i i p 2 2 4) Th e l o w er c l a s s e s h a ve n o
’
, . .

r e a l pl a c e i n th e Rep b i c ; t hey f e
u l a d a w a y n to th e d i s t an c e
i ”
.

W e a l t h n o l e s s t h a n p o v ert y Rep 1 1 3 7 4 B a n d i v 42 1 C s e q .
,
.
,
.
, .

Fo r w h a t fo ll o w s c f i x 5 90 C (B el o w) A p a s s age o f th e Gorg i a s :
,
. . .

5 1 2 E s eq I n w h a t fo ll o w s th e r efere n c e i s t o R ep v i i i 5 49 A t he n
, . .
, .
,

t o v 46 9 C s e q . s e e a l s o 47 0 47 1 , .
, .

P age 1 0 8 (e n d o f p a r H o u s eh ol d er s a n d fa r m er s b ut n o t .
,
’

g o o d gua rdi a n s i i i 4 1 7 A (B el o w) Ru d i m e n t s o f c o m m un i s m a t . .

S p a r ta c f Xe n o ph o n R e sp u bl L a ce d a m
. c h vi 4 , . .
, . . .

P a ge 1 0 9 2 Th e s i m i le o f th e d o g s a n d w o l ve s : i i i 4 1 6 A
, . . .

(B o t to m) C o mm u n i t y o f w o m en
L a w s v 7 3 9 C D s u pp l e m e n t e d b y x i 1 9 42 C
, .
t h i s i m p o r t an t u t t er a n ce i n
, ,
. .

P a ge 1 1 0 (M i ddle ) S uc h a m an i s Th e p as s a ge s r eferr e d .

t o here a n d i mm e di a t e l y a b o v e a r e R ep vi i i 5 6 1 C s e q and 5 57 D .
, .
, .
, .

M y t r an s l a ti o n l a rgel y fo ll o w s O n ck e n S ta a ts l e h r e d e s Ar i s tote l es , ,

i . 1 1 8 .

“
P a ge 1 1 1 (To p ) S o m e o f t he be s t m e n o f th e n i n e t ee n th c e n t u ry
. .

I a m t h i nki n g o f To c q ue v i l le s D e m ocr a cy i n A m er i ca , a n d J S M i ll s
’ ’
. .

L i ber ty .

P a ge 1 1 2 (To p) M ag n i fic e n ce
wh i ch appe ar s
.

i n Rep i i i 40 2 .
, . vi rt u e b y t he s i d e o f
C , a n d v i i 5 3 6 A, a s a
w pp dw ) .
_
O
'
c oa

a n d d 8p i Al t h o ugh th e h i gh p o s i ti o n t h u s g i ve n t o t h e q u a l i t y i s
v e a.
“ ”
n ot j us t i fie d o n a n y pri n c i ple m a n k i n d m a y w el l b e gr a teful t o ,

P l a t o fo r t h i s e n l a rge m e n t o f t h e m o d e rn i d e a l e s pe c i al ly i n a ,

d e m o c r a ti c a g e w i t h a t e n d e n cy t o g i v e w h at ar e s o m e t i m e s c a lle d t h e
”
h ucks t er i n g vi rtu e s an u n du e prep o n d era n c e P l a t o pro n oun c e d .

“ ” “
c o m m o n a l ty o f t h i n k er s i m p o s s i b i l i ty ”
a an (R ep v i 494 A : .
,
.

) ; a h i gh s o u led m a g n i fic e n t
5
¢ A0 ¢1 00 007 0 ov66 l 7 0; 1 1 0 0 7 01 ! e ve n -

c o m m o n a l t y w o u l d n o t h a v e s ee m e d t o h i m a n y m o re c r e d i ble .

(B el o w) Th e p as s a ge fr o m t he L a w s x i 9 1 8 9 1 9 , .
, .

P a ge 1 1 3 (To p) Th e q uota t i o n fro m t h e Rep u bl i c : i v 44 1 E . . .

“
( dd le ) Th e be s t o f s a y i n g s
M i i AM w y ap 89) 8 l 71 67 Icc o a 7 0 7 0 It a 67 0 1

3 6 71 81 ! a i a x po v (v 45 7 B )
'
1 1 01 2 71 6 71 656 7 01 1 , 87 1 7 8 711 81 ! (80671 1 71 0 1 ! IcaJ u y , 7i 8 8% 3 11 0
'

. ,

P a ge 1 1 4 (B el o w) Th e p a s s a ge s i n t he R ep u bl i c a r e i v 42 0 B , . .

a nd v Ar i sto tl e s c ri t i c i s m i s i n P o l i ti cs , B 5 , fin
’
46 5 E , s e q. . I . .

c an n o t a gree w i th C a m pbell an d J o w e tt (P l a to s R ep u bl i c, i i i 1 6 2 , 1 6
’

3) .

in rega r di n g t h i s cri ti c i s m a s a gr ave mi s un d er s t an di n g .

P a ge 1 1 5 (To p ) C a l l n o th i n g t he i r o w n b u t t he i r b o dy :
. 8 8 0 1 7

71 1 8 8 1 8
1 1 6 71 0 0
1! 76 1
1 01! 8 03 1 (Rep V 46 4 D) (B o tt o m ) An a l o g i e s
11 7 01 7 1! 7 1 1 1 .
, . .

fr o m a ni m a l l i fe e
g R ep v 4 5 1 D 4 59 A 466 D 46 7 B c f al s o
. . .
, .
, , , .
3 40 N O TE S A N D A D D I TI ON S .

La w s, vu . ex a m pl e o f th e a ni ma l s i s a l s o c i t e d ag a i n s t
81 4 B . Th e
t h e l o v e o f b o y s a n d i n fa vou r o f s t r i ct m o n o g a m y i n L a w s v ii i 8 3 6 C ,
.

a n d 8 40 D E Th e a rg u m e n t o f th e L a w s : vi i 80 5 B
, .
5) O n . .

t h e re s t r i ct i o n o f t h e he a l i n g ar t s e e R ep i i i 40 5 C s e q ; o n t h e , .
, .
, .

h a rd e n i n g r egi m e pr i n ci p a lly L a w s x i i 942 D E

, , .
, .

P a ge 1 1 6 (p a r M o ral h a r d e n i n g z R ep x 60 6 B D a l s o
.
”
.
, .
,

60 3 E , s eq , a n d
. i i i 3 87 D ,
. s eq .

P a ge 1 1 Th e Ac a d em y a n d th e Ly c e um
7 (To p) . cf D i o g . .

La er t , i v 2 2 , a n d I n d e x A ca d H er e n l , c ol x v
. . Th e sa y i ng i s o n e o f
. . . .

Ar ce s i l a us , rep o r t e d by h i s co nt e m p o ra ry , An ti g o n u s o f C a ry s tu s .

(B el o w) P h e i do th e C o ri n t h i an c f Ar i s t o t le , P o l i ti cs , B 6, 1 2 6 5 . .

B, 1 2 H e w i s he d 7 8 1 rA‘r1 00 s 7 13 1 7 7 0 71 1 7 13 1! t o re m a i n u n ch a n ge d a s w ell
’

.
!

“
a s t he i r pr o per ty i n l a n d (M i d d le) E xp o s ure o f . i nf an t s
o n t h i s a n d ki n d re d m a t t er s , s e e R ep , v 4 5 9 D , 460 C , a n d 46 1 A— C . . .

Th e h a rd ly le s s s evere pre cep ts o f Ar i s to tle m a y be fo un d i n P ol i ti cs ,

H 1 6
. . C f , o n t h i s s ubj e ct, t h e i n s t ru cti v e re m a rk s o f G r o t e (P l a to, i i i
. .

2 2 9,

P a ge 1 1 Ar i s t otl e s cr i ti c i s m o f Pl a to P ol i ti cs , B 1 5 , t h at
8, 6 .
’
.
-

o f th e L a w s , 6— 7 Th e re m a rk q u o te d o ccu r s i n B 5 , 1 2 6 3 b , 1 5
. . .

“
(B o tto m) All th i s i s a ppr o ve d o f by Ar i s to tle op ci t , 1 2 6 5 a , 1 3 , s e q . . .

Th e q u o ta ti o n fro m X e n o ph o n , R e sp u bl L a ce da m , c h i 7 — 1 0 I n st ead . . . . .

“
of pr i mi t i v e G r e e ce , I m i gh t h a v e s p o k e n o f th e pr i m i t i ve Ary a n
”

“ ” “ ”
per i o d ; s e e t h e a rti cl e s Ke u s chhe i t a n d Ze ugun gs h e l fe r i n
O S chr a d er s R e a l L e x i con d e r I n dog e r m a n z Sch e n A l te r t u ms h u n de
’ -
. .

P a ge 1 1 9 (To p ) H er o d o tus : i v 1 0 4 . Fr a g m e n t 6 5 3 o f E u r i p i d e s . .

x! y vua mé o x! A6 Xos , i s n o t W h o l ly i rrele v a n t

'

(P i l ), l
1 1 !81 ! y e 6 71 !a u ij
’

r ote s a u s K0 p x p
'
.

I t i s t ru e w e s h oul d n ee d to k n o w th e d ra m a t i c s i tua t i o n o ut o f w h i ch
t h i s ex cl a m a ti o n a r o s e i n o rd er to m e a s u re i ts s i g n i fica n c e (cf
,
.

k i n d re d p a ra d o xe s i n H ipp oly tu s 6 1 8 s e q a n d M e dea 5 7 3 , , .

, , ,

P erh a p s th e i n t e n t i o n w a s t o reb uk e th e ex c e s s o f c o nj ug a l l o ve
w h i ch cau s e d L ao d a i n i a t o fo ll o w her h us b an d to th e gra v e Th e .

l i n e s h o w s a t th e le a s t j u s t a s m uch a s th e m a d pra n k s o f t he
,

E ccl e s i az u s ae t h a t s uch t h o ugh t s w ere n o t e n t i rely s t ra n ge t o th e

,

Athe n i a n p ubl i c o f t h a t d a y An O p i n i o n w a s o n c e w i d ely hel d th a t .

i n t he c o m e d y r efe rr e d t o Ar i s t o ph a n e s h a d P l a to a n d h i s R ep u bl i c i n
,

h i s m i nd Th i s O p i n i on wi t h i t s co r o ll a ry t h a t a p a r t o f t h e Repu bl i c
.
,

w a s p u bl i s he d a s e a r l y a s 3 92 m a y n o w be co n s i d ere d a s o u t o f d a t e , .

S e e H D i e tz e l s e s s a y o n t h e s ubj e ct i n t h e Z e i ts ch r if t f Ge s ch u
’
. . . .

L i t d S ta a ts w i s s e n s ch af t i (Le i pz i g
. p 3 7 3 s eq Z eller h as
, .
, .
, .

a full d i s c us s i o n o f i t ed 4 i i 1 5 5 1 s eq S e e a l s o l v o B r un s
’
.
, , .
, , .

p am phle t Fr a u e n e m a n cip a ti on i n A th e n (Ki el

, pp 2 2 —2 5 .
, . .

Th e c h i ef p o i n t i s t h a t Ari s t o ph a n e s t re a ts th e c o m m u ni ty o f
w o m e n a s a h i thert o u n he a r d o f t h o u gh t a n d t h at th e p ubl i c -
,

c o ul d n o t p o s s i bly h a v e d e t e ct e d a n a ll u s i o n t o P l a to w h i ch w a s

n o t h i n t e d a t i n a s i n gle s yl l a ble Fu rther t he Ly s i s tr a te w h i ch .

, ,

w a s perfo r m e d a s e a rly a s 4 1 1 c o n ta i n s p a s s a ge s w h i ch re m i n d u s ,
3 42 N O TES A ND A D D I TI ON S .

of th e p a rt i e s co n c ern e d w ere n ot left u n rega rd e d (B o tto m) .

“ ”
P e d a n t oc r ac y Th e expre s s i o n w a s co i n e d by J S M i ll a n d
. . .

a d o p t e d b y C o m t e ; cf t he i r n e wly p u bl i s he d co rre s p o n d e n c e (P a r i s
.
,

1 899 ) i n m a n y p a s s a ge s .

P a ge 1 2 2 (B o tt o m ) O tt o Lu dw i g Ge n of e v a Fr ag me n t (D r a m a t
.
,
-
.

Fr ag m e n te B erl ,
1 89 1 p .
,
Th e pre c e d i n g q uo t a t i o n fro m
, .

E u ri p i d e s Fr ag m 2 1
, , ,

P a ge 1 2 3 (M i ddl e ) “
S o ci al i z a t i on o f th e m e a n s o f pr od u ct i o n
.
”
.

I ca ll t h i s n o l o n ger u n ex a m ple d o n t h e s tre n g th o f Fr an z O ppe n he i m er s ,

’

a cco u n t ( i n J ul i u s W o l ff s Z e i ts ch r j : S oci a l W i ss e n s ch af t i i 1 94 s e q )
’
.
,
.
, .

o f t h e s u cc e s s ful a tt e m p t s i n t h a t di re ct i o n o f w h i c h S o u t hern C a l i fo r n i a

h a s bee n t h e t he a t re s til l m o re t h an t h e M o rm on s t a t e (B o t to m) .

O n t h e P erfe ct i o n i s t s o f O n e i d a c f C h a rle s N o r d h o ff Th e Com ,

.
,

m u n i s ti c S oci e t i e s of th e U n i te d S ta tes (Lo n d o n pp 2 59—3 0 1 , .

,

e s pe ci a ll y pp 2 7 6 a n d 2 9 1 Th e o ther p ubl i c ati on s rel at i n g to th i s

. .

s u bj e c t i n cl u di n g a reply o f J
,
H N o ye s h i m s elf t o W H ep w o rth . . .

D i x o n s a cc o un t i n h i s N e w A m er i ca m a y be di s reg a r de d
’
Th i s , .

p ar allel h a s a l s o b een referred t o re c e n tly (1 90 2 ) by L e w i s C am pb ell ,

i n h i s s h o r t b u t u n co m m o n ly val ua ble m o n o gr a ph P l a to s Rep u bl i c ,

’
,

p p 1 0 3 and 1 0 5
. .

P a ge 1 2 4 (M idd le ) I E s ch i n e s S o fa r w e h a v e o nly s p ok e n o f
.
’
.

t h i s S o c r a ti c o n c e a n d a t s l i gh t le n gt h (Vo l I p D i o ge n e s . . .

La e r ti u s t re a t s o f h i m i n i i ch 7 Th e n ot v ery n u m erou s fra gm e nts

. . .

w ere c ol l e ct e d by K F H e rm a n n i n D e z E s ch i n i s S ocr a t i ci Re l i q u i i s
. .
,

(Gott i n ge n , s u pp l e m e n t ed b y H i rzel De r D i a l og i 1 3 8 1 3 9 A , , .
, .

l um i n o u s ch a r a ct eri za ti o n i s gi v e n i n t h e l att er w o rk pp 1 2 9—1 40 , . .

Th e rel i c s o f h i s d i a l o gu e s e x h i b i t a n a pp a re n t ly a rt le s s b ut i n re al i ty ,

h i ghly a rti s t i c ki n d o f l i t er a ry m i n i a ture p a i n ti n g An ti q ui t y s a w i n

,
-
.

t he m th e t ru e s t co py o f t he a ct ual d i al o g ue s i n w h i ch S o cr at e s took
p a r t The i r co n t en t wa s p a rtl y p o l i t i c al ; i n t h e A l ci bi a des t h e
.
,

pr a i s e o f Th e m i s to cl e s t o o k up c o n s i d era ble s p a ce H i s per s o n al i ty .

i s exh i b i t e d i n a v ery di s a gree a b l e l i gh t by t h e re m a i n s o f a pl a i n ti ff s

’

s pee c h by L y s i a s ( cf p 2 Ac c o rdi n g t o th i s s pee ch he p a i d co urt

. .
,

t o a n ol d wo m a n w h o s e t ee t h m i gh t be c ou n t e d m o re e a s i ly th an th e
,
”
fi n ger s o f o n e h a n d s w i n d le d her a n d br o u gh t her fam i ly t o begga ry
, ,

(i n At he n ae us x i i i 6 1 1 , There i s be t ter a tt e s t a ti o n for

.
,

re s i d en c e a t t h e co ur t o f D i on y s i us I I (B i o g La e rt i i 6 3 . . .
, .

he m e t w i t h P l a to Th e rel a t i o n s o f t he t w o a r e v ery d i
.

d e s c ri be d b y d i ffere n t a u th o r i t i e s D i o ge n e s s t a t e m e n t ’
.

t h a t P l a t o i gn o re d I E s c h i n e s a t ‘

c o n t r a di c t i o n w i t h w h a t i s t o l d u s

A m i co c h 2 6 ; M or
, . p 8 1 1 4 D ub n e r ) a n d t he l a tt er
.
, . .
, ,

c o rr o b o r a t e d t o s o m e ext e n t by t he fa c t t h a t P l a t o
I E s ch i n e s t w i c e (Ap o l ogy 3 3 E a n d P h a d o 5 9 B ) Th e , , ,
.

n o d o u b t th a t h i s di a l o gu e A sp a s i a h a d fo r i t s c o n t e n t

h a v e s ta t e d i n th e t ext ; cf N a to rp i n P h i l o l og us 5 1 489 .
, , , ,
 N O TE S A N D A DDI TI ONS .
3 43

vo n W il a mo w i tz , H e r m es , 3 5 5 5 2 h o w ever a gree w i th t he . . I ca nn o t, ,

l a tt er w ri t e r i n d en y i n g a ll i n fere n ce s a s t o th e h i s to r i ca l As p a s i a .

I t w o u l d be ex c ee d i n gly s t ra n ge i f t hree a uth o r s (P l at o Xe n o ph o n , ,

a n d E s ch i n e s ) h a d a gree d i n fi c ti t i o us l
y e n do w i n g th e c o m p a n i o n
o f P er i cl e s w i th w h a t w e m i gh t v ery r e a s on a b ly h ave expe ct e d her t o

po s s e s s — a h i ghly c ulti va t ed m i n d a n d i n t elle c tua l i n fl ue n c e Fo r I .

ca n n o t a d m i t t h e c on t e n ti o n t h at Xe n o ph o n s pr a i s e o f As p a s i a
’

(E co n i ii 1 3 ) m a y h a v e bee n i n ten d e d m ere l y a s a co m pl i m e n t

, .

t o Ai s ch i n e s i n w h o s e di al o g u e As p a s i a a ppe a re d i n co m p a n y w i t h
,

X e ph n a n d h i s y o un g w i fe Th i s s eem s to m e by n o m e a n s
n o o
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.

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o b vi o u s
”
Fo r i f v o n W i l a m ow i tz s co n cep t i o n o f As p a s i a w ere
’
.

t h e o bje c t i vely co r r e ct o n e X e n o ph o n c o u l d n o t po s s i b l y h a v e bee n ,

gr at i fie d to fin d h i m s elf a n d s ti l l l e s s h i s re al o r fi cti ti ou s yo un g wi fe , ,

j o i n e d w i t h he r i n a di a l o gu e .

P a ge 1 2 6 (To p) Xe no ph o n s d e s cr i p t i o n (Gi eon om i cu s V1 1 4 s eq )

’
.
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, .

i s m a d e g oo d u s e o f by I vo B r un s i n th e p am phle t w h i ch we h a v e ,

a l re a d y m e n t i o n e d (Fr a u e n E m a n ci p a t i o n i n A th e n p -
, .

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.

7 67 m a n d th e a ppe n d e d i nj u nct i on o cc ur i n R ep i x 5 9 1 E 5 9 2 A
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B OO K V .
—
C H APTE R XI V .

O ur c h i ef s ou c s r e r e l e va n t
are P l u t a r ch
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s Li fe of D i on an d th e
s e ct i o n s o f D i o d o r us S i x t ee n t h b oo k I h a v e n o t v e n tur e d t o ut i l i ze
’
.

P l a t o s Ep i s tl e s i n v i e w o f t h e c o n t r ov er s y s t i l l pe n d i n g a s t o t he i r
’
,

a u t he n t i c i ty .

P a ge 1 3 4 (par Th e d e ta i l s g i ve n here a n d i n th e s e q uel a r e

.

t a k e n fr o m P l ut a r c h s D i o ch 1 4 (Vi ta DOh n e r )
’
1 3 1 1 48 seq , .
, , , .
, .

Th e expre s s i o n p w i8 (Pl uta rch op ci t 1 1 49 8) i s c erta i n l y u n

7 0 a a , . .
, ,

h i s to r i ca l fo r a t th a t per i o d i t h a d l o n g been a w o rd o f evi l s oun d

, .

Th e o ffi ci a l t i tl e o f D i o ny s i u s I I w a s a t a ll e ve n t s n o t 3 7 5 b ut . 01 0 1 1 5 1 1 ,

dpx w o r fryw w dpx w i s t h e t i tl e o f Di o n y s i u s I i n a n

’
u 2 K Af a . 1 6 as x! .

At he n i a n d e cree (C I A i i 5 1 cf Ad W i lhel m W i e n e r ya h r es
. . .
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,

h efte i i i 1 7 0 a nd U Kohler A th e n M i tte i l u ng e n i

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P a ge 1 3 5 (M idd le) Th e j udg m e n t o f G e o rge G r ot e . H i s tory of

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. .

t o P l a t o s Ep i s t i i i 3 1 5 E b ut th e a ut he nt i c i ty o f t h i s ep i s t le wo ul d
’
, .

n ee d t o be ful ly e s t a bl i s he d befo re w e s h o u l d be j u s t i fie d i n d ra w i n g

c o n cl u s i o n s fr o m i t a s t o P l a t o s o wn t h o ugh t s a n d v i e w s
’
.

P a ge 1 3 7 (B otto m ) S p e us i pp us : c f Pl ut a r ch D i o c h 2 2 2 . .
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H el i c o n Th e s o l a r e cl i p s e p re di cte d by h i m
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.

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1 1 52
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n u m bere d 2 0 3 5 i n O pp o l z e r s K a n o n d e r Fi n s te r n i ss e a n d d a te d M a y
’
,

1 2 3 60 B C
,
Th e vi ct ory o f X e n o c r a t e s i n t h e d r i n k i n g c o n t e s t a t t h e
. .

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-
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3 44 N O TE S A N D AD D I TI ONS .

in t he I n dex A ca d H e r cu l co ll 8 an d 4 (tre ate d by t h e a uth or i n t he

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c o lle ct i o n o f e s s a y s d e d i c a t e d t o Z eller p , .

P a ge 1 3 8 (p a r Th e n a rr a t i v e o f D i o d oru s exh i bi t s a s t o n i s h i n g
.

d i v erge n c e s i n h i s t o r i c a l d e ta i l fr o m t h at o f P l u t a r c h O ne of D io .

d o ru s m a i n s o u r c e s w a s E ph o r u s
’
P l u t a r ch m a d e S pe c i a l u s e o f .

Ti m o n i d e s be s i d e s w h o m he c i t e s E ph o rus a n d Th e o p om p u s fo r
,

s pe ci a l d e ta i l s t o ge ther w i th th e c e n s o r i o us Ti m ae u s w h om he v ery
, ,

r i gh tly m i s tr u s t s I t i s ge n er a lly re c o gn i ze d t h at t h i s l att er w a s a

.

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,
.
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o n th e s tre n g th o f t h e a gree m e n t o f N ep o s D i o 2 w i th P l ut a r ch , , , ,

c h 6 w here Ti m ae u s i s c i t e d
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.
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p l e t e j us ti fi c a t i o n for m y co n v i c ti o n t h a t t h e u n fav o u r a ble v er di ct o n

D i o n w h i c h i s fo un d i n N ep o s a l o n e i s e n t i rely d ue t o th e m al e vo le n ce
, ,
“
o f Ti m aeu s (B o tt o m ) Eu de m u s o f C ypru s
. cf p 71 Ar i s t o tl e . . .

w r ot e a d i a l o g u e e n t i tle d 2 08 77 1 7 p l I x ij o f w h i c h n o t i n c o n s i d e r
,
7 1 03 1 re ‘’ v
s,

a ble rel i c s h av e bee n pre s er v e d (B erl i n Ac a d e m y e di t i o n 1 47 9 B , ,

Ti m o n i d e s : c f P l ut a r c h op ci t ch .
(1 1 6 1 Th a t
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,

C a ll i pp us bel o n ge d t o t h e P l a t o n i c c i r cl e i s u nd i s p ut e d Th e P l at o n i c .

E p i s t le vi i 3 3 3 E a n d a l s o Pl u t a r ch op ci t c h 5 4 i n i t (1 1 7 0
, .
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,

s ee k t o q u a l i fy t h e c l o s e n e s s o f h i s a s s o ci a ti o n t h e h o s t i le Ath e n mu s ,

0 1 1 th e o t her h an d ( x i 5 0 8 E ) refu s e s t o a ll o w t h e .
q u a l i fic a,
t i o n ; th e

o n e i s a s i n t ell i g i b l e a s t h e o ther a n d co m p l e t e c er t a i n t y i n s u c h a ,

c a s e s ee m s u n a t t a i n a ble .

P a ge 1 3 9 3 Th e gre a t er th e di v erge n c e s be tw ee n th e a cc oun t s

, .

g i ve n by D i o d o r u s a n d P l ut a rc h t h e m o re w e i gh t m u s t be g i ve n to ,

t he i r a gree m e n t i n j u dg i n g D i o n s ch a r a c t er I n d ee d t h e expre s
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.
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s i o n s o f D i o d o r u s w h o a s fa r a s w e c a n s e e w a s n o t i n fl u e n c e d by
, , ,

t h e P l a t o n i c s h a v e a s t i ll m o re e n th u s i a s ti c r i n g a b o u t t he m t h an
,

t h o s e o f P l ut a r c h : c f D i o d o r u s x v i 6 4 ; . G r o te s a cc o u n t , .
,
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i 7 ) i b e d ex l i ely h rr i e f N ep — a n a rr a t i ve
( x . 1 2 s a s c u s v o n t e n a a t v o o s

w h i c h h a s bee n re co gn i ze d by u s a s q u i t e u n t r u s t w o r thy a n d w h i ch , ,

i n a n y c a s e s t a n d s e n t i rel y a l on e
, .

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P a ge 1 4 1 (M i dd le ) H elper s a n d c o un s ell o r s
. cf P l ut a r ch .
,

4) : M 6 7
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( at dx K0pfu0o v 8 0 1 A0 0 s It a l
5
op . ci t .
, 53 , I 1 1 70 , I a 1 r 6 71 7r6 7 a t 0 0 71

o uv dpx o u7 a s . O ur a ll us i o n to Di o n ’
s co i n a ge is d er i v e d fr o m B u ry s ’

H i s tony o f Gr e ece (Lo n d o n ,

1 900 , p Th e c h i ef s o u r ce s for wh a t
.

fo ll o w s a r e P l ut a r c h s Li fe ’
o f Ti m o l e on , a n d D i o d o r u s x v i 6 6 , s e
, q . .

(B o tt o m a n d p 1 , .

i n a gree m e n t w i t
expre s s e s h i m s elf o n t he c o n s t i
t o o p o s i t i v ely b ut c er t a i n ly i n t h e m a i n j u s t ly (p 5 8 7
, .
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expre s s i o n d e m o c ra ti c J a w s us e d by D i o d or u s (x v i
”
, .

a c co r d i n g t o th e co n t ex t be ta k e n a s referr i n g t o c i v i l a n d ,

t h a n t o c o n s ti t ut i o n a l leg i s l a t i o n A re a lly d e m o cr at i .

go ver n m e n t i s co n t ra di ct e d by th e i n s ti tuti o n m e nt i o n e d ,
3 46 N O TE S A ND AD D I TI ON S .

w h i ch th e p as sage refer s t o I s o crat e s ; i t i s a co nje ct ure w h i ch w a s

fir s t pr o p ou n d e d by S c hle i er m a c her i n 1 80 5 i n t h e i n t r o du ct i o n t o h i s ,

t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e di a l o gu e a n d S h o r t ly a ft er w a r d s i n 1 80 6 by H e i n
, , ,

d o rf P l a ton i s D i a l ogi S e l ect i i i i 4 1 3

, W el ck er S pe nge l a n d m a ny
, . .
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o t her s h a v e a cc ep t e d i t Full c er ta i n ty i s h o w e v er l a c ki n g ; a n d i n
.
, ,

a n y c a s e a c o nje c tu re o f t h i s n a t ure t h o u gh very pl a us i ble c an n ot , ,

s er ve a s b a s i s fo r f ar re a ch i n g c o n c l u s i o n s t o uc h i n g P l a to s l i t era ry
’
-

c hro n o l o gy I t i s fro m th e rel a t i o n o f t he s t ri ct u re s i n t h i s di a l o g u e t o

.

t h e pr o phe c y c o n c er n i n g I s o c r a t e s a t th e c l o s e o f t h e P h a dr us t h a t
s uc h c o n cl us i o n s h a v e bee n l a rgely d r a w n W i t h o u r i n t erpre ta ti o n .

o f th e tw o p a s s a ge s i n w h i c h t h e fir s t n a m e d i s reg a rd e d a s a very
,
-

q ua l i fie d c e n s ure a n d th e s e con d a v e r y q ua li fie d c o m p l i m e nt l i ttle ,

r o om r em a i n s fo r s uch i n fere n c e s An d e ven i f th e expre s s i o n s i n t h e .

E u thy de mu s c o uld b e t a k e n t o i m p l y a d e ci d e d a n t i p a t hy t o I s o cr a t e s ,

n o c r uci al a rg um e n t w o ul d re s ul t a s t o t h e chr o n o l o gi ca l o r d er o f th e

t w o d i a l o g ue s Fo r th e ch a n ge s i n th e pe rs o n a l r el a t i o n s o f t h e t w o
.

m e n m a y i n d ee d b ut n ee d n o t h a ve fol l o w e d a s t r a i gh t c o u r s e
, , ,
A .

m om e n ta ry t e n s i o n ma y h a v e y i el d ed to a m o re fri e n dly u n d er s ta n d i n g ,

a n d t h i s i n i t s t u rn h a v e bee n repl a ce d b
y re n e w e d a n d he i gh t e n ed

di s co r d (S u c h w a nt o f h a r m o n y ex i s t e d i n a n y c as e be t wee n I so c r a t e s
.

a n d P l a t o a t t he t i m e w he n t h e l a t t er w r o t e t he s i x t h b o o k o f t h e

Rep u bl i c C o mp a r e 5 00 B w i th t h e rej o i n d er o f I s o c r a t e s i n O r a t i o n
.

O n t h e E x c h a n ge o f P r o pe rt y — p ub li s he d i n 3 5 2
“
x v .
,
2 60 on e ,

o f t h e m o s t c er t a i n a m on g th e m a n y c o nj e ctu re d p o lem i c a l r efere nc e s .

S e e S p e ng e l , P h i l ol og u s , x i x .
5 96 , s e q ., an d B e rgk, Fiénf A bh a n d
l u ng e n , p Th u s , e v en
. pp o s i n g th e su a ll u s i o n e s t a bl i s he d, i t i s

by n o m e a n s i nt r i n s i c a lly i m p o s s i bl e t h a t th e E u thy de m us m ay h av e
pre c e de d th e P h a dr us o r a c co r di n g t o m y h yp o t he s i s th e fi r s t
, , ,

e di t i on o f i t (Cf vo n Arn i m i n th e R o s toc k W i n te rp r o gr a m m 1 896

. .
,
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,

7 p
,
. I a m i n cl i n e d t o pl a c e t h e E u thy de m us a t l e a st w ell t o w a r ds
t he e n d o f P l a to s fi r s t s tyl i s t i c per i o d t o w h i ch i t i s a s s i gn e d by t h e
’
,

l i n gui s t i c c r i t er i a Fo r i t i s t he d i a l o g u e i n w h i ch th e p o le m i c a g a i ns t
.

An t i s t hen e s a n d th e M ega r i an s beg i n s w h i ch i s con ti n u e d i n th e

Th e a te t u s a n d S op h i s t ; i t d i s pl a y s m o re o ver a m at uri ty o f th o ugh t , ,

s u ch a s c h a ra c t er i ze s t he s e l a t er w o r k s a n d n o t t h o s e o f t h e e a r l y ,

per i o d (S e e fo r ex a m ple 2 90 B s e q w here th e S pe ci a l br a n che s

.
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,

a r i th m e t i c ge o m e t ry a s t r on o m y— ar e s u b o r d i n a t e d t o th e ph i l o s o ph i c
, ,

m a s t er s c i e n c e o r d i al e c ti c ) Th e fa cu l t y t o o o f v i e wi n g fro m t h e
-
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, ,

s a m e s t an d p o i n t t h i n g s v e ry di ffere n t ex t er n a lly m us t h a v e r e a che d ,

a h i gh s t a ge o f d e v el o p m e n t i n P l a t o w he n he c o o r d i n a t e d m i l i ta ry -

c o mm an d ers a n d s pe ci al r e s e a r c her s c o m p a re d t he m j us t a s i f i t , ,

w ere th e O bvi o us t h i n g t o d o w i t h h un ter s a n d fi s her s a nd b r o ught , ,

t he m a ll t o ge ther u n d e r t h e c o mm o n c a t eg o ry o f a cq ui s i ti o n We .

a re here n o t s o fa r beh i n d t h e d i a l e c ti c a l w o r k s o f t h e l a t e pe ri o d a n d ,

a l o n g w a y a he a d o f a P r otag or as o r a Gorg i a s Th a t t h e M e n o .
,

w h i ch pre s u pp os e s t h e P r otag or a s a n d th e Gorg i a s i s i t s elf pri o r to ,

 N O TE S AN D A D D I TI ON S .
3 47

th e E u thy de m us , m a y, I t h i nk , h e a b un d a ntly pro ve d . I owe s om e

“
t h i ng here t o t he a pp o s i te re m a rk o f B o n i t z p o s s i b i l i ty
: Th e of

te a c h i n g w i s d o m a n d he n c e by a ,
as
, n e c e s s a ry co n n ex i o n v i rt u e ,

w el l i s co n ce d e d to S o cra t e s by Cl e i n i a s i n E u thy de m us 2 8 2 C
, ,
.

a s an e s ta bl i s he d t r u th ; n o w t h i s s a m e p o s s i b i l i t y i s un d er d e m o n
,

s tr a t i o n t hr o ugh o u t t he M e n o (P l a ton i s ch e S tudi e n e d 3 1 2 2 n o te )

”
.
,
.
, ,

A di ff ere n t j ud g m e n t o n t he rel a t i o n o f th e t w o d i a l o gu e s a n d I , ,

v e n ture t o s a y a v ery pervers e o ne i s t h at o f S t e i n h a rt i n h i s i n tr o

, , ,

d u ct i o n (P l a ton s s am m tl W e r h e ube r s e tz H M u ll e r , i i
'

. t v on . .

I h ave al s o d eri ved n o l i ttl e help fr o m th e a b o ve m e n ti o n e d e s s a y

of -

B o n i tz i n th e gro u p i n g a n d a r ra n ge m e n t o f t he v a r i o u s S o ph i s m s ,
as

well a s i n the i r re d ucti on t o ge n er a l ca teg o r i e s .

P a ge 1 48 2 Th e ge n u i n e n e s s o f th e P a r me n i des wh i ch i s
, .
,

a tte s t e d by n o m e n t i o n o r a ll u s i o n o n th e p a r t o f Ari s t o t l e h a s bee n ,

fre qu en tly a t ta ck e d i n r e c e nt t i m e s Two m a i n re a s o n s h ave bee n .

u rge d a g a i n s t i t B o t h h a v e bee n fo r m ul a t e d w i t h m o st pre c i s i o n

.

by U e b e r w e g i n Un te r s u ch u ng e n ube r d i e E ch the i t u n d Z e i tf olg e

,

p l a ton i s che r S ch r ifte n pp 1 80 1 8 1 (s e e p 2 7 7 o f th e s e co n d vo lu m e

, .
, . ,

a n d n ot e ) Th e m o s t t ell i n g r epl y t o b o t h h a s bee n g i v en by C le m e n s

.

“
B a umke r Th i s s c h o l a r h a s s h ow n t h a t th e m o s t o v er w hel m i n g
'

o bje c t i on a g a i n s t t h e d oc t ri n e o f i d e a s t h e a rg um e n t o f t he s o c a lle d ,
-

f s 6 070
7 p 7 o 11 i s n o t re m o v e d o ut o f t h e w o r k s o f Pl a t o by c a n c el l i n g
1 07 0 5 ,

t h e P a r m e n i de s ; th a t a q u i t e s i m i l a r t r a i n o f t h o u gh t re cu r s i n Rep
”
,
.

x 5 97 C ; furt her t h a t th i s a rg um e n t a s h a d bee n al re ad y p oi n te d

.
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o ut by G ro t e ( P l a to i i w a s n ot t h e w o rk o f P l a t o b u t o f P o lyxe n u s
,
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a s o ca l le d S o ph i s t c l o s ely a ll i e d t o th e M eg a r i an s (
-
Rh e i n M us 3 4 . .
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82 , There i s t h u s n o fo r c e i n U e b e r we g s d i l e mm a th a t w e m u s t ’

“
e i t her de ny th e P a r me n i des to P l a t o or m a k e Ar i s to tle g ui l ty o f
” “
pl a gi a ri s m s i n c e he g i ve s n o h i n t w h a te ver t h at he h a s b o rr o we d
,

t h i s a rg um e n t o n w h i c h he l a y s th e gre a te s t s tre s s fr o m Pl at o h i m
, ,

s elf
”
.N or ca n w e fa i l to be a s to n i s hed a t th e l i beral i ty wh i ch th e de
s t r u ct i v e c r i t i cs S h o w i n e n r i c h i n g G ree k l i t er a tu re w i t h a n e v e r fre s h -

s u pply o f ph i l o s o ph i c w r i ter s o f t h e fi r s t r a nk Th e P a r m e n i de s i s a .

m a rv e ll o us pro d uct o f d i a le c t i c s ub tle ty S o m uc h e v e n th o s e c an .

n o t refus e t o a dm i t w h o v i e w t h e di a l o g u e v ery d i ff ere n tl y fr o m th e

l a te s t Ne o Pl a t o n i s ts The s e— a gree i n g here i n wi th H egel (s e e Kun o

-
.

i s e e —
F s c her H g l p 1 0 5 4) h a v e reg a rd e d i t a s
’
,
.
“
t h e t r u e u n ve i l i n g
o f a ll th e m y s ter i e s o f t h e D i vi n e E s s e n c e an d h a ve a cco r d i n gly
”
,

exp o u nd e d i t i n m a n y vo l um e d c o m m en ta r i e s W e m a y i ns tanc e
-
.

P r o c l u s (be s t e d i t e d by Vi c t o r C o u s i n i n c o ll a b o ra t i o n w i th Leve s q u e ,

1 86 4 a n d l at e l y tr an s l a t e d i n t o Fre n c h by C h a i gn e t 2 vo l s
, P a ri s , .
, ,

1 900 ) a n d D a m a s c i u s ( re c e n t ly e d i t ed fo r th e fi rs t t i m e co m pl e tely , ,

b y R uelle P a r i s ,
Th e o bje ct i on s to w h i ch th e d i a l o g ue w a s
,

s u pp os e d t o b e o pe n fr o m t h e l i n g u i s t i c s t a n d p o i n t h a v e b ee n d e fi

n i t i ve l y cl e ar e d a w a y b y O Ap e l t G Otti n e r Ge l A n z e i e n 1 89 4 p 7
’

g .
g , 5 .
, , .
,

u pple m e n t e d by P h i l ol o A
se
q s .
, g g
n z ez er 1 4 1 94 .
, , .
 N O TE S A N D A D D I TI ON S .

Fo r m y ep ti o n o f th e d i a l o gue I a m m o s t i n deb t e d t o O t to
co n c

Ap e l t s m a s terly U n te r s u ch u ng e n ube r d e n P a r m e n i des de s P l a to

’
,

(W e i m a r , I n reg a r d t o i t s d a t e I a m s o fa r i n a gree m en t w i t h ,

h i m a s t o pl a c e t he P a r m e n i d es befo re t h e Th e a te t u s a n d t he S op h i s t
a p o s i t i on d e m a n d e d by t he m a t er i a l ( c f Ap e l t op ci t pp 5 1 —5 4) a s .
, . .
,
.

w ell a s by t h e l i n gu i s ti c c r i t er i a Th e a ll u s i o n s i n S op h i s t 2 1 7 C a n d
.
, ,

Th e a te t u s 1 8 3 E s e q t o t he m ee t i n g o f S o c r a t e s a n d P a rm e n i de s
, ,
.
,

a r e q ui t e d e ci s i v e o n t h e p o i n t ; a n d a s t he m ee t i n g i n q u e s ti o n i s
,

o b vi o u s ly a fic ti t i o us i n c i d e n t n o d iffere n c e o f o p i n i o n ou gh t e ver t o
,

h av e a r i s en Th i s d e ci s i v e a rgu m e n t by t he w ay w a s u rge d l o n g a go
.
, , ,

s o fa r a s t h e S op h i s t i s c o n c er n e d by S c hle i erm a c her (P l a ton s W e r h e

’
, ,

ed 3. ii 2 p
, .
,
S ch l e i erm a c her l i ke w i s e re co gn i ze d t h e pr i o r i t y o f
.

t h e P a r m e n i de s t o t h e Th e a te t u s (e d 3 i i 1 p 1 2 5 t h o u gh th e
.
, .
, .
,

a ppl i c a b i l i ty o f t he a b o v e a rg um e n t e s c a pe d h i m i n t h i s c a s e C amp .

bell (i n h i s co mm e n t o n S op h i s t 2 1 7 C) m e n t i on s fo r th e s ak e o f , ,

co m ple t e n e s s t h e p o s s i b i li t y t h a t w he n P l a t o w r o t e t h a t p a s s a ge he
,

h a d al re a dy pl a n n e d th e P a r m e n i de s b u t n o t w ri tt e n i t ; t he p o s s i b i l i t y
, ,

n o d o u b t ex i s t s b u t t here i s n o t t h e s l i gh t e s t gr o u n d fo r reg ar d i n g i t
, ,

a s e v e n a pr o b a b i l i t y
“
T e h fa i rly e a rl y d a t e a ss um e d by Ape l t
.
”

(op ci t p 5 6) c a n be a cc ep t e d o n ly i n t h i s rel a ti v e s en s e O r n ee d
. .
, . .

w e pr o v e t h a t a c o n s i d er a ble t i m e m u s t h a v e el a p s e d s i n c e t h e fir s t
pro m ulg ati o n o f t h e d o ct ri n e o f i d e a s b efo re P l a t o s c ri t i c s o r P l a to ’

“
h i m s elf c o ul d l i gh t o n t he o v er w hel m i n g ” o bje ct i o n s w h i c h a re t re ated
o f i n t h e fir s t p a rt o f t he di a l o g u e ?

B e tw ee n th e Rep u bl i c o r t h e gre a t er p a r t o f i t b y fa r a n d th e
, ,

Ti ma n s — t he s e ar e t he w i d e s t l i m i ts w i th i n w h i ch t h e c r i t eri a o f s tyle
a n d s u b s t an c e a ll o w u s t o pl a c e t h i s d i a l o g u e (cf D i t te n b e r ge r i n .
,

H e r m e s x vi 3 3 7 s e q a n d Ap e l t op ci t p
, .
, .
, Th e t w o gre a t
, . .
, .

c o n s tr u cti v e w o r k s ar e s ep a ra t e d by a n i n t er v e n i n g s tr a t um o f d i a le c t i c .

Th e n eg a ti v e a r m o f t h e P l a t o n i c ph i l o s o phy w oul d s ee m t o h a v e
c r a v e d exe r ci s e a n d a ct i vi ty a ft er i ts l o n g re s t a n d befo re t h e re s t t h at

a wa i te d i t .

”
P a ge 1 5 0 (B o tt o m) M eg a r i a n s o r N e o E le a t i cs
. I t i s n ot -
.

a g a i n s t E u c l i d e s h i m s elf— to d o t h i s m an h o n ou r i s perh a p s t h e m a i n

p urp o s e o f t he prel ud e t o t h e Th e a te t us — b ut a g a i n s t t h e t h i n k er s
t ra i n e d by h i m a n d t he i r c o n ge n er s t h a t P l a t o n o t ye t by a n y m e a n s ,

a n a ge d m a n d i re c t s h i s p o le m i c
,
Th i s a l o n e i s e n o ugh t o s u gge s t
.

t h a t o f th e t wo E uc l i d e s w a s t h e o l der a n d t h a t he h a d a lre a dy ma d e ,

s pee d t o fo un d h i s s c h o o l There a r e s e v er a l o ther c i rcu m s t a n c e s w h i ch

.

s u pp o r t t h i s co nje ctu re I n t h e i n t r o du ct i o n t o th e Th e a te tu s E u cl id e s
.

s pe a k s o f h i s repe a t e d v i s i t s t o At he n s s h o r t ly befo re th e t i m e w he n

S o c r a t e s d ra i n e d t he c up o f p o i s o n (é c dm s Aefim g 017 11 0 7 1 43 A)
’
e 1 0 1 1 11 , .

Th u s a t t h a t t i m e he w a s n o l o n ger i n t h e n u m ber o f S o cr a t e s
’

p up i l s i n th e s t r i ct s e n s e ; a n d h i s d i s ci ple s h i p m u s t be pl a c e d i n
,

an e a rl i er ep o c h M o re o v er Ari s to tl e w h o w a s a gra n d p up i l o f
.
, ,
-

S o cr a t e s h a d fo r a co n t e m p o r a ry a gre a t gre a t gr a n d p up i l o f
,
- - -
3 50 N O TE S A N D A D D I TI ON S .

i n t erva l e betw ee n th e c o m p o s i ti o n o f th e w o rk i ts elf a nd ”

th e of ti m
“ ”
th e e v e n t t o w h i ch i t a ll ude s (Ro h d e op ci t p A s e co n d , . .
,
.

l ze by h e ely t he refere e A —
i n d i ca ti o n u t i i d ,
R o d n a m n c ( 75
1 B ) t o th e , ,

e n co m i u m o n a S p a rt a n k i n g w h o c o un t e d t w en t y five a n c e s to r s -
,

o ugh t a l s o I t h i n k t o be el i mi n a t e d fr o m th e d i s c u s s i o n fo r th e
, , ,

s i m ple re a so n t h a t t h e n u m be r o f a n c e s to r s m a y h a v e bee n s l i gh tly

ro u n d e d o ff (S e e t h e d eb a .t e be t w ee n R o h d e K l S eh r i 2 5 6 3 08 , . .
, .
-
,

and Z ell er B er l i n er S i tz u ng s be r i ch te 1 886 N o 3 7 A r ch i v i v

, , ,
.
, ,
.

1 89 s e q , a nd v 2 89 s e q
.
,
I n t h i s co n n ex i o n w e m ay a l s o refer t o
.
, .

B e rgk E nuf A bh a n d l u ng e n e tc 1 40
,
Th i s w r i t e r al s o a ppe a l s t o ,
.
,
-
.

t h e t ri al o f C h ab r i a s H e i n t erpre t s t h e p a s s a ge i n t h e Th e a te t u s
.

7 [t h a t i s th e ph i l os o pher]
“
3 6 8 01 0 a 7
7 0 1! 1! 0 7
0 7 0 07 1 1 00 7 2 03 d p0
11 0
,
11 6 1 7 1! 1 r

158 5 8 71 61 0 0 7 67 7 675 1 74 C a s refe rri n g t o t h e i ll

"
7 0 1 0 6 01, 1 007 0 7 0 1 61 ,
,

s ucc e s s w h i c h P l a t o i s s a i d t o h a v e h a d a s t h a t ge n e ral s a d vo c a t e
’
.

B ut h o w i m pr o b a b l e i t i s t h a t P l a to S h o u l d h a v e t h u s re v i v e d t h e
m e m o ry o f h i s o w n fia s c o a p a r t fr o m th e d o ub t a s t o i t s h i s to r i ca l ,

c h a r a c t er ! ) There i s m u c h ex cel l en t m att er o n t he pr i o ri ty o f t h e

R ep u bl i c t o th e Th e a te t u s i n Lu to s l a w ski s w o rk P l a to s L og i c pp ’ ’
, ,
.

3 96 s eq ,
Th e w h o le q u e s ti o n i s a dm i r a bl y t re a t e d by D r M i ch a e l
. .

J e z i e n i cki i n a w o r k m a rre d by li n g ui s t i c a n d typ o gr a ph i c a l err o r s ,

b u t e q ua lly r i c h i n k n o wl e d ge a n d t h o ugh t : (I be r di e A bfa ss u n g s z e i t

d e r p l a to n i s ch e n D i a l og e Th e a i te t u n d S op h i s te s (Le m berg ,
“ ”
( B o t t o m ) H e m a k e s E u c l id e s s ay : 1 43 C Th e s ub s t i t ut i o n o f .

t h e n a rr a t i v e for th e p u rely d ra m a ti c fo rm w a s e m p l o ye d b y Te i ch
m uller a s a c r i t er i o n fo r d a t i n g t h e w o r k s o f P l a t o i n h i s p a m phle t ,

D i e R e i h e nf o lg e der p l a ton i s ch e n D i a l og e (Le i pz i g H e t here ,

f ar o v er s h ot th e m a r k a s h i s m an n er w a s t h e li m i t e d s e n s e i n w h i ch,

I t h i n k h i s o b s er va t i o n v al ua ble h a s bee n expl a i n e d i n t h e t ext .

“
P a ge 1 5 9 (To p ) A1 1 e c h o o f t he P h a d o . 1 76 B An a ll us i o n .

“
t o t h e d oc t ri n e o f i d e a s 1 75 C S t ru ggle a fter l i k e n e s s w i t h .

th e D e i ty 1 76 B I s pe a k o f h i s a tt a ck on An t i s t he n e s a s
.

d e s ce n di n g t o a l o w er le v el n o t s o m u c h be c a u s e o f t h e a l l u s i o n t o ,

h i s Thr a c i an m o t her (1 7 4 A c o m p a re d wi t h B i o g La ert v i 1 , . .

,

w uh o u t w h i c h t h e refere n c e t o An t i s t he n e s m i gh t n o t h a v e bee n
s u ffi c i e n t ly c le a r a s be c a u s e o f i ts t w o fo l d repe t i ti on w i th o ppro br i o u s
,

a dj u n c t s 05 0 7 4 0 3 071 70 1 l 77 071 7 9 8x 7u p a n d Opé

1 7 7 s 1 0 , : It a 7 1 1 !
, 7 7 01 0

0 8 5 (1 7 4 C a nd 1 7
5 D ) N o t e a l s o th e
' ’
7 0
p x 6 0 8 61 0 4 77 0 1 6 1 7 1 .

e c h o i n Ar i s to tle M e tap h H 3 1 0 43 b 2 4 : f A 0 0 , l 7 5.
,
.
, , o
’
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6 0 6 1 01 It a 01
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0 1 7 10

11 7
’
f8 0 Th i s a b u s i v e ep i t he t m a y h a v e be co m e a s to ck expre s s i o n
e v7 0 1 .

o f t he s ch o o l I t i s n o t i m pr o b a ble t h a t i n h i s Hp Aijs I) pl c p fia ws
’
. an 1 re ov e
“ ”
s An t i s t he n e s m a
y h a v e t a xe d t h e S o ph i s t P r o m e the us
5
na l
’
I0 x 1 0

t hr o ugh t h e m o u t h o f h i s her o w i th u s ele s s br o o d i n g a n d d re a m y

a l o o fn e s s fr o m t h e w o rl d a i m i n g h e r e i n a t P l a t o Th e l a tter w o uld
, .

“ ”
t he n h a v e t a k e n h i s re v e n ge by h i s g i be a t th e Thra ci a n w o m an ,
“
o t he r un e du ca t e d r a bb l e a ft er prep a ri n g t h e wa y b y th e
”
an d t h e ,

s t o ry o f Th a le s fa l l i n g i n t o a w el l wh i le g a z i n g a t th e s t a r s an d be i ng
,
 N O TE S A N D AD D I TI ON S .

m o ck e d at by th e h a n dm a i d w h o was a c co m p an y i ng h im (B i o g .

La ert .
,
i .
(Cf . B uch e l e r , R h e i n . M us .
, 2 4, 4 50 , an d D ii m m l e r ,
A n ttZ z e n i ca ,
st/ p . 1 4 K l e i n e S ch r if te n , i . 2 1 , s eq .
) Th e g i be a tt r i b ut e d

to D i o ge n e s (D i o g La ert , v i 2 8) a l s o re c al l s th a t l ege n d
. . . .

P a ge 1 60 (B o t to m) Th e fo ll o w i n g fa ll a cy m a y be
. n oted I n
1 89 A, t h e p s y ch i c al o bje ct o f a 8 o£ai §6 w i s c o n fu s e d w i t h an ex t ern a lly
e a l o bje ct 8E 87) 80 50 x 7 1 8o d§6 1 ; — A1 d7 11 77 8& 0 w
’ ’
r 11 1 1 ! 0 0x
§ ! 8 7 1

0 01 1 5 1 ! 7 1; -
E1 r w
yx p& —O
’

I
‘

71 1 1 ) 8 1 ! 8 0 £d§wv 0 08k! 80 §0i f6 1 )

, .

P a ge
6 2 (To p) Th e c o m ple te a gree m e n t i n expre s s i on , n a m ely ,
1 .

be t w ee n Th e a te tus , 2 0 1 C , E1 71 7) 88 7 771 !
v
71 1 57 0 0 0A7701 j 81 58 1 1 ! 127 1 0 7 1 571 1 71 !
’

t h a t, a n d S
y mp os i u m , 2 0 2 A, T8 071 00 8 05442 1 1 ! It a l 00 6 0 7 0 0 ex cu! 71 07 0 1 !
80 00 0 1 0 011 3 4m [na m el y , D i o t i m a] , 87 1 0 15 7 6 0 177 6

Aga i n , i n M e n o , 9 7 A, s e q , 071 97) 8 650 be c o m e s 3 7 1 0 7 471 1 ; b y th e .

a dd i ti o n o f th e 71 07 1 0 71 63 .

P a ge 1 6 3 (To p ) I m a y here refer t o B o n i tz s ex c el l e n t t re at m e n t

’
; .

o f th e d i al o g u e i n P l a to n i s ch e S t u d i e n , e d 3 , pp 47 —92 . . .

P a ge 1 64, 4 AS t h e e n ti rely groun dl e s s d o ub ts o n th e ge n ui n e

.

n e s s o f th e Cr a ty l u s h a v e n o t bee n v o i c e d for d e c a d e s , I d o n o t t h i n k

it n e c e s s a ry t o d w el l w ere cl e a re d a wa y by The o do r
on t he m . They
B e nfe y l n Ube r di e A ufg a be d e s p l a ton D i a l og s Cr a ty l u s (fr o m t h e
,
.

Abh a n dl u ng e n de r G ott g e l e h r t Ge s e l l s ch af t G o tti n ge n and .

, ,

by Lehr s i n t he S h o r t a ppe n di x t o h i s t r an s l a ti o n o f th e P h a dr us a n d
t h e Sy mp os i u m w here (p 1 44) he p i th i ly s u m s u p t h e re s ul t o f t h e
,
.

di a l o g u e La n gu a ge w he th er w e a d o p t th e o n e t he o ry o f i t o r t h e,

o ther i s n o t a n i n s t r u m e n t b y w h i c h w e ca n g a i n t h e k n o wl e dge o f
,

n v e s t i g at i o n o f w o r d s
”
t h i n gs (B o t t o m
.
) Th e i c f n o te to p 1 8 5 . .

(m i ddl e) P l a to s s umm i n g up Cr a ty l us 43 9 B
’
. .
,

P a ge 1 6 5 (B o t t o m ) Le i b n i t z d i s cu s s e s t h e m e a n i n g o f t he l r
.
, ,

an d v s o un d s i n N o u v ea u x E s s a i s s u r l e n te n de m e n t h u ma i n , b k i i i
’
. .

ch . 1 . J ako b G ri m m Ube r de n Ur spr u ng der Sp r a ch e (B erl i n , 1 8 5 8 ,

p 3 9, s e e
P a ge 1 66 (B o tto m) Th e cl o s e k i n s h i p o f t h e Th e a te t us a n d th e .

Cr a ty l u s h a s bee n p o i n t e d ou t r e c e n t ly by C a rl o G i u s s a n i , i n L a
Q u e s ti on e d e l L i ng u aggi o s e con d o P l a ton e e s e con do Ep i cu r o (M i l a n ,
p 3 o f t h e s ep a ra t e r epr i nt fr o m th e p ub l i ca ti o n s o f th e Lo mb a rd
.

“ ”
I n s t i t ut e : 1 1 C r a t i l o e un a s pe ci e d i c o m p l e m e n t o d e l Te e te to
(here fo l l o w s a n ex c elle n t a cc o un t o f th e p u rp o s e o f th e Th ea te tu s ) .

W h i ch o f th e t w o d i a lo g ue s i s th e e a rl i e r G i u s s a n i l e a ve s o pe n , .

S i m il a rl y D i el s E l e m e n tu m (Le i pz i g “
p 1 8 : To th e m a n y
, , ,
.

p o i nt s o f c o nt a ct be tw ee n th e Cr a ty l u s a nd t h e Th e a te tus bel on g s
a l s o t h e s i m i le o f t h e l e tt er s Th e s a t i re o n t h e Ne o H e ra cli t e an s -

Cr a t 4 1 1 C ; The a t 1 8 0 A
,
Th e s p o rt w i t h e ty m ol o g i e s l a s tl y
,
.
, ,

i s n o t fo re i g n t o t h e Th ea te t us (1 99 C E ) H ere t o be s ur e b ot h -
.
, ,

d i al og ue s a l so j o i n h an d s w i t h t h e P h a dr us (2 44 B D a n d 2 5 1 C ) -
.
 N O TE S A N D A D D I TI ON S .

B OO K V .
— C H APTER XV I I .

Th e ge n ui ne n e s s o f th e S oph i s t a n d th e S ta tes ma n i s s uffi ci e n tl y

a tt e s t e d by th e Ar i s t o t el i an refere n c e s a l o n e a s i s a b u n da n t ly pr o v e d
,

i n U e b e r w e g s i f a n y t h i n g t o o c a u t i o u s di s q u i s i ti o n (U n te r s u eti u ug e n
’
,

1 52 (C f n o t e t o Vo l I I p
. . S ee i n g t h a t t he s elf c r i t i c i s m
. .
-

pra c t i s e d by P l a t o i n th e S op h i s t a s w e l l a s t he P a r m e n i de s h a s l e d t o
t he s e w o rk s be i n g s us pe ct e d i t i s a l m o s t m a tt er fo r regre t t h a t t h e
,

P h e d r a s h a s bee n pr o t e c t e d a g a i n s t s u c h a tt a c k s by t h e i n v ul n er a ble
c h a ra c t er o f i t s c re d e n t i a l s I f th e c a s e h a d bee n o t her w i s e t h e
.
,

t re a t m e n t o f t h i s d i a l o gu e by th e c r i t i cs m i gh t h a v e a ffo r d e d u s gre a t
e n ter t a i nm e n t W h y s h o ul d n o t o n e o r o t her o f t he m h a ve rej e ct e d
.

“
i t fr o m a m o n g P l a to s w o r k s o n t h e gr o u n d s a y t h a t o n e o f t he
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gre a t e s t a m on g a ut h o r s c o ul d n o t p o s s i bly h a v e l o ok e d d o wn u p on a l l
a u t h o r s h i p w i t h t h a t c on t e m p t w h i c h P l a t o s h o w s fo r i t i n t h e P /z ee dr u s .

Th e v o i c e t h at s pe a k s t o u s i n t he s e p a ge s i s t h e v o i c e o f J e a l ou s
i m p o t e n c e n o t t h a t o f c re a t i ve ge n i us r e1 0 1 cmg i n i t s s t ren g t h
,

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a n y o t her i n t erpre ta ti o n .

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P l a t o co rr e ct s t h e gre a t P ar
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e s pe c i a lly 2 42 C : 1 7 06 1 1m 1! 7 1 ,

m e n i d e s m u ch a s a s o n m i gh t a fa t he r w h o s e w a y o f t h i n k i n g s ee m s
t o h i m a l i tt le o l d fa s h i on e d -
I t i s p os s i b l y fo r th e p u rp o s e o f
.

pr o vi d i n g t h i s m o d e o f t re a t m e n t w i t h a n a ppro pr i a t e s e t t i n g th a t
t he c r i t i ci s m o f t h e E le a t i c p o s i t i o n w h i ch i s pro m i s e d i n t he Tfiea te tus
, ,

i s t here d e ferre d o n t h e pre t ex t o f l a c k o f t i m e (1 80 E a n d 1 8 3 E )

,
.

“ e n cl o s i n g h u s k i s s p o k e n o f by B o n i t z i n h i s
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v a l ua ble s e c t i on s o n t h e S ofi/Zi i s t (P l a t on i s ch e S t ud i e n p 1 5 2 s e q , .
,
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,

ed . B ut th e i n n er b o n d o f u n i o n be tw ee n t he t w o p a rt s o f t h e
di a l o g u e w i ll be s o ugh t fo r i n v a i n e v e n i n B o n i t z s p a ge s a s I h av e
’
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a lre a d y s a id i n m y n e c r o l o gu e (B er l i n C a l va ry 1 8 89 p 1 4 o f t h e
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.

s ep a r a t e repr i n t ) I v e n t u re d i n t he s a m e e s s a y t o p o i n t o ut w h a t
.
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s ee m s t o m e a d efe c t i n t h e P l a torz z s e i z e S tu d i e z z t a k e n i n ge n er a l
'

“
Th e p i c tu re o f P l a t o w h i c h re s ul t s fr o m t he m i s a l l t o o l a ck i n g i n
t e m p o r a l a n d l o ca l c o l o u r a s w ell a s i n d e fin i t e i n d i v i d u a l i t y
,
H is .

s trong per s on al s ym p a t h i e s a nd a n t i p a th i e s a n d l ik e w i s e t he

exi gen ci e s o f h i s p o le mi cs a re t o o co m ple t ely o vers h a do w e d by th e

p urely d i d a ct i c p urp o s e s a s cr i be d t o h i m .

P a ge 1 7 1 (To p ) Tre n d ele n b u rg : L ogi s efz e U fl te r s u e/z u fl g e fl i i

.
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.

1 49 n o t e Th e w h o le s e c t i o n x i i D i e V er n e i n un g i s ex t re m ely
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i n s t ru c ti v e ; s o t o o i s t h e s e c t i o n o f S i gw a r t s L og i c (p a r t i c h 4)
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d e al i n g w i th t he s a m e s u bje c t Th e a u t h o r h o w e v er h a s n o where
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fo un d t he pro ble m i n q u e s t i o n s o l v e d t o h i s co m p l e t e s a t i s fa ct i on .
3 54 N O TE S A N D A DD I TI O NS .

t h at g ul a r fe at ure o f a n ci en t t he o r i e s o f per cep t i o n w h i ch a ppe a r s

s in

m o s t c le a rly i n t h e t e a c h i n g o f Al cm mo n a n d E m pe d o cle s o n v i s i o n
pp re i n t h e eye b n e s wi t h t he fi r e
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( V o l I . 1 5 0 a nd 2 3
. .T h e fi c o m i
o ut s i d e i t t he s ubj e cti v e a n d t he o bj e c ti v e fa ct o r i n per cep ti o n a r e
s upp o s e d t o be s i m i l a r a n d t o a c t e a ch u p o n th e o ther Th us th e
, .

w a y w a s o pe n e d fo r th e fa ll a c y here i n q u e s t i o n .

P a ge 1 7 3 (e n d o f p a r Th i s m o s t n o t e wo rt hy p a s s a ge o c c ur s .

i n 2 47 D E Th e t h o ugh t i s pre s e n tl y repe a te d i n 2 48 C

-
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(M i ddle ) .

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C o n s c i ou s a n d o f t he n at ure o f s o ul c o m p a re C a m pbell s p ar
’

t i cul a rl y t h o ugh tful i n t ro d u ct i o n t o th e S op lz i s t e s pe c i a lly p l xx vi ,

. .
,

w here he p o i n t s to th e an al o g i e s i n t he P h i l e bus t h e Tz m a ns an d t h e ,
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L a w s a s w e ll as m a n y p a s s a ge s i n h i s co m m e n ta ry
, B es ides L a ws .
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x i i 96 7 D
. Ti moeus 3 4 C i s s pe ci a lly co n s i d ere d a s be a r i n g o n t he
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h i gh r a nk g i ve n t o th e p s y ch i c pr i n ci p l e B ut C a m pbel l s j us t vi e w .
’

o f th e c a s e h a s bee n re c k le s s l y ex a gger a t e d by Lut o s l a w s ki a n d by ,

R i tt er befo re h i m w h o refus e d th e d o ct r i n e o f i d e a s al l pl a c e i n t he
,

w o rk s o f P l at o s l at e per i o d a n d co n t e n d e d t h a t th e i d e a s w ere there

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s up e r s e de d by s o ul s I n fo rm i n g t he s e con cl u s i o ns t hey h av e o v er
.
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l o o ke d s uc h p a s s a ge s a s Ti m ee us 5 1 D i n w h i ch t h e s ub s ta n t i a l , ,

ex i s te n c e o f th e i d e a s i s a ffir m e d w i th a n e m ph a s i s h a rdly to be fo und

el s e where (w w a cr i v 0 5 8
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re m a r k o n P fi i te on s 5 9 C : I t i s v ery i m p o r tan t to o b s er ve t h at
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i n d epe n d e n t ex i s te n c e s ( 6 21 K O 7 6) a s they w ere i n e a rl i e r d i al o gu e s

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11 7 a 11 1 7

P l s L og i c p 46 A h e s a m e t i m e he p l a c e s t h e Ti m a m q u i t e
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r i gh tl y a s I th i nk l a t e r t h a n th e P h i l e bu s An d here I a m co m pelled
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w i t h m uc h regre t t o t ax t h i s m eri to r i o u s i nv e s ti g a t o r w i t h a n al m o s t
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i nc re di ble p i e c e o f c a rele ssn e s s I n P i z i l e ous 1 5 B he fin d s a v e ry .
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c le a r i n d i ca t i o n t h a t th e s ep a r a t e ex i s t e n c e o f i d e a s i s d ee m e d i m
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p o s s i ble (op ci t Th e w o r d i n g o f th e p a s s a ge q u o t e d i s a s
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ru n s t o ge t her th e t w o w o r d s 70 1 1 a n d 88 a n d he i s c le a rl y
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1 1 1 3 1 vva 7 a1 7 a 7 oy ,

o f th e o p i n i o n t h a t i t i s t he s ep a r a t e ex i s t e n c e o f t h e i d e a s w h i ch i s

pr o n oun c e d th e m o s t i m p o s s i ble t h i n g i n th e wo rl d I f s o t h i s w o uld ,

i n d ee d be t h e m o s t re m a r ka ble p a s s a ge i n th e w h o l e o f P l a t o Th e .

a d a p t a b i l i t y o f t h e ph i l o s o pher w o uld h a v e re a che d a n u n ex a m pl e d

he i gh t H e w o uld n o t o n ly h a v e d e n i e d b ut e ve n d e cl a re d a b s ur d
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t h a t w h i c h fo r Ar i s t o t le w a s t h e m o s t d i s ti n c t i v e pe c u l i a r i t y o f h i s
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t h e s a m e e ff e c t) I n re a l i t y x wpf i s t o be t ak e n w i t h f ij j u s t a s i n
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t he p a s s age o f th e P a r m e n i de s w h i c h t re at s o f th e s am e pr o bl e m (th e ,

p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h i n g s i n th e i d e a s l 766 1 3 70 i h 5 8 w f It a 01 ! 7 1 1 1 0 1 ! a rr 01 7 3 9
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a n d e n t i rely b a re o f i t s elf t h a n i t c a n be t a k e n u p i n to t h e i n fin i t e

m an i fo l d o f p ar t i cul a r t h i n g s a n d a t t he s a m e t i m e m a i n t a i n i ts i n d e
,

pe n de n t ex i s t e n c e M o re a c cu ra te ly i ts e n try i n t o t he p a r ti cul a r
.
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t h i n g s i s i n c re di b le i ts a b s o rp ti on i n to the m th e gre a te s t o f i m p os s i
,

b i l i ti e s J u s t a s u n t e na b l e th o ugh free fr o m t h e a b o v e err o r o f i n ter

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,

p r e ta ti on i s t h e a s s e rti o n o f R i tt er (P l a to s L a w s Com m e n ta ry p 3 5 5
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“
t o be l i e v e he w r o t e i n h i s o l d a ge i n th e S ool z i s t S ta te s ma n P i i i te ou s , j , , ,

Tz m a us a s a l s o i n t he L a w s d o ct r i n e o f i d e a s s i m i l a r t o th e ‘ ’
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o n e pre s e n t e d t o u s i n Z eller s exp o s i t i o n i s n o w here t be di c vere d

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wi h
t e s n c t o n t a t n t e S ofi tz i s t 2 B s e q , ,
.
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c e p t i o n o f m o t i o n l e s s a n d i n c o rp o re a l i d e a s w h i c h h a v e n o t h i n g i n ,

co m m o n w i t h th e v a r i a ble t h i n g s o f t h e phe n o m e n a l w o rl d w h i c h a r e ,

i n a c c e s s i ble t o a l l p e r c ep ti o n by t h e s e n s e s a n d w h i ch c a n o n l y b e ,

a pprehe n d e d by t h e re a s o n i s r a d i c a lly rej e c t e d , .

“
P a ge 1 7 3 (B o tt o m ) P l a to s e m anc i p a ti o n fr o m th e b o n d s o f
’
.

”
E l e a t i ci s m Th e pro c e s s t o wh i c h I refer i n t he s e t er m s h a s bee n
.

fully a n d a d e q ua t e l y exp l a i n e d by C a m p b el l i n h i s I n tr o ducti o n to th e ,

S op /z i s t, l i x , s e q . .

Th e vi e w s here e d o n th e t r a n s fo r m a ti o n o f th e d o ct ri n e o f
a dv o c a t

i d e a s— vi e w s w h i c h h a v e bee n d efe n d e d i n a s pe c i a l m a n n er by B o n i t z
( P l a t o m s e fie S t u d
'

i e n ed
3 p 1 5 2 s e ,
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g ) a r e o pe n t o a pl a u s i ble o b je c
.
, .
, .

t i on I n th e Rep u oti e w h i c h w e reg a rd a s e a rl i e r i n d a t e t h a n th e

.
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S op li i s t o n e i d e a t h a t o f th e G o o d i s al re a d y e nd o w e d wi t h a ct i vi t y
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(C a m p b ell a ll u d e s t o th i s R ep ubl i c i i p an d i s i n d ee d s p o k e n
, ,
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o f a s t h e h i ghe s t a cti v e pr i n ci ple ( cf p 48 1 H o w t he n i t m a y . .

, , ,

be a s k e d i s i t p os s i b l e t o s ay t h a t t h i s ch ange i n t h e t he o ry o f th e
,

i d e a s i s n o t ma d e t i ll t h e S op fi z s t ? W e a n s w er : I t w a s a t t h i s o n e
'

s u pre m e p o i n t t h a t P l a t o fir s t br o k e thro ugh t h e l i m i t s o f h i s o ri gi n a l

d o ct ri n e H e m a y n o t a t fi r s t h a v e ful ly re a l i ze d a ll th e c o ns e q ue nc e s
.

o f t h e i n n o vat i o n ; a ft er w a r d s th e i n vo lu n t a ry beg i n n i ng m a y h a v e ,

c a rr i e d h i m furt her i n t h e s a m e d i re ct i o n a n d th e d e s i re fo r c o n ,

s i s t e n c y a n d i n n er c o her e n c e m a y h a v e u n i t e d w i t h t h e o t he r fa cto r s

w e h a v e n a m e d t o pr od uc e t h i s t ra n s fo r m a ti o n Fr o m t h e re v i s i o n o f .

t h e d o ct r i n e o f i d e a s t here fo ll o w very n a tu r a lly t he o ther c h an g e s

w h i ch w e m ee t fur t her o n — th e a b an do n m e n t o f i d e a s o f rel a ti o ns a n d
o f a rt i fic i a l pr o d uct s l i ke wi s e th e a b a n do n m e nt o f t he the o ry o f
,
”
p a rt i ci p a t i o n (o f t h e p x w) C f n o t e t o p 2 47 e re
’
e . . . .

O tt o Ap e l t h a s t re a t e d t h i s p o i n t i n a w i dely d i fie r e n t m a n n er
’

(B ei tr age z ur Ges elz i efi te o e r g r i eefi P fiz l os oplz i e p 6 7 s e q a n d I n

’
’
. .
.
, ,

t r o d u ct i on t o th e re i s s u e u n d er h i s s u per vi s i o n o f S ta l l b a u m s e di t i o n
’
, , ,

pp 2 7 . H ere I ca n d e al w i t h h i s vi e w s o n ly i n s umm a ry fa s h i o n .

W e w el co m e t he i n fo rm a ti o n w h i ch he gi v e s u s t h a t t h e 1 ,
3 ,
11 01 k 11 7 1 1!

i s n o t a n a b s o l ut e i n no va t i on i n t h e S ofi f us t I t h a s a lre a d y
’

y 3
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h a d i ts prel u de i n P /z a ci r n s 2 6 5 D s e q a n d i n Rep u bl i c v 47 6 A
’
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. .

B ut w e fa i l t o s e e t he s l i gh t e s t fo r c e i n A p e l t s c h i ef a rg u m e n t (B e i
’

“
t r ag e p S ub s t a n c e s c an o n ly be e i t her b o d i e s o r s p i r i t ua l
'

, .

e s s e n ce s if t he n t he id ea s a r e s ub s ta n c e s t here i s n o th i n g el s e left
, , ,

fo r the m t h a n t o be s p i r i t u a l e s s e n c e s ; ”
fr o m w h i c h t he furt her
i n fere n c e i s d r a w n t h a t t he i d e a s a l w a y s w ere fo r P l a t o w h a t t hey
w ere fo r h i m i n t h e S op i z i s t There i s here a n o d o u b t u n i n t e n t i o n a l
.

a m b i g ui t y . A s u b s t an c e m a y be c o n ce i v e d a s i n c o rp o re a l a n d a s
i m per c epti ble by t he s e n s e s w i t h o ut be i n g fo r t h at re a s o n reg a r d e d a s
,

s p i r i t u a l i n t he s e n s e o f p o s s e s s i n g c o n s c i o u s n e s s Th a t t he w aa . i ra '
re s

5 i s a 0 1 v It l 617
1! 6 1 a 81 6 k ex u— t h i s i s a n a s s um p t i o n t h a t P l a t o
1 01 5 V0 ! 0 o

r ej e cts i n S op h i s t 2 49 A ; b u t t h at i t i s a n a b s u r d s e lf con tr a d i ctory

, ,
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hyp o the s i s he d o e s n o t s ugge s t by a s m uc h a s a s i n g le w o rd J us t

, .

a s l i ttle —I m i gh t a l m o s t h a v e s a i d s t i ll le s s — i s t h i s h i s vi e w o f t h e

a ss er t i o n t h a t t h o s e s u b s ta n c e s m u s t be d e n i e d l i fe a n d m o v e m e n t .

An d h o w w a s he to a tt r i b ut e c o n s ci o u s n e s s l i fe o r m o t i o n t o t h e , ,

a r c he t ype s o f t a ble s a n d be d s w h i c h he m e n ti o n s i n th e R ep u ol z c (
’

cf .

p t o n eg a t i v e c o n c ep t s o r t o t h e c on c ep t s o f re l a t i o n s ? Ap e l t s ’
.
,

p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e d o ct r i n e o f i de a s re c e i ve s n o m o di fic a ti on i n t h e
,

S oph i s t i s i n m y o p i n i o n e n t i rely d e s ti t u t e o f fo u n d a t i o n
, , , .

“
P a ge 1 7 5 (To p ) P l a t o n o w a ffi r m s
. Th e q u o tat i on i s
fr o m S op h i s t 2 5 9 D —E B on i tz s ee m s t o m e t o be m i s ta k e n i n s o fa r
,
.

a s he c o n t e n d s t h a t t h e p o s i t i v e s o l ut i o n s c o n t a i n e d i n th e d i a l o g u e
“
d er i v e a ll t he i r va l u e a n d s i gn i fica n c e fr o m t h e fa ct t h a t fo r P l at o
e very l o g i c a l rel a t i o n pre ci s el y a s su c h h a s th e fo r c e o f o bje ct i ve
, ,

re a l i t y (of ci t p
”
. .
, H e m i s s e s t h e p o i n t t h a t P l a to here
.

a dd re s s e s h i m s elf t o t h e o l d a p f w h i ch h a d g a i n e d c urre n cy a n d
r o au
,

i n fl u e n c e i n d epe n d e n t ly o f t h e d o c tr i n e o f i d e a s a n d t h a t h e ,

co m e s a s n e a r a fi n al s o l uti o n o f t he m a s w a s p o s s i ble s ubj e ct t o t h e ,

pre s upp o s i ti o n s w h i c h g o vern e d h i s o w n a n d h i s c on t e m p o ra ri e s ’

t h o u gh t .

“
P a ge 1 7 6 (M i ddle ) Th e P a r m e n i des . 1 29 C Th i s p a s s age . .

s he d s n e w l i gh t o n th e p u rp o s e o f th e E u ttzy a e m u s O n e i s i n cl i n ed
’
.

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ex i s t e n c e t o t h e a b so l ut e us e o f p u rely re l a t i v e t erm s to t he t e n d e n cy ,

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ph i l o so phy been m o re h a pp i ly d e s cr i b e d .

B oo x V —C H APTE R XV I I I
. .

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di s p ut e d i s s uffi c i e n tl y g u a r an t ee d b y th e a ll us i on s o f Ar i s to tl e
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co m p a re C a m pbel l E s s ay s (Rep ubl i c i i 46 , a n d Roh de K l e i n e ,

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’ '

a u t h o r i t y o f Z el l er t h a t i n d u c e s m e t o c o m b a t s h o r t ly t h e o p i n i on

w h i c h he t en a ci o u s ly h o l d s th a t t h e P h i l e bus pre c e de d th e Rep u bl i c , .

Al l t h at h a s b ee n le a r n t i n th e l a s t fe w d e ca d e s a b o u t th e d evel o p
m e n t o f P l a t o s l a n gu a ge a n d s tyle s pe ak s a g a i n s t th a t vi e w N o m e n
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.

t i o n h a s s o far bee n m a d e o f th e a rgum e n t s t e n di n g i n th e s am e ,

di r e c ti o n o f H i rzel (D e r D i a l og i 2 5 1 ) a n d I v o B r u n s (D a s L i te r a ms c/z e
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 N O TE S AND A D DI TI ON S .
3 59

su b s ta n ti a l l y th e s am e man n er ex c ept t h a t h i s exp o s i ti o n i s m o re

,

c o m p r e s s e d i n t h e o n e i n s ta n c e a n d m o re exp a n d e d i n t h e o ther t w o ,

expl a na t i o ns ar e p os s i b l e Th e a ut h o r m ay h ave i n te n de d t o cle a r th e

.

w a y fo r t h e l o n ger a n d fuller d i s cu s s i on o f h i s s u bje ct b y t h e s h o rt er

o ne o r t h e l a tt er m ay fo l l o w th e fo r m er a s a k i n d o f c o n d e n s e d ex tr a ct
,
.

W h i ch o f t he s e hyp o the s e s i s t h e co rre c t on e w e m u s t l e a rn fro m th e

c a reful a n d n i c ely b a l a n ce d ex a m i n a t i o n o f e a c h p a rt i c ul a r c as e We .

h av e a lre a dy c o m e a c r os s ex a m ple s o f t h e s e con d type (cf Vol I I . . .

p . O n th e o t her h a n d th e s h o rt ex cu r s u s on t h e i d e a o f m e a s ure
,

c o n t a i n e d i n t h e S ta te s ma n c a nn o t i n my o p i n i o n be r eg a rd e d a s a , ,

r es u m e o f th e c o m prehe n s i v e i n ve s t i g a ti on o f t h e s a m e s u bj e c t i n th e

P lz i l e ou s (S i ebe ck expre s s e s t h e s a m e vi e w b ut le s s d e ci d e dly i n , ,

Un ter s u clz u ng e n z u r P ni l os op ni e a e r Gr i e c/z e n e d 2 p 1 Z eller s

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a s k s w h y i f a l l t he s e w e r e b a ckw a r d refere n ce s t o th e R ep u ol z c t here

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,

e v e n t s a d i s ti nct i o n i s n e c e s s ar y Th e fun da m en ta l proble m o f th e

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l 611 0 1 : (ppdvnm s
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a t t he t i m e w he n Pl a t o w r o t e th i s p a r t o f th e Rep ubl i c he w a s ab l e to ,

a s s um e h i s re a d e r s a c q ua i n t e d w i t h th e t e a ch i n g o f E ucl ide s wh o , ,

a cco rd i n g t o B i o g L a er t i i 1 06 i d e n ti fie d 7 8 5 7 1 66 w i t h (ppdmo s ’
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l i ke w i s e w i th th e D e i t y a n d wi th w as W h y we ar e t o s uppo s e a .

b a ckwa rd refere n c e here t o P lz i l e ous 1 1 B E e tc I ca n n o t i m a g i n e ,

-
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I n p o i n t o f l o g i c a n d d ep t h t h e a dva n ta ge i s c e rt a i n l y w i t h t h e
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o bje c ti on s a g a i n s t th e t w o d oc t r i n e s d ra wn fro m v ery n e ar th e

s u rfa c e Th e c h a m p i o n s o f opt i mum ar e s a i d to r evol ve i n a ci rcl e
.

b e ca us e they c a n n o t a vo i d d e fin i n g t h i s n ot i o n m o re e x a ctl y a s opdmm s

7 0 8 67 9 0 ; a n d th e a dvo c a t e s o f 3 8 4; ar e ta xe d w i t h i n con s i s te n cy
1 11 0 7 01

b e ca u s e they ar e u n a b le t o d e n y t h e ex i s t e nc e o f b a d 778 v f a s w el l
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a s go od I t i s t r ue t h a t th e p a s sa ge s o f t h e n i n th b o ok 5 83 B s e q
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w h i ch Z e l l er m a t che s w i th p a ral l el p a s s a ge s i n th e P i z i l e ou s c o n t a i n ,

a d i scus s i o n o n th e va r i o u s k i n d s o f ple a s u re m a rk e d b y gr e a t s ub tl e ty
—a s ub tlety wh i ch i s o nl y ex cee de d by th e P li i l e ous i ts elf Th e ch i ef .

di ff ere n c e i s t h a t th e exp os i t i on i n th e P /z i l e ous i s co m p l e t e r a n d m o r e

i ntr i c a t e t h an t h a t i n t he Rep u bl i c I a m e n t i rely o f t h e O p i n i on o f .

C a m pbel l w h o pr o n o un ce s t h e hyp o the s i s d e ma n de d by t h e w h o le

,
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c h a r a ct er o f th e t o w o rks perfe ctl y l egi t i m at e n a m e l y
w t h a t P l a to , ,

h a d a rri ve d a t th i s ge n er a l c o n c ep ti o n o f th e re l a t i v e w o rt h o f
P le a s u re Th o ugh t an d t h e G o o d b efo re g i vi n g t o i t th e full a n d
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c o m pl ex expre s s i o n s w h i c h t he P /z i l e ous co n t a i n s (op ci t p . .

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. S ta te s m a n ,

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3 0 N O TE S A N D AD D I TI ON S .

m e d i a t e n o t i o n s : P l nl e ou s , 1 7 A (7 d at p e a a a trr o i/ s é mpe fy e i ) Di a l e ct i c
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.

t h e c h i ef i n s t r um e n t o f a l l d i s c o ve r i e s 1 6 C .

P a ge 1 8 8 (B ott o m ) P h i l o l a u s : c f th e beg i n n i n g (w h i c h h a s
. .

bee n pre s erv e d) o f h i s wo rk He pl «b l o w s Th e fra g m en t i s c o n t ai n e d .

i n D i o g L a er t , v i i i 8 5 , a n d h a s bee n c r i t i cally t re a t e d by R e i ske ,

. . .

m o re re c e n tly by D i el s , H e r m es , 2 4, 3 2 1 (s e e a l s o h i s P a r me n i de s ,
p . I t i s perh a p s be s t wri t t e n a s fo ll o w s «1 61 m a x do juw a p e en
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P h i l e bu s ,
p 2o l e
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2 46 A a n d 2 47 B L a w s x 89 1 C s ee ,
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, ,

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(P l a to,
i i i 60 4, .

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.

d i s cu s s e d pp 3 50 , 3 5 1 o f t h e s e co n d v o l um e
.
(M i ddle ) There i s .

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co n s i d er a ble c o n fl i ct o f o p i n i o n s as t o w h o t he s e e n em i e s o f
(44 B ) a r e Th e l i t e ra t ure be a r i n g o n th e s u bj e ct i s
”
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c a t al o gu e d by R G B ury, Tae P lz i l e ou s of P l a to , C a mbr i dge, 1 8 97 ,

. .

p 9 5 , s ea Th e h ypo t hes i s , t h a t An t i s t he n e s i s refe rr e d t o , s ee m s t o

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me e nt i rel y i n a dm i s s i b l e H e a n d h i s a dheren ts coul d n o t p o s s i bl y

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h a v e bee n d e s cri be d a s 8 1 l a pi 06 m E ve n a Z ell er i n o r d er t o 6 1 !o 7 n e 1 !

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m a i n ta i n t h i s hyp o t he s i s i s o bli ge d t o a d o p t t he v i o le n t i n t e rpre t at i on

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t h a t w h at i s here m e a n t i s t h e (pom o f M ms (e d 4 i i 3 09 n o t e o .
,
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t h u s he m i gh t v ery w ell i n th e pre s e n t c o n n ex i o n be t e r m e d 8 , 8s 3 , 6 1 1! 7 1

amp) 4 60 1 1! E q u a lly i lleg i ti m a t e a s I t h i n k i s t h e a s s um p t i on t h a t , ,

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t ho s e al l i e s w h o m P l a to fol l o w s l ik e pr o phe t s (44 C D ) ar e ”
,

D e m o cri t us an d h i s a d here n t s (H i rzel U n ter s u cnu ng e n z u Ci ce r o s

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i z l os op lz i s clz e n S clz r ifte n i a n d N a t o r p A r cti i n i ii

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’

e m ph a s i ze d a a x ép m o r rep ugn a n c e fo r ple a s u re th a t i s a s ce t i c o r

u e , , ,

n e a r l y a sc e t i c s e n t i m e n t s ; (2 ) e m i n e n t a c h i e ve m e n t s i n n a t u ra l
s ci e n c e ; (3 ) fr i e n d ly rel a t i o n s t o P l a t o — t he s e t hree as G r o te ,

re c o gn i ze s (op ci t 60 9 . s ee m t o a pp l y i n t he i r e n ti re t y o n ly t o
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.

c o n d e n s e d n o t i c e s c o n t a i n e d i n tw o p a s s a ge s o f th e N i com a cl z e a n E tl z i cs

(s e e n o t e t o V o l I I p U s e n e t s a s s er t i o n th a t i t w a s h i s t he o ry ’
. . .

o f ple a s u re a n d n o t t h a t o f Ar i s ti ppu s t h a t fu r n i s he d P l a t o s P lz i l e ou s
’

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w i t h a n o cca s i o n a n d s u bje c t (Org a n i s a ti on o er w z ss en s clz A r oez t ' '

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p . s ee m s h a r d ly c a p a b l e o f be i n g pr o v e d U s e n e r fi nd s i t s t r iki n g .

t h at th e P li i l e ous s h oul d co n t a i n w o rds w h i ch re mi n d o f t he K r n ar at r

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ple a s u re w ere a ll o w e d n o s p ac e i n th e s y s te m o f a t le a s t th e o l d er
C yre n a i cs (D i og La e rt i i 87
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3 6 2 N O TE S AND AD DI TI ON S .

gr a t efull y a ck n o wl e d ge m y i n d eb t e dn e s s t o Ape l t Ar cl uz f i x p 2 0
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s eq . a n e s s a y w h i c h c o n t a i n s m u ch o t her v al u a ble m a t t er
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a n d th e id ea o f t h e g o o d i n th e R ep u bli c .

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.

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3
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w as i s e i ther co m p l e t ely o r a l m os t c o m ple t ely i d e n t i ca l w i th t r u t h

a s ta t e m e n t i n w h i c h s ub je c ti ve k n o w le d ge a n d th e o bje ct o f k n o w l e d ge

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.

t a ke n for gr a n t e d t h a t a re s e a r c her o f t h e ca l i bre o f E udo x us c a n n o t

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ple a s ure w h i c h i s a r oo t— phe n om e n on o f a ll l i fe B ut wh o w o ul d a ffir m .

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o f th e R ep u OIi c a n d th e co m p o s i t i o n o f t h e Ti maz u s i s pr o v e d i n th e ,

fir s t pl a c e by th e c ri teri a o f s tyl e a n d l a n g ua ge
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p .
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A Th e .

a t t he o pe n i n g o f t h e Ti ma n s refer s t o a n e a rl i er s k e t ch o f th e
Repu bl i c, i s pr i n c i p a l l y repre s e n t e d by R o h d e , P sy clz e , i i 2 66 , n o te s .

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be i n g a r eclt a uf e o f a pre v i o us w o rk If i t w ere , m a n y h a r s h t r a n
’ '

s i ti o n s w o uld h a v e bee n s m oo t he d o v e r , m an y vi o le n c e s i n th e
s tr u ctu re s o ft e n e d Fur t her , i t i s n o t v ery p r o b a ble t h a t th e s a m e
.

pers on w h o m Pl a to th o ugh t th e fitte s t m o uthp i e c e o f h i s c o s m o l o gi c a l

s pe c ul a t i on s , a l s o p o s s e s s e d t h e q ua l i fi ca t i o n s t o m a k e a c h a ra c t er i n

h i s pr i n c i p a l w o rk o f s o ci a l p o l i ty Fi n a lly a n d pr i n c i p a l ly , h o w ca n .

i t be expl a i n e d th a t t h e Ti m ce us , w h i c h s h o w s a l l t h e s i g n s o f P l a t o s ’

l a t e peri o d, s h o uld be a ppe n d e d by i t s a uth o r t o a c o m p a r a t i ve l y

e a rly w o rk, w h i ch mu s t b e ol d e r th an e v e n th e e arl i e s t b o ok s o f o ur
Rep u bl i c ?
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p a s s a ge q uo t e d) , d a n s u ne h i s t o i re p a rt i c ul i ere , p o u r y m o n t rer q u e
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o f t h e N o r t he rn pe o ple s m a y be n o t e n t i rely d e v o i d o f fo un d a t i o n , .

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, ,

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o p i n i o n o n t h e expl a n a t i o n o f th e Ti m ce u s a s e ar l y a s
, t h e i m m e di a t e
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t h e c re at i o n o f th e s oul i n th e Ti mwus : 61 T y fp w
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th e S t o i c P o s e i d o n i us e t c The r e a r e ex tan t a fr a gm e n t o f Ga l e n s ’
.
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c o mm e n t a ry i n t h e o ri gi na l e d i t e d by D a r e m b e rg (P a r i s 1 848) th e , ,

co m m e n t ar y a n d th e La ti n t r an s l a t i o n o f th e N e o P l a t o n i s t C h a l c i di us -
,

m o s t re c e n tl y e d i t e d by W ro bel (Le i pz i g 1 8 7 6) a n d t h at o f P r o c lu s , ,
“
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p
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n az u s 59 ,
.

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Alber ti , Ube r Ge i s t u n a Or a n n ng o e r p l a ton i s d z e n S clz r ift e n (Le i pz i g
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c f G r o t e , P l a to, i i i 2 5 1
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perh a p s th e gre a t e s t di ffi cul t y o f a l l i n th e expl a n a t i o n o f th e Ti mwa s .

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th e ex a c t p a r a l l el s i n 2 7 D—2 8 A Th e e m ph a t i c d e n i al o f e m p t y .

s p a c e o ccu r s pr i n c i p a lly i n t h e t he o ry o f re s p i r a t i o n w h i c h I h a v e ,

repro du c e d o n p 2 2 4 Th e a pp a re n t co ntr a d i cti o n be tw een t h i s

. .

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ne m e n ti o n e d i n s ev er a l p a s s a ge s (5 8 B i x e oa
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,
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n o t m e an t a s t r u e vo i d s ex i s t i n g be t w ee n t h e ele m e n ta ry p a r ti cl e s

t h e n a m e i s t o be i n t e r p te t e d rel a t i v ely t o d e fin i t e i n d i vi d u a l b o d i e s

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a n d t hey ca n n o t d i v id e u p th e w h o le o ri g i n a l m a s s Th i s i s fully .

d e c i d e d by t h e p a s s a ge 5 8 A—B i n p a r t i cu l a r Th e o p i ni on o f t h e .

m o s t a n c i e n t i n t erpre t er s h a s bee n re t a i n e d n o t o n ly by t he tw o
s c h o l a r s j us t n a m e d b ut by B o n i t z K F H er m ann B r a n di s U e b e rw e g
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c o m m e nt a to r o n t h e Ti m a us H e n r i M a r ti n w a v er s o n t h i s p oi n t ; , ,

c o m p a re h i s Et u des s u r l e Ti m ee i i 1 80 w i t h t h e p a ge fo ll o w i n g
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ex tr a ct e d fr o m Ar i s to tle H i s w o rds i n th e P hy s i cs (A 2 2 0 9 b 1 1 ) . .
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 N O TE S A N D AD D I TI ON S .

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, c o ns i d ,

a n d m a t t er a c co r d i n g t o P l a t o co i n ci d e i n t he i r ex t e n s i o n i n o t her
, , ,

w o rd s t h a t P l a to k n o w s n o th i n g o f s pa c e d e nud e d o f m a tt er
, .

(B o tto m ) A w el l c o n s i d ered a n s w e r g i ve n by U e b e r we g R he i n
-
,
.

M us .
, ix . 69 .

“ ”
P a ge 2 1 2(To p) . Ful l y i n
H ere , to o , I mu s t a g a i n e arn e s t .

r efer t o ci t , p
U e b e r w e g (op
7 6, w h o i n s i s t s o n th e h i gh l y
. . . n o te

i m p o r tan t b ut o ft e n n egle ct e d d i s t i n ct i o n b e tw ee n P l a t o ’s m y th i ca l
expo s i ti on s a n d t h o s e w h i ch a r e m e a n t s er i o us ly , th o ugh n o t pre s e n te d
as cl a i m i n g a b s o l ut e c e rt a i n t y Th e w o rd y ey o uw (5 c 6 x l unas ) i s
'
. .

n o t e v e n s ubje c t t o t h i s l as t l i m i tat i on ; i t i s th e a n s w e r gi ve n i n
,

th e m o s t p os i t i v e m an n er c o nc e i vab le , t o t h e q u e s t i o n , 1 r d7 6 p0 1 ! in!
as : (2 8 B ) Th a t P l a to i s fully i n e a r n e s t a b o ut
'
i) 7 6 7 0 V6 1 ! .

t h e c re a t i o n o f th e w o rl d , h a s re c e n tl y bee n a c kn o wle dge d , th o ugh

n o t w i t h o u t re s e rv e , by R H e i n ze (Xe n ocr a te s , p by Ap e l t
. .

(B e ttr z Ges ch d P h i l os ,
. . a n d l o n g b efo re t he s e by S t u m pf,
. . .

w h o s e t re at i s e, Ve r h al tn i s de s p l a ton i s ch e n Gottes z u r I de e des Gn te n ,

'

i s o n ly k n o wn t o m e a t s e c o n d h a n d (B o tto m ) To d i s co ver .

Ti m , 2 8 E . .

”
P a ge 2 1 3 (M i d dle ) E t er n al g o d s Th e i d e a s a r e c al l e d
. .

06 0 1 i n 3 7 C ; t h e c o s m o s a e fiaa fp wv 96 61 i n 3 4 B Th e m i gh t o f .

N e ce s s i t y — here a ppe a s e d an d c o m pl i a n t—i s s pe ci a l l y m e n ti o n e d

i n 5 6 C t o ge the r w i t h t h e “ err a t i c c a u s e o f m o t i o n, ” i t a ppe a r s i n
48 A Th e l a s t p a s s a ge c o n t a i n s a s i g n i fic an t phr a s e : Th e w o rld
.

w as c re a t e d 65 131 1 1 147 11 1 1 : 7 6 1t a l vo ii a va 7 é a e ws
1 Th e e vi l w o rl d s oul i s .
-

s po k e n o f i n L a w s , x 896 E a n d 8 98 C (B el o w) Aug us t B Ockh ,

. .

K l e i n e S ch r if te n , i ii 1 3 0 . .

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7 1
43 aya oa 131 6 1 6 I1 !a 1 avd yx n) I a m
7 '
. here e n ti rely i n a gr ee m e nt wi t h
U e b e r w e g-H i n , i 1 7 4, 8 th e d e ze . .

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2 1 5 (To p ) . l s eq -
so u Ti ma ns , 3 6 E ,
'
.

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(M i dd le ) P l a to s pu p i l s
’
c f Ari s to t le, P hy s i cs , F 4, 2 0 3 a, 1 5 . .

“M in - p , 7 8 p é ya It a l 7 8 1 1 1 11 p6v
1 1 ! 8 6 8 60 7 8 an 6 i a S i m i l a rly , P hy s i cs , A 2 , ‘
. .

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°
. .

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1 11 1 1 »
1
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6 (M i ddl e )
P a ge S om e o f h i s fo ll o w er s
2 1 . e s pe c i ally Xe n o
c ra te s , w h o h a s bee n fo ll o w e d by m an y m o d ern s I h av e t h e m o re .

c o n fid e n c e i n m y i n t erpre ta t i o n fro m t he a gr ee m e n t o f R H e i n ze .

( X e n ocr a tes ,
p 2 2 ,
w h o exp l a.i n s t h e 1 1 1 11 7 81 !
ye vo s o f th e P h i l e b us
'
'

i n a s i m i l a r m a n n er, w i t h o ut a n y refere n c e t o t h e Ti m a ns In ’
.

p a s s i n g, I m ay r e m a rk t h a t I ca n n ot u nd ers ta n d w hy H e i n ze (op .

ci t , p . a s a l s o U e b e r w e g a n d H e i n ze i n s e ver a l p a s s a ge s , m a k e
.

t h e P h i l e b u s fo ll o w t h e Ti m ce u s I h O p e I h a v e m a d e s uffi ci e n tly .

p la i n th e clo s e co n n ex i o n o f t he P h i l e b us w i t h t he c o m p a n i o n d i a l og ue s ,
S op h i s t a n d S ta te s ma n P erh a p s , a s a l a s t d e s per a t e s h i ft , i t m i gh t
.

o cc ur t o s o m e o n e t o p l a c e al l three di a l o gu e s la t er t h a n t he Ti m a ms .
3 68 N O TE S A N D A D D I TI ON S .

B ut t h i s m a y e a s i ly b e s h o w n to be i lleg i t i m a t e Fo r th e P h i l e bus .

beg i n s a s a re a rgu a rd o f t h e o t her t w o a n d e n d s a s a n a d va n c e gu a r d ,

-

o f th e Ti ma us I n i t a k i n d o f d y n a s ti c ch a n ge i s a cco m pl i s he d
’
. .

Th e s cept re p a s s e s fro m d i a le c t i c t o m a t he m a t i c s fro m wh i c h i t i s ,

n o t a g a i n w re s t e d (P a r 2 ) Fo r t h i s s e c ti o n s e e i n p a r ti cul a r 4 1
. .
,

D E, 69 C , A—D
44 , 3 9 C , 40 B
-
s eq. , .

P a ge 2 1 7, 5 Th e c o n t e m p tuo u s
. expre s s i on i s kn o w n to u s fr o m
a ddi t i o n by u n k n o wn h a n d t o Alex a n d er s c o mm e n t a ry o n t h e
’
an an

M e tap hy s i cs (A
5, .
, 985 h An o n y m U r b i n i n B r a n d i s S ch o l i a
, . .
’

i n A r i s tote l e m , p 5 3 9 A, fin O y o i ws 7 o z 1 7 0 1 s It a l H Aa a wv r e pl 0 3 $6 7 61 !
' ’ ’
. .
,

1 8s It a 7 6 1 1 a 0m1 a 7 1 1 6 1 51r a 7 o 7 9
1 1! O n t h e t h o u gh t s expre s s e d i n
“
w h at foll o ws , cf Alex v o n H um b o l dt K os m os , i 9 8
. . Th e pl a n e t a ry , .

s y s t e m , c on s i d ere d w i t h re s pe c t t o i t s a b s o l ut e m a g n i t u d e a n d t he

re l a t i ve p o s i t i o n O f th e a xe s d o e s n o t o ffer a n y gre a ter d egree

,

o f n a t ur a l n e c e s s i ty [t h a t i s i n t h e s e n s e o f i n tr i n s i c a n d c a u s a l ‘
,

co n n ex i o n t h a n t he d i s t r i b u t i on o f s e a a n d l a n d th a n t he ,

o u tl i n e o f t h e co n t i n e n t s o r t h e he i gh t o f m o u nt a i n c h a i n s No -
.

u n i ver s a l l a w g o v ern i n g t he s e d e t a i l s i s t o be d i s co v ere d e i t her i n

t h e c ele s t i al s p a c e s o r i n t h e i n e q ua l i t i e s o f t he e a r th s c ru s t The s e ’
.

a r e f a cts o f n a tu re re s ul ti n g fr o m t h e c on fl i c t o f m a n y d i ff ere n t fo r ce s
,
”
w o rki n g u n d er un k n o wn co n di t i o ns
‘

P a ge 2 1 8 (p a r Th e d i ffi cul ti e s o f th e t he o ry of th e ele m e n t s
.

w h i c h i s i n tro duce d i n 3 1 B a n d exp o un d ed i n 5 3 s e q h a v e bee n , , .

,

d i s c u s s e d w i th e s pe ci a l i n s i gh t a n d i m p a r t i a l i t y by H M a r t i n i n .
,

Etu des s u r l e Ti mee i i 2 3 9 s e a Th e s o lut i on w h i c h he g i v e s O f th e

'

. .
, ,

p ro b l e m o f pro p o r ti o n (i 3 3 8) i s a ppr o v e d by B o ckh (D a s h os m i s ch e

.

S y s te m de s P l a ton p G r o te (P l a to i i i 2 5 2 ) a n d J o w e t t (Th e
,
.
, .

D i a l og u es of P l a to i i 5 1 2 ) rej e ct i t h a rd l y o n g o o d gr o un ds P l a to s
’
,
.
, .

s t a t e m e n t i s c o rre c t o n l y i f th e n um ber s c o n s i d ere d a r e p o w er s o f

pr i me s H e w a s h o w e ver q u i t e j u sti fie d i n m aki n g pr i m e n u m bers

.
, ,

l i n e ar n um bers a s t h e G ree k s c a lle d t he m — th e b a s i s o f h i s t he o ry

, ,

s i n c e e v ery n u m be r w h i c h i s n o t pr i m e be i n g t h e p r o d u ct o f fa ct o r s , ,

a s s u c h expre s s e s t h e m e a s u re o f a s u rfa c e o r a s o l i d (B o tto m ) .

P h i l ol a u s Th i s P y t h a go re a n o f C r o to n a h a s bee n m e n ti o n e d a g o o d
m an y t i m e s i n t h e pre s e n t w o r k (s e e Vo l I pp 1 1 2 s e q 2 5 0 2 8 5 . . .
, .
, , ,

V l I I I pp 3 1 4 3 1 88 T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t t e s t i mo n y
5 44 ; o . . .
, , ,

fo r o u r pre s e n t pu rp o s e i s fo un d i n S fob mus i 1 0 (p 1 8 5 W a c h s , . .

, ,

m u th ) : l d 6
It a 7 2 mp fpa 7 6 7
1! 7 11
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1 l 7a l1 1 1 7 01 1
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5
It a It a

I t W i ll be w el l t o beg i n by
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at, It l 8 é s a p fp s i lu ds 1 r 6 11 1 1 7 o v.
'

» a 7 t a a j t t

a n s w er i n g t he d ou b t s r a i s e d by U e b e r w e g H e i n ze ( i 6 6 e d 8) -
. .
,
“
Th e d o c t r i n e o f t h e fiv e reg ul a r s o l i d s m u s t n o t be rega r de d a s
pre P l a to n i c fo r P l at o be a rs w i t n e s s (Rep v i i 5 2 8 B ) t h at i n h i s
-
,
.
, .

”
t i m e n o s o l i d ge o m e try w a s a s ye t i n ex i s t e n c e B ut t h i s i s t o d r a w .

a m u ch t oo d e t a i le d i n fere n c e fr o m a ge n er a l s t a t e m e n t Pl a t o .

m i gh t v ery w e l l regre t th e a b s e n c e o f a s y s t e m o f s o li d ge o m e t ry
ri val l i n g pl a n e i n d ep th a nd ex te n t a n d ye t h a v e s uc h a ru di m en tar y ,
3 70 N O TE S A N D A D D I TI ONS .

P age 22 1 (M i dd l e ) The o phr a s tu s i n P l ut ar ch , P l a ton i ca Q u a s

.
,

ti on es , vi i i . 1 . 1 , 3 (M or , 1 2 3 1 , 3 7 , D ub n e r), a n d L ife o
.
f N u ma , c h .

1 1 ,
2 (Vi ta , 80 , 2 4, D oh n e r ) pp o s e d t h e c e n t re
. W here P l a t o fi n a l ly su

o f th e u n i v er s e t o be i s u n fo rt un a t e l y n o t rep o r te d ; i t m a y be t h at
,
“
h i s u t t er a n c e s o n t h e s u bje c t w ere q u i t e i n d e fin i t e ( a n o t her a n d a
be tter Th e s e co n d p a ss a ge s u gge s t s th e c e n t ra l fir e i t d o e s n o t ,

h o wever d e m an d t h i s s o l uti on b ut m o re c lo s ely c o n s i d ere d i s r a the r

, , , ,

a g a i n s t t h an fo r i t Th i s s t at e m e n t o f P l ut a r c h a n d a p a s s a ge i n th e
.
,

L a w s w h i ch w e s h a l l h a ve t o s pe a k o f s h o rtl y h av e bee n w r o n gly ,

i n t erpre t e d a s pr ovi n g P l a t o a pre cu r s o r o f C o pe rn i cu s c a rri e d

a w a y by th e re a ct i o n a g a i n s t t h i s e r r o r n o l e s s a per s o n t h a n B OCk h ,

(D a s kos m i sch e Sy s te m des P l a ton p 1 46 ) a s w e l l a s H M ar t i n (i n ,

. .

h i s gr e a t w o rk M em oi r e s u r l h i s toi r e d e s Hyp oth es es As tr on om i q u e s

'
’
, ,

e tc P a r i s 1 88 1 p 1 3 1 ) h av e g o n e t h e l e n gt h o f d e cl a r i n g th e s ta t e
.
, , , .

m e n t o f The o phra s tu s t o be w o rt h l e s s To t h i s I c a n n o t a gr ee a ny .
,

m o re t h an co u l d G C Le w i s (As tr on omy of th e A n ci e n ts p . .
,
.

Th e s ta t e m e nt re m a i n s o b s cu re b u t i t i s a b s o l ut e l y t ru st w o r thy On , .

P l a t o s co n tem p t i n th e L a w s fo r h um an co n cer ns s e e v i i 80 3 B i n th a t
’
.
,

w o rk
" f
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E 0 1 88 l r 3 23 1 a Gp wv p 7 1
7 7 O 1! u ! 7 1 883 7 1 63
1 V anr 7 a 1 07 a e 1 1! 1 1 01 1 0.
“
S h o rt ly a fterw a r ds P l a t o ca l l s m a n a p l a y th i n g o f G o d (re pe at e d
”

fro m i 644 D) (B o tto m) Th e q uo tati on i s fr o m Ne w co mb P opu l a r

”

. .
.
,

As tr on omy p 4 ,
. .

P a ge 2 2 3 (M i ddl e ) I n th e L a w s vn 8 2 1 s e q Pl a to refer s
.
, .
, .
,

e n i gm a ti ca l ly to a d o ct r i n e o nly l a tel y m a d e kn o wn to h i m o n th e ,

n a t ur e o f w h i c h th e i n t erpre t e r s di ffer S ch i a p a re l li i n I P r e cu r s or i .
,

d i Coper n i co p 2 0 be l i e v e s on gr o u n d s w h i ch a ppe a r to m e con

,
.
, ,

vi n c i ng t h a t th e exp r e ss i o n c a n o n l y be u n d e r s t o o d a s re ferri n g t o
,

th e e a r t h s r o ta t i on a n d he q uo t e s Ep i n o mi s 9 8 7 B i n s u pp o rt o f h i s
’
, , .

vi e w I fo ll o w h i s gre at a ut h o ri ty i n o pp os i t i o n t o B 6 ckh (D a s
.

kos m i s ch e Sy s te m des P l a ton p 48 s e q ) a n d M a rt i n (M em oi r e e t c

'
. .
, , ,
.
,

p 85
.
,
Ar i s to tl e w a s pro b a b l y a cq ua i n te d w i t h th e e a rth s ro ta ti o n ’

f V o l I p 1 1 9) a n d c o n s i d er i n g t h a t th e w o rk s i n
q ue s ti on do n o t
( c . . . .
,

bel o ng t o Ari s tot le s l a t er w r i ti n g s i t i s n o t a t al l i n cre d i b l e a p r i or i

’
, , ,

t h a t P l a to a l s o w a s a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h i s di s co v ery o f t h e y o un ger
P y t h a g o re a n s a t t h e t i m e w he n h e w r o t e t h e s e v e n t h b o o k o f th e La w s .

An o ther re m a rka b l e ci rcum s ta n c e m u st be m e n ti on e d w h i c h i s t h at ,

i n D e Ca l o i i 1 3 Ar i s t o tl e i n t e rpre t s a p a s s a ge o f t h e Ti ma us (40 B )
’
,
.
,
’

a s t e a ch i n g t h e r o ta t i o n o f t h e e a r t h I t i s n o w un i ver s a ll y a ckn o w .

le dge d t h a t t h i s i n t erpr e t ati o n i s erro n e o u s (Gro te s a tte m p te d .

’

reh a b i l i tat i o n w a s un an i m o us ly r ej e ct e d by th e exper t s ) No w .

,

S ch i a p a rell i (p 1 7 s eq ) p o i nt s o ut t h a t t h i s s tra n ge m i s un d e rs t a n di n g
.
,
.

o n th e p a rt o f Ar i s t o t le b e c o m e s i n a c ert a i n d egr ee expl i ca ble i f he h a d

i n h i s m i n d co n v er s a ti o n s o r l e cture s of P l a t o i n w h i c h th e m o ti on l e s s
s t a t e o f th e e a r t h (re a lly re t a i n e d by h i m i n t h e Ti m a us ) w a s g i v en u p
’
.

NO ten a ble re s ul t h a s bee n o b ta i n e d by th e a tt e m pt t o c o m b i n e P l a t o s

’

a ll us i o n i n th e L a w s a n d th e s t a t e m e n t O f The o phr a s tu s referre d t o

 N O TE S A ND A D D I TI ON S .
3 7 !

a b o ve .
(P a r . 2 ) B o ckh (K l e i n e S ch mf te n , i i i . 1 3 5, s eq .
) t re a ts o f th e
m u s i c a l phe n o m e n a o f P l a to s he a v e n , a n d o f t he w o rl d s o u l perva d i n g’
-

i t, w i t h u n s u rp a s s e d l e a r n i n g a n d a n i n ge n u i t y w h i c h a ll a ckn o wl e dge
“ ”
a s t r i um ph a n t 7 ) Th e d o ct r i n e o f n a tu r a l pl a c e s , n o a b o ve a n d
.

be lo w, a n t i p o d e a n s Ti m ce us , 6 0 B —C , 6 2 , 3 .

P a ge 2 2 4 (M idd le ) The o ry o f re s p i r a t i o n 7 9 B —80 C Fo r w h at

. .

fo ll o w s , c o m p a re 80 C Th i s w h o le s e ct i o n i s i ll us t ra t e d by P l ut a r ch ,
.

Q u a s t i o n es P l a ton i ca , v i i ( Al o n ,
1 2 2 —
9 1 2 3 1 , D ub n e r ) (B o tt o m ) C o n
. .

v o l u t i o n s o f t h e i n t e s t i n e s , e t c : Ti m a n s , 7 3 A P u rp o s e o f n a i l s . .

7 6 D — E .

P a ge 2 2 5 (B o tt o m) The o ry o f d i s e a s e : 8 2 A, s e q . O n m e n ta l .

di s e a s e s , 86 B , s e q .

“
P a ge 2 2 6 (M i d d le ) C o n n exi o n be t w ee n m i n d a n d b o dy :
. a

ru di m e n t o f the s e the o r i e s m a y be fo un d i n th e P h ee a o, cf p 43 4 '

. . .

B OO K V .
—C H AP TER XX .

An y one h i ms e l f r a p i dly a cq u a i n te d w i th th e
d e s i ri n g t o m ak e
m atter c o n ta i n e d i n th e L a w s m a y be a d vi s e d t o u s e C o n s t a n t i n
R i tt er s s um m a ry P l a to s Ges e tz e D a r s te l l u ng de s I n h a l ts a vo l u m e
’ ’
, , ,

w h i ch a pa rt fro m th e c o p i o u s i n d ex o n ly co n ta i n s 1 2 6 p age s Th e
, , .

c o mm e n t a ry w h i c h h a s l a t el y bee n p u bl i s he d by th e s a m e a uth o r

c o n t a i n s m u c h t h a t i s ex c elle n t b ut n o t s el d o m l e a v e s th e re a d er ,

i n th e l u r c h A co m m e n ta ry w h i ch s h o ul d s he d a u n i fo rm l i gh t o n
.

al l p a r ts o f th e w o rk w o u l d b e a d i ffi c ul t b u t a very w el co m e

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.

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c e tt e so r t e d e co ns ti t u ti on p o l s i There, t o o , i s t h e r efere n c e t o .

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refer s t o th e s i xth b o o k o f P o lyb i us, t h a t i s , t o th e c elebr at e d p a s s a ge
in w h i ch
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a s a n i d e al N o w, P o l yb i us , a s a g l a n c e a t v i 1 1 ,
. 1 1 , 1 2 , and at .

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.

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. O n th e .

can o n i c r ep ut a t i o n wh i ch M on t e s q u i e u h a d fo r H a m i l to n a n d M a di s o n ,

th e c h i ef c re at o rs a n d exp o n e n t s o f t h e N o rt h Am eri can c o n s t i t ut i o n -

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fl ue n ce s e e n o te t o Vo l I p 47 . . . .

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w h i c h M on te s q ui e u s t he o ry h a s r e c e i ve d i n o u r o wn d ay (B o tto m)
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p ar ti cul ar ly s t ro n g expre ss i on a t t h e cl o s e o f th e t h i r d b o ok I f th e .

p a r a llel w i t h t h e P h ce dr us h a d b ee n o b s e rve d i t woul d h a ve fo re s tal l e d ,

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t h e w o r k i s q ui t e d e s t i tut e o f a n y s t r i ct co m p o s i ti on ; t h at i t wa s
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a dd e d a gr e a t d e al o f h i s o wn o r co n fin e d h i m s el f t o i nt e rt w i n i n g two ,

s k e t c he s Th e fi r s t o f t he s e t he o r i e s i s m a i n t a i n e d b y I vo B run s
.

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m eth o d d i al o g u e t r i a d , S op h i s t, S ta te s m a n , P h i l eb u s
of th e They -
.

o ccu r i n t h e fo l l o w i n g p a s s a ge s , w h i c h a re d e al t w i t h by C a m pbell o n

p l i i o f h i s I n tr od u cti on t o th e S ta tes m a n : v i 7 5 1 A vi i 8 1 4 C a n d
. . . .

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, A, 9 , 990 8, 1 —
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pr o du cts ) Xe n o cr a t e s ap u d P r o cl um , I n P l a t P a r m en , p 1 3 6,
. . . .

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) T h e l a t er d e d u cti o n o f th e i d e a s fr o m m a t he

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.

pro ve P l at o a pre c urs or o f B erke l e y d o e s n o t s tr i k e m e a s s u cc e s s ful .

O n e o f h i s r e s ul t s th e c hr o n ol og i cal pr i o r i t y o f th e P h i l e hu s t o th e
,

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e st a bl i s he d .

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. .

a s an i n s t rum e n t o f ge n er a l e d u ca ti o n —a s e n ti m e n t n o t el s e w he r e

p arall el e d i n Pla to o r i n d ee d i n any o ther a n ci e n t a uth o r—o ccu r s i n ,

x i i 95 7 B C
.
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m y o p i n i o n m o s t i m p or tan t a n d fer t i le fa c t o r o f P l a t o s p ol i ti ca l
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t h o ugh t m ay w el l be i ll u s tr a t e d by a fe w q u o t a t i o n s
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a n d d e m o cr a c y t h e o n e s i d e d ex a gge ra t i on o f w h i c h i s exe m pl i fi e d by
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t he P er s i a n s an d t h e Athen i a ns B oth he c o n t e n ds h ave i n a m an n er .

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exper i e n ce d th e sam e fat e 611 6 1 3 6 l 30 8 A f 1 h7 0 8 881 6 0 1r 7 1 0 1! 00 6 0 ! ou 1 7 x! 1 0 0,

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w i th r efere n c e t o th e el e c ti o n of th e c o u nc i l 1 1 60 0 1 !
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01 11 0 v0 px 1 11 1 s 1 1 0 j . 1t al 01

0 8 11 61 ! 7 07 6 <pl 1
(vi 7 5 6 E ) . .

P a ge 2 50 (M i ddle )
Th e ele ct i o n o f th e c e n s o r s (6 17 911 1 1 0 1 ) i s t rea te d
.

o f i n b o o k x i i 9 45 B , s e
q Th a t t h e v o t e s a r e n o t s e c re t, I i n fer fro m
. .

t h e w o r d s , 81 ! 8 1 ! 611 0 0 7 0 3 0 157 83 1 1 13 7 73 7 0 1 1 r dv7 y 5 p 1 0 7 o1 ! 6 70 0 1 a k i n 0 8 7 0 17 ! .

Th i s l a s t l i m i ta t i o n c o ul d h a v e n o m e a n i n g i f there w ere n o m e a n s o f
c he cki n g t h e v o ti n g S uc h a m e a n s i s s u ppl i e d i f t h e v o t i n g t able t
.
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be a r s th e v o t er s ’
si gn a tu re . P re c i s ely t h i s reg ul a ti o n is foun d in vi .
 N O TE S A N D A D DI TI ON S .
3 75

7 5 3 C , w he r e th e e l e cti on o f t h e gua r d i a n s o f th e l aws i s i n q u e s t i o n

a n d t herefo re } s e e n o o bje cti o n a g a i n s t a ss um i n g t h a t t h i s m o d e o f

vo t i n g is e m p l at e d here to o Th a t e a ch vo t er coul d o nly vo t e fo r

co n t .

o n e ca n di d a t e i s cle a r fr o m t h e fi r s t w o r ds o f t h e a b o v e s e n t e n c e ,

e s pe ci a lly take n i n co nn ex i on w i th th e wo r d s wh i ch i m m e d i at el y pr e
c ed e 06 i; 0 m pa w o 1 1 61 s ti y 8p s
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q ue st i o n s of ele ct ora l t e ch n i q u e a r e n o t w h o ll y un fa m i l i a r th e w h o l e ,

s u b s e q u e n t pr o c e s s o f el i m i n a t i o n h a s m e a n i n g a n d pu rp o s e o n ly

o n t h i s s u pp o s i t i o n I f s p a c e pe rmi tt e d I s h oul d h a v e l i ke d t o p ut
.
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be fo re th e re a d er m o re o f th e a b un d an t m ateri a l s for co m p a ri s o n
wh i ch h av e bee n ki ndly p l ace d a t m y di s p o s al by Dr Le o W i ttmaye r . .

Th e v ote u n i q ue i s a s pe ci a l c a s e o f t h e v ote l i mi te wh i ch wa s i n us e a
'

s h o rt t i m e a go a t t h e e l e cti o n s o f I t a l i an d eputi e s i t ex i s t s to d ay i n -

B r a z i l fo r th e el e ct i on o f d ep uti e s a t H a m b u rg for th e e l e c t i o n o f ,

b urge s s co m m i ttee s b y th e w h ol e b o d y o f b ur ge s s e s (Th e Pla t o n i c .

ele ct i o n s y s t e m i s t re a t e d w i t h a c cur a cy ful n e s s an d i ns i gh t by , ,

D a re s t e i n th e An n u a i r e g r e cq ue s 1 88 3 p 6 5 s e q
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no t e t o p . Th om a s H a re Tli e E l e cti on of Repr e s e n ta ti ve s , ,

P a r l i a me n ta ry a nd M u n i e ip a l (Lo n d on ,
P a ge 2 51 (B o tt o m) . Th e p ur p o s e s o f p un i s h me nt ar e s tat e d i n
ix 8 5 4 D, 860 B , 86 2 ,
. 863 , a n d x i 9 3 4 A- B Th e sub je ct i s al s o
. .

t o uc he d on i n v 7 2 8 C . .

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P a ge ( 2 52 p ar .d umb j ud ge s a r e c o n d e m n e d i n t h r ee
Th e
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gr i s t t o th e mi ll of th e x wpi fow e s .
(B o t to m) H i p p odamu s cf. Vo l 1 . .

PP 41 0

P a ge e l C h d D i d 2 , i n i t , co m p a re d
53 ( B 2 o w) a r o n a s o o r us , x 1 1
. 1 . .

w i th L a w s , x i 93 0 B Fo r w h a t fo llo w s , cf i bi d , 93 0 C I n v i 7 7 4 E
. . . . . .

t here i s n o h i n t o f g i r l s h avi n g a ny vo i c e a t al l i n t he i r o wn di s po s al .

B ut i n 7 7 1 E a c ert a i n a m o un t o f s o ci a l i n t er cou r s e i s pre s c r i bed

be t ween y oun g pe o pl e befor e m arr i a ge (p ro b ab l y m o re t h an Atti c
c u s t o m re q ui r e d ) O n he i re s s e s , co m p a re x i 9 2 4 E w i th H erm an n
.
.

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.
I n th e R e .

6 8 B -C cf al so i i i 40 3 B F o r wh a t fo ll o w s , c f Refi ,
4 ; . . . .

-C
v. d
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g “ p a ss age of t h e s i th b oo k x i n th e e i gh th
P a e 2 54 In a .

b ook . vi 8
7 4 E — 7 85 A ; vi ii . 83 8 .

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2 C f a w . .
. .

666 A a n d v i i i 8 35 D E O n
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w h a t f o ll o w s , c f .
v i i i 8 3 7 ,
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ti fr m B
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un bel i ef of th e age . Th e
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. .

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w h i ch o f co u r s e w a s cl o s ely i n te rwo ve n w i t h th e p o pul a r b el i e f B u t

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. .

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.

15 m x .
90 3 .

P a ge 2 58 (M i ddl e ) . Th e pr o b l e m lo f th e wi ll .
”
O n Pl ato ’
s t he o ry
of th e w i ll , his on ly a pp a re n t i n d e t erm i n i s m an d th e ch a n ge s i n h i s
t he o ry ,
To b i a s W i l d a u e r h a s t h ro wn m uch l i gh t i n h i s m o d el b o ok ,

D i e P sy e lz o l og i e a e s W i l l e m oe i S aer a tes , P l a ton u n a A ms tote l es , i i

’ '
’
.

(I nn s b r u ck,
P a ge 2 60 (B o tt o m) “Th e m e d i ca l t re atm e n t o f c h r on i c d i s e as e s ”
. .

O n t h i s I a m referr i n g t o a w o rk c hr o no l o g i ca l l y n e ar t o th e L a w s ,
t h e Ti m a u s (89 C ) 81 8 «0 1 80 7 01 7 6 23 ! 86 ? 81 a l7 a 1 s 0 00 7 0 7 0 7 0 1 0 177 0, 1 1 0 0 80 0 1
'
!

81! 73 ex a m
Th e d el i gh t w i th w h i ch th e b a th s s u rr o u n d e d by
.

ple a s ure gr ou nd s a r e d ep i ct e d (vi 7 6 1 B - D) re m i n d s u s o f t he s i m i l ar

-
.

d e s c r i pt i on i n Cr i ti as , 1 1 7 A- B ; w e m a y bel i e v e t h a t w e a re h ere
c o n s ci o u s o f a per s on a l prefere n c e o f P l at o ’s .

P a ge 2 6 2 (e n d o f p ar “
Th e t r i u m p h o f m i s o l o gy
. an d

i n to ler an ce w a s n o t c o m p l e t e a t th e l a s t E v e n i n th e p a s s a ge w here .

he e re s t o figh t here s y wi t h th e a i d o f th e exe cu ti o n er, P l a to s d ee p

d s i ’

r o o t e d s e n s e o f t rut h w r i n g s fro m h i m th e c o n fe s s i on t h at un bel i e f

a n d m o ra l c o rru p t i o n d o n o t n e c e s s a ri ly o h d -i n - h a n d 1 5 7 01 1 1 8 1 ! 1 1 9
1
g a n
ffovn 06 0 8s 6 l 1 1 0 1 90 8 B)
y oju vb 1 7 0 1
1 01 7 0 1 ! il 60 s 801 0 1 0 1 5 (
X .
‘

B oo x V ~
.
—C H APTER XXI .

“
P a ge 2 65 (M i ddl e) . B aco n : cf N o v Org , 7 7 : . Turn de mum
. .

ph i IO S O ph i ae Ar i s t o t e l i s et P l a t o n i s , t a m q u am t a b ul ae ex m a t e ri a
”
l e vi o r e e t m i n us s o l i da , per fluct u s t e m p o rum s e rvat ae s un t , wi th
w h i c h m ay be co m p a re d th e pr a i s e of th e a n ti q u i or e s in 71 .

S c h o pe n h a u e r c f Kober , A r t/z u r S e kop e n lz a ue r s P fi i l os op lz i e , p 5 2

’
. . .

I t i s t r u e t h a t i n t h e p a s s age s t here q u o t e d o n l y Ar i s t o tl e i s n a m e d .

B ut th e err o r t here n am e d a s t h e m o s t fa t a l o f a l l , t h e ge o c e n t r i c
t he o ry w a s co mm o n t o Ari s t otl e a n d P l a to e qually w i t h th e
, ,
”
fun d a m e n ta l phy s i ca l t he o ry o f th e n atural pl a c e s .

P a ge 2 66 (To p ) P l a t o s s ervi c e s t o m a t he m a ti cs ar e i n s i s te d on
’
.

w i t h gre a t a r d o u r b ut a t t h e s a m e t i m e w i t h s t r on g e m ph a s i s o n h i s
,

m o re m e d i at e i n fl u e n c e i n s h a rp c o n t r a s t t o th e r e a l cre at o r s o f th e
,

s c i e n c e by E u d e m u s t h e h i ghe s t a u th o r i ty o f a n t i q u i t y i n h i s h i s t o ry
, , ,

o f ge o m e t ry (E u d e m i Fr ag me n ta 1 1 4 1 1 5 e d S p e n ge l ) Aga i n st th e , , ,
. .

err on e o us i n clu s i o n o f th e a ch i ev e m e n t s o f Ar ch yt a s Th e a te tus e tc , ,

.
,

i n th e c at eg o r y o f P l a t o a n d t h e Ac a d e m y All m a n h a s l a t e l y gi ve n
”
,
3 78

D e s ca rt e s , an d n ot l e s s th e e s s e n t i a l p o i n ts th at s ep a rat e t he m ,

t h o r o u gh l y i l l u s t r a t e d by D r H Le d er U n ter s u c/z u ng e n uber

'

are . .
,

A ugu s ti n s E r ke n n tn i s s t/z eor i e (M a rb u rg

’
p 7 6 s eq
, .
,
.

P age 2 7 1 P l ato s p u p i l s a r e t re a t e d t h o r ou gh l y by Z e ll e r
’

(1 1 1 42 0 s e q an d 9 86 s e q 4th
. .
,
.
, ,
.
, Th e pre s e n t wri t er h a s t r i e d t o
c o n firm t h e t r us t w o r t h i n e s s o f th e s ta t e m e n t t h a t D e m o s the n e s w a s a

p u p i l i n Z ei ts clz r f ur os te r r Gy m n p 8 1 9 s e q O n th e p o l i t i ca l
'

.
, . . .
,
.

a tt i tu d e o f c er ta i n P l a t o n i s t s an d a g a i n s t t h e i m a g i n a ry p i ct ure o f th e
,

Ac a d e m y a s a ki n d o f N a ti o n a lv ere i n s e e th e pre s e n t w ri te r s e s s a y
”
,
’

q u o t e d i n th e n o t e t o V o l I I p 2 7 2
. . . .
 I N D E X TO V O L S . II . AN D I I I .

N B —A
. . s i n th e I n dex to th e Fi r s t Vol u m e , t he f oll ow i ng r efer e n ces to th e tex t of
t h e war h a r e i n ten ded to ca r ry w i t h th e m r ef e r e n ces to th e cor r esp on d i ng

p or ti on s of th e Notes a nd Addi t i on s (Vol I I I pp 2 7 3 Th e au th or s’

. . .

i n di ces a r e r es er ved f or pu bl i ca ti on w i th th e fi n a l vol u m e .

wri ti gs 1 42
n 1 82 ,t eachers 1 1
11 .
, , .

1 82 te ach i ng i i 1 50 o th e god s , . n ,

Abel a rd , 1 1 1 7 5 , 1 86
. i i 1 6 5 ; p o l ti cs i i 1 5 4 ; o
. th e i , . n

Abs t ra c t i o ns , the hyp o s t a s y o f, 11 . 2 03 , n a t ure of a n i m al i 1 44 ; s, i . on

2 08 , iii 3 . pl a ure 1 2 1 7
e s , pre d i c t i o n
1 . on a

Aca d e m , y the
,
1 1 2 70 , 2 7 1 , . 2 72 , 2 73 , an d the th e ry o f k o wledge o n ,

iii 3 08
. ii . 1 83
Ad e i m an tus , 1 1 99, i ii 6 2 Ar t l s’ 9 7: 9 9 1 6, 5 3 1 3 43
g
1 1 4: 1 1 2

yi
. . ll .
1

tEs ch i ne s , th e S o c a i c, ii i rt . 2 5,
3 42 Ap t a ur i a , the ,
11 .
52
.

tEsch i n e s , the o rato r , 1 1 . 1 1 8 Ap o ll o do rus, i i 5 0 .

tEs ch yl us , i i 6 , 7 , 8 Ap o l o gy , P l a t o s , 1 1 8 5 ,
” ’
. . 1 00 , s eq .

g th l
A a o c e s , i ii 1 4 1 . Ara b i a, i i 4 .

th
Aga o n , i i 3 83 , 3 8 7
. Ara t us, i i 2 06 .

Ag a th yrs i , th e , i i i 1 7 9 . Arch e l a us o f M a ce do n i a , 1 1 .
46 , 60 ,
Age s 1 la us , i i 1 2 4, 3 8 1
.
7 3 1 94, 3 3 2 3 3 4 I
Agyrrh i us , i i 3 44 Archi d a m u s , 1 1 1 2 8
.

. .

l
A c i b i a de s , i i 4 7 , 5 0 , 7 2 , 9 5 , 1 1 4,
. Ar chyt a s, i i 2 43 , 2 5 9 , 2 60 , . 2 61 , 1 11 .

3 9 2 : 3 941 1 11 25 1 91
Al c1 d amas , i n 2 7 . Areo p ag us , the , 1 1 8 .

l
A cm ae o n , i i i 4 5 . Arg i n us ae , ba ttl e o f, 1 1 5 1 .

d Al e m b e r t, i i 2 2 4
’
. Ar1 s tar ch us o f S a m o s , i i 2 08 .

lx
A e a nd e r the r t
G e a , 1 1 1 9, 1 6 1 . Ari s ti d e s , i i 3 7 7 .

r
Al e x i n us o f M e g a a , i i 1 9 5 . Ari s t 1 pp us , i i 9 5 , 1 1 4, . 1 3 4,
tr
All -o n e , d o c i n e o f, i i i 1 1 . 1 5 8 ; l i fe a n d cha ra ct e r, i i . 2 1 1 ,

ltr
A ui s m , o f the Cy n i cs , 1 1 1 63 . 2 1 2 h i s e i cs , i i 2 1 3 —
th 2 1 5 .

t
d e duc i o n o f, ii 2 2 2 . th ry
eo of no k wl g
ed e, ii 2 3 1 .

ph t
Am i c yo n i c Le a ue , th e , 1 1 2 1 g . Ar i s to cl e s , i i 2 3 0 .

r
An ax ago as , i i 46 , 8 5 , 9 7 , i i i 43
. . Ari s to m a ch e , i i 1 1 3 8 .

x
An a i m and e , i i 3 7 r . r t
A i s on, 1 i 1 6 1 .

x e
Ana i m n e s , i i 1 5 8 . r t ph
A i s o ane s , co m e d i a n , the
“
An n i ce ri s , the Cyr e na i c, 1 1 2 2 1 , 2 2 2 .
9 4, 1 0 3 th e o ud s ,
”
ii 1 7 i n Cl .

th
An e m i o n, i i 3 7 1 . the y S m po s i u , i i
m ”
.

t
A n ig o n u s o f C ar s u s , 1 1 2 0 6 yt . ll Pl t
a us i o ns to a o ? i ii 3 40 , 3 4 1 .

t
An i go n us C o na a s, i i 2 0 6 , 2 0 7 t . r t ph e yz t
A is o a n s o f B a n i u m , i i 2 8 1 .

t th
An i s e n e s, i i 8 1 , 8 9 , 9 5 , 1 1 4, 1 3 9,
. r t tl wt
A i s o e , i i 4 7 , i i i 1 3 2 h i s i ne ss
. .

1 9 7 , 2 44. 2 9 3 , 3 5 6 , i i i 2 5 , 9 1 , 1 4 5 , . on the rt
te a c h mg o f S o c a e s , 1 i 5 5 , .

1 4 7 , 1 5 2 , 1 5 9 , 1 6 1 , 1 6 2 , 1 64 , 1 66 , 5 6 5 9 , 60 6 4. 6 9. 89 . 1 04 ; o n
1 70 , 1 7 8, 1 8 5 , 3 5 0 ; hi s i e , 1 1 1 42 ; lf . th e M g a i an s, ii e r 1 7 1 , 2 03 ; on .
 I NDE X TO VOLS . II . AND I I I .

C ra tyl us , C r i ti as , i i
11 . 2 53 ; on . C a nn o nu s, d e c re e o f, 1 1 . 54
251 on Archy as , i i 2 60 ; o n t . C a rn e ade s , 1 i . i ii 2 67
.

P t
la o s li fe, i i 2 69 , 2 7 3 o n th e
’
. C ve P la to s i i i
a ,
” ’
, . 86 , s eq .

o ri gi n o f th e d o c ri n e o f i de a s, t Ce nso rs i i i 2 5 0 , .

i i i 2 ; h i s re fere n ces a e s
. th e tt t C e r ci d as , i i 1 5 7 .

g ui n e n e ss o f l a o s or s , i i
e n
’
P t w k . C h mr e ph o n , i i 5 0, 1 0 1 , 1 0 5 , 3 0 1 .
, 3 26
2 78 p upi l o f l a o , i i i 2 66 ; h i s P t . C h ar mid e s , d i a l o gu e , 1 i 3 00 ,
”
. se
q .

v w
i e s o n p o e ry, i i i 1 1 6 rhetori c, t . C h a r mi d e s , i i 5 0 , 3 01 .
, iii.
i i 3 2 8 ; plea s ure, p ai n , an d h a ppi
.

n e ss , i i 2 2 7, i i i 1 29. c ri i ci z e s . t C h i n e se e thi cs , 11 . 83
P t
l a o s p o li i cal s ci e n ce, i i i 1 1 8 ,
’
t . Chrysi ppus i i 1 93 , .

1 1 9, 1 2 0 o n he h i s o ry o f ci i l i z a t t v C i ce ro i i 2 00 i i i 2 5 o n S o cra tes
, .
, .

t
i o n , i ii 2 3 3 o n s l a e ra i d s , i i 2 0
. v -
. an d Ari s t i pp u s i i 2 1
3 , .

h i s e legy o n E u dem us , ii 7 1 hi s . Cl e an thes i t 7 1 7 3 , .

,

R u les f o r he Ta ble, i i 2 7 4
”
t . C l i n o ma ch us o f Th um 1 1 2 0 5 , .

Ari s to x e n us , ii i 43 . Cl i s then e s i i 1 8 3 9 , .
,

Ar t, ii i 1 0 2 , seq . . C o m m un i s m i i i 1 1 8 1 1 9 P l a t o s , .
,
’

t
Ar s a n d p s eud o -arts, u 3 3 9 . relati o n to i i i 1 06 , .

Asp a s i a , i i i 3 43 . C o m te i i i 1 2 2 , .

t
Asso c i a i o n (i n p sycho l ogy ), i i i 46 . C o n fu ci us i i 8 2 , .

t
As r o n o my, i i i 8 3 , 8 5 . C o n t radi cti o n pro bl e m o f 1 1 1 8 5 , , .

t
A h e ns an d he A he n i an s, i i 2 7 , 3 0 , t t . C o penh age n b o m bardm en t o f i i 2 5 , , .

se
q co n ras
. t t wt
i h S p a r a, i i 40 ; t . C o rp o reali ty a s hi n drance to kn o w ,
’
t
S oc ra e s o p i n i o n o f, i i 3 09 . l e dge i i i 1 1 , .

t t t
A l a n i s , a le o f, i i i 2 0 4, seq . . C o urag e d e fin1 t1 o n o f 1 1 2 9 7 s eq
, , .
, .

t
A o mi s m, i ii 1 7 1 . C rat es i i 1 5 2 1 5 3
, 1 58
. 1 62 1 65 , , , , ,

t
Augus i n e, S t , i ii 2 69
i
. . I
9
v
A es ta, he, i i i 1 2 t .
”
C r tyl us , di a o u , 1 1 1 1 64 l g e .

C r a tyl us, i i 2 5 2 , 2 5 3 , 2 66 , i i i 2 , 1 64
. .

Cre t the
a i o n, i n
”
T1 mmus , i ii 2 09 .

Pl t v w
a o s
’
ie o f th e , i i i 3 6 5 .

r te p l t l
C e , o i i ca i n s i u i on s o f, 1 1 1 9 1 , tt t .

Ba co n , Franci s 1 1 , .
57
B al an ce o f p o wer , th e , i i i . 2 35 C ri ti as , d i al o g ue , 1 1 1 2 00 , s eq
”
. .

B a n a u s i c o ccu a i o n s , i i i 2 4 p t . C ri ti as , i i 5 1 , 5 6 , 9 6, 1 1 4, 1 1 8, 2 50 ,
.

rb r reek
B a a i an s , a i ud o f G s to tt t e 2 5 1 , 2 5 2 , 3 0 1 , i ii 2 4, 2 5 , 1 1 1 .

wra ds , i i 1 9 . C r i to , di a l ogu e , i i i 49, s eq

”
. .

e ty
B a u , th e I de a o f, 1 1 3 92 ma . le C ri to b ul us, i i 6 1 .

b ty
e au , ii 3 02 . w
Cr o m e ll , O l i e r, 1 1 43 v .

B egg r w llet
a s
’
the y
a , of C n i cs , 1 1 1 5 3 . t
C ur i us, E rn s , i i 3 2 , 3 4 t
J re y
.

t
B e n ha m , e m , i i 2 1 6 , 2 1 9 , 2 2 4, . t
C yni cs , he , i i 1 3 9, seq , 1 1 1 1 1 6 . . .

m od e o f l i fe, i i 1 5 1 h e i r re l i g i o n , . t
k
B e r e ley, G e o rge, i i 1 8 7 , 2 3 4 ii
Jk
. .

B e rnays , a o b , i i 1 64 . C yren ai cs , he i r he o ry o f no ledge, t t k w

B i o n o f B o rys th e n i s , i i 1 48, 1 5 2 , 1 64, . i i 2 2 9 , seq
. o f se ns a i o n , i i .23 9 t .

1 6 5 , 2 43 , 2 44 t t
C yre n e , s i ua i on a n d h i s o ry o f, i i t .

B e ck h , A ugu s , 1 1 1 2 1 3 t . 2 0 9, 2 1 0
t
B o n i z , H e r mann , i i 2 0 4 , 3 6 5 , i i i 4, . .

40
Byron , Lo rd, 1 1 1 49 .

D aemo n o f S ocrat e s the 1 1 8 7 ”

, , .

Delphi and the Delphi c o racl e i i 2 1 , .

,

1 05 1 65 i ii
, 1 2 ; co n s u l t e d by
, .

C ae sari sm , 11 . 1 33 S o crate s ii 87 by Xeno pho n , . ,

C all i a s , i i 3 0 8 . ii 1 2 0
.

C a ll i m achus , 11 . 2 1 1 D e me i us tr o f Ph al e ru , 1 1 . 2 42 m
C alli pp us i i i , . 1 3 8, 39 1 D rge the
e miu ,
”
, i ii . 2 1 1 , 2 1 2

C a l l ix e n us, i i 52 ,.
54 De mo cra cy i i i 9 3 , .
, 94
 I N DE X TO VOL S . II . AND I I I .

H ed o n i s m , 11 .
3 49 of Ari s t i pp us , J un
g S i ll i ng, 1 1
-
8t8 .

ii . 2 1 8 of P l at o, ii 3 . 2 2 , s eq . J us t1 ce , d e fi n i i o n o f, ii i 5 5 , t . se
q .

H e ge s i as , i i 2 2 1 .

H e l i con o f Cyz i cus , i i i 1 3 7 .

H elleni c r a ce , co n sci o usn ess of i ts

ty 1 2 0
un i , 1 .

H el m ho l t z i i 2 3 9 , . Kan t , 11 . 2 49 ; on rel i gi on , 11 .
3 66 ,
H e l o ts i i 2 7 , .
3 67
H e l ve t i i i 2 2 4 iii us, .
, . 1 09 Ke pl e r, i i i 2 1 7 .

H e r cl e s as pa t ro n
a s ai n t of Kn o wl e dge , the o ry o f, i i i 1 5 7 s eq .

Cyn i cs i i 1 5 1 1 66 , .
, d i s t i n gu i she d fro m ri ght o p i ni on ,
H e ra cl i de s , i ii 1 40 . n 3 72 , o
3 74: 3 93
H e ra cl i t us , i i 3 8 5 , i ii 2 . .

H e rba rt , J
F i i 1 7 1 , 1 7 7, 1 88. .

H e ro-wo rshi p, i i 3 3 3 , 3 3 4 .

H e ro do t us, i i 5 , 8 , 1 2 , 1 7 , 2 0, .

3 8, 90 , 2 08 , 3 9 1 , i i i 1 0 3 , 1 1 9 . La as , E rns , 1 1 2 3 7
“
t .

H i pp ar chi a, i i 1 48 , 1 5 8, 1 6 2 . L a che s , ”
d i a l o gue , 1 1 2 9 6 .

“ H i pp i as ” the less er d i a l ogu e

, , , L an guag e , he o ri e s o f, i i 2 04 , 1 1 1 t . .

9 1 , seq
2 . 1 6 4, s eq .

H i p p i as o f E l i s , 1 1 1 5 , 2 2 3 , 3 1 5 w t
he, di a l ogue, 1 1 1 2 2 7, seq
”
. La s, . .

H i pp o cra es , i i 3 5 t . t
Le gi s l a i o n , i ii 2 3 9, seq . .

H i p p o d am us o f M 1 l e tus, 1 1 1 3 5 . L e i b n i z, i i 2 2 4 t .

H o bbe s , i i 2 3 0 . Le o da ma s , i i 2 60 .

H o lba ch, i i 2 2 4 . Le o n o f S al a m i s , i i 5 1 .

H o mers i i 3 1 41 5 1 2 0 ; 2 2 1 3 51 : 1 461 Le s ser H i pp i as, ” d i a l ogu e, 1 1 2 9 1 , .

3 9 1 , i i i 1 03 .

H o rn e d M an , th e , fall acy , 1 1 . 1 94 L e u ci pp us, 11 . 2 3 0, 2 3 2

H u mb o l d , W v o n , i i 3 8 t . . Li a r, t
he, falla cy, i i 1 92
”
.

H um e , D a i d , i i i 2 6 7 v . t
Li mi ed mo n archy, i i i 2 49 .

H u r n d al l , W F , i i i 2 7 9 . . . t
L i ngui s i c c ri e ri a , i i i 2 9 t
J
.

t
H yp o hese s , i i i 3 7 . k
L o c e, ohn , ii 1 8 7 , 2 3 0 .

t
L ogi c, he b e gi nn i n gs o f, 1 1 3 1 8 ; . Of
th e Cyren ai cs , i i 2 3 7 .

L uci an , i i 1 5 5 , 1 6 5 .

Lyco n , i i 9 9, 1 1 6 .

I de a s , P l a to s doctri n e o f
7 6, 1 80 ,
’
,
1 1 . 1 Ly co phr o n, i i 1 7 9, 2 0 6 .

3 5 2 , i i i r , s eq , 2 8, 46 , 8 5 , s eq ,
. . . Lys i as , i i 1 1 8 , i i i 1 6 , s eq , 3 2 6
. . .

I SO , I 7 3 1 I 7 S9 1 8 1 ; 2 47 1 3 5 5 Lys i s, di al o gu e , i i 3 8 2 , s eq
”
. .

I n duct i on , S o cra ti c , i i 5 6 .

I nh e ren c e , pro bl e m o f, 1 1 1 7 5 , s eq ,
”
. .

1 8 2 , i ii .
3
In t e llec tua l i sm 66 ,
11 .

In t e rn ati o na l m o ra l i ty an d l aw , 11 . M a ch , E rns t , 1 1 2 3 5 , 2 40 .

59 M a gni fice n ce , i i i 1 1 2
”
.

v t
I n o l un a ry erro r , 1 1 2 94 . M a n i n D i sgu i se, fall a cy, 1 1 1 9 3
”
.

I o n o f C hi o s , i i 4 6 . M a the m at i cs an d m a them a ti ca l t ruth ,

I o n i a n s , cha ra c e ri s ti cs o f he, 1 1 . 3 6 t t i i i 8,. s eq .
, 2 3
I sme ni as, i i 3 7 1 . M a tte r, t doctr i e s o f
an ci e n 23 6 n , 11 . ,

t
I so cra e s , i ii 2 2 , 2 5 , s eq , 1 45 , 1 46 . . i ii 2 1 1
. P l at o s d ct i o f i i i 3 66 ’
o r ne , .

t t
I a ly o f he R en ai ssan ce , i i i 1 4 . M e ch n i cs hi sto ry o f i i i 84
a , , .

M e g ra s i tuat i on a nd hi s t o ry o f 1
a , ,
1 .

1 71
e
g a ri an sc ho o l the , , 11 . 1 70 , seq . ,
1 11 4S1 2 5 3I
J
0

oe l K i i i 2 80 e l e a e r, i i
g 1 65
J
, .
, . .

o hn o f D a m as cus i i i 2 68 M e l e tus, i i 9 7 , s eq 1 0 4, 1 1 6 , 3 58
J
.
, . .
,

u dg m e n t o f the d e a d th e , , ii .
3 40 , M e li ss us, i i 1 74 .

3 41 l
M e os , i i 2 5 .
 I N DE X TO VOLS . II . AN D I I I .
3 83

M e nan de r, i i i 1 0 . P e re gri nus th e Cyni c 1 1 1 5 2 , .

M e n e de mus o f E re t ri a , 1 1 . 2 0 5 , 2 06 , P e ri cl e i i 4 1 43 7 2 3 2 4 3 2 7 3 2 9
s, . , , . ,

2 08 , 2 4 1 Per i s thei r be l i e f i th e d i vi i ty
s an ,
n n
M e n e de mus o f Pyrrh a , 1 1 . 2 73 f the su n e tc i i i 1 0
o , .
, .

M e n e x e n us , i i i 4 8 . Phae d o di al ogue i ii 3 0 eq ,
”
, .
, s .

M e n i p p us , i i 1 6 5 . P h ae do o f E l i s 1 2 0 5 , 1 .

M e n o , ” d i a l o gue , 1 1 .
3 6 7 , s eq P haedr s d i al o gue 1 1 1 1 6 s eq i ts
u ,
”
, .
,
.

c hro n o l o gi ca l o s i ti o n o f, i i 3 74 . m i s e en s cene , i i 2 69 .

M e tro c l e s , i i 1 4 1 5 8, 1 9 5 . P h e i do o f C o ri n h, i i i 1 1 7 t .

M i le tus , i i 3 0 , 3 3 , 43 Ph e n o m e n a l i s m , i i 2 1 1 , i i i 2 98
J
. . .

M i ll , a mes , i i 2 2 8 , 2 3 4 Ph i l e b u s , ” d i a l ogu e , i i i 1 8 6 , s eq
J
. . .

M i ll , o hn S t uart, i i 3 8, 7 8 , 1 1 1 , 2 3 5 , . Phi l i ppus o f O pus, ii i 2 2 6 .

i i i 5 , 8 , 1 00
. Ph i l i s tus , i i i 1 3 5 .

M i tyl e ne, ii 2 6 . Phi l od e m us, i i 2 3 7 .

M i xed co n s t i tut i o ns, i ii 2 3 3 , s eq . . Phi l o l aus o f C o ri n h, 1 1 1 43 , 94, 1 88, t .

M o ni m us , i i 1 5 8 . 2 0 9, 2 2 0 , 2 2 1
M o n tai gn e, i ii 2 6 7 . Phi lo soph rs r ule o f 1 80 e , , 11 .

M o n tesq ui e u, i i . 2 1 3 , i ii . 2 34 P hi l os o p hi c n a ture the i ii 8 1 8 2 , , .

,
M o s chi o n, i i 2 0 . Pho ci o ii 1 5 8 n, .

M urd er, exp i at i o n o f, 1 1 4 . Ph yn i ch us hi s “ cap t ure of M i le tu s

r
, ,

M us i c , i i i 6 8 ; o f t he Gre eks ,
. 11 .
35 1 1 .
3 0
My s ti ci s m, i i 2 5 0, i i i 2 68 . . P i ety nat ure o f 1 1 3 59 s eq
, , . , .

P i da r i i 7 3 5 6
n , .
,

Pi is trat us i i 3 4 3 8
s , .
,

P l ataea tre at men t o f by the S p artan

, ,
s,

1 1 . 24
N a tu a r l places , do c ri n e t o f, i i i 84,. Pla to bi rth and, fa m i ly, 1 1 . 2 50 ; l ife ,

2 23 ii 2 50, 3 3 , seq
s eq ra e l s , i i
iii 1 t v .

N t re d C v ti
. .
, . .

a u an
333 on en on, 1 1 2 5 4, seq i n E gyp , i i 2 5 6 , seq t
N t re religi f the G r k i i i
. . . .

a u - on o ee s, . 1 3 Cyr e n e, i i 2 5 8 ; I aly, i i 2 5 9 ; t
N e e ry tr th i i i 6 q
. .

c s sa u se . S i ci ly, i i 2 6 1 , i i i 1 3 3 . so ld as a .

N g t i pr bl m f i i i 7 7
, .
,
e a on, o e o , 1 0, 1 1 v
s l a e , i i 2 69 hi s fin an c i a l po s i i o n , t
N wt I
. .

e on ,i i 47 sa a c, i i 2 72 ; hi s e a che rs , i i 2 5 2 , 2 5 8 ; t
N i i ii 9 6 3 3 3 5 5
. . .

c a-S s 21 i nfl ue n ced by Archytas , i i 2 5 9 by

N i eb h r i i 5
° .
9

u , . 2 1 t
I s o cra e s , i i i 2 7 ; b y S o cra es , i i t .

N t r l C i l the i ii 48
.

oc u n a o un c 2 47 , 2 88, 2 89, 2 94. 2 9 5 ; b y H e ra

N mi li m i i 7 7 8
, , .

o na s , . 1 1 1 c li te an s , i i 2 5 2 , 2 5 3 by th e O rp h i cs
.

N mb r the P l t i i i i 9
,

u e , a o n c, . 1 an d P t
y h ago re ans, i i 2 5 9, 3 3 6, 3 5 1 , .

3 5 2 , 3 64, i 1 i 3 7, 2 1 5 , 2 2 1 , 2 2 3 , 2 3 3 ,.

2 47 h i s fa mi ly pri d e, ii 2 5 0 hi s .

co n e m p t t
for he l o e r o rders , i i i t w .

1 0 7, 1 08 h i s con e mp fo r he t t t
“ ba n
(E n o maus o f Ga da a , 1 1 1 6 5 r . au s i c, i i 8 1 , i i i 2 4 ; h is . .

l r hy
O i ga c , i ii 9 2 , 9 3 . as ce i c t t
end e ncy, i i i 2 8 ; h i s i n .

ly p
O m i a, i i 2 1 . t
o l e ra n ce , i i i 1 7 9, 2 4 8 , 2 5 5 , 2 9 1 ; .

O rph i ci s m , i i 3 3 6 . 3 5 2 , 3 5 5 .
. v t
hi s s e e r i y, i i i 1 1 5 , 1 1 6 , 1 2 7 hi s .

1 1 , 1 2 , 1 4, 2 08 , 2 1 0 pessi mi sm , i i i 2 1 4 ; un e m o i ona l . t
t
o n e i n e a rly d i a l o gu e s , i i 3 24 ; .

t t t
he aes he i c i mp ul se , i i i 3 5 ; hi s .

v t
l o e o f n a ural b e au y, i i 2 69 h i s t .

“ r
d e a d o f fri c i o n , i ii 1 2 1 ; hi s t .

Paley , 11 . 223 t
ma he ma i cal s udi es a n d be n , i i t t t .

Pa n mti us , i i i 2 9 1 . 2 5 8. 3 3 5 , 3 3 6 , i i i 2 1 7 , 2 48 ; h i s .

P a rm e n i d e s ,
”
d i a l ogue , ii i 1 48 , seq . . t
c a p ac i y fo r se lf-c ri i c i s m an d s elf t
Pa r me n i d e s , i i 1 7 4 , h i 2 , 3 4, 1 70. . co rre c i o n , i i t 2 7 7, i i i 3 7 , 1 84 . .

P t
a r he n o n, th e , i i
35 . t
fo unds he Acad e my, i i 2 69, 2 70 ; .

Pa usa n i as , Ki n
g o f S par a , 1 1 2 0 t . t
a s l e c urer, ii 2 7 3 ; hi s ass i s an s , . t t
P t
erce p i on and n o l e dge , i i i 1 5 7, k w . i i 2 73. i n fl ue n ce o f h is e ach i ng t
seq . v t
o ca i o n o n hi mse lf , i i 3 7 3 , seq . .
 8
3 4 I N D E X TO VOLS . 11 . A ND 1 1 1 .

his i nfl ucnoc on thc world , ii . 2 49 , on tt e ga ri ans , ii . 1 71 ; on

S o cra te s , ii .

62 . 8 7 . 88 . l oo
a u th e n tid ty of thc s attri b ut e d
w
k r

vi cw s o f Ari s ti ppus , Bcntha m, an d

ch r on o log y his wo rks , ii . 2 54, M il l on, ii . 2 1 6
2 7 5, 501 q 48 : wro te a
1
trag e dy ? ii . 2 52 ; gcn cral vi c w of P oe try , 111 . 1 00 , seq .
, 1 1 6
P o l us on ri g cn tnm i i 3 2 6 .

Pol ycra tcs wr o tc agai ns t S o cra te g u .

6 3 . " 4. " 8, 3 4 3 . 3 94, 1 7

i nfl uence
°
of his li fc on
h is P l
o yx e n us , ii i 1 5 1 , 3 47 .

wo rks , 1 1 1 1 8 h 15 1 11 . 1 1 7

mncs
'

2 28 ; ch arac te r of hz s
hi 11 . 1 75, s eq .
,

ph a s q t ii . a rti sti c 97 , m 3 .
1 .

Prooe d m le g al , i n
3 9 3 1 3 1 4 45 5 2 , 5 3 1 66 1 70 1 7 1 1 1 5 5 1 2 52 , s: eq .

8 2 2 9, 2 3 ,
6 Prodi cus 1 i 2 42 . 3 1 4, . l 03

3 3 7 , 3 5 9 ; his his t or i ca l se ns c, iii . P t

r o me he us, l e g end O f, 1 1 1 45 1 I 5 3 .

“ Pro a oras ” di a l o u e i i
t
g . g , 3 0 3 , 3 6? .

“7 0 3° ; Pm ta goms i L Ss. 92 , 9 94, 9 7 . 1 44.

'

l 7o 1 0 4, g cra non ,
1 cx a
g
1 29 , tcn dcncy to o utb m
d ii . 2 3 1 , 2 3 3 , iii 1 03 , t 5 .

Pun i s hme n t, pur pgec Of, 1 1 1 2 5 1 .

h umo ur ,i1 1 . 1 72 p la ys on wo rds, Pythagor ea ni sm, ii 2 5 9, i ii 3 4, 1 99, . .

“1 2 1 9 ; in a Y, I fi “fi t“ ; 3 1 51 2 2 3 1 2 3 3
3
°

6 L1 12 1 6 6 6 6 3 1 3 .
3 8 , 4s 46. 7 s. 1 7 2 . 1 9 1 . x 93 ;
i n tonc and scn ti me n t, 1 i .

2 7 9 ; hi s ne an s t a o he t t
C yn i cs , i i 3 5 6 ;
”

. re la ion t o t Re a li sm, 11 . 1 77 , 1 81
£ 1 60c iii 1 7 3 , 1 75 ; his r c .

t
li g io n and he o l ogy, ii i 66 , 2 5 6 .
° “
Re p ubli c, di a l og ue , "
seq
hi s et hi cs , 1 ii 3 6 , so ; rel a i on to . t m t
rear range en th e o ry o f i ts co m
m
H e doni s and uti l i tari ani s m, ii 7 9,
ii i 1 1 3 ; on pun i s h mcn t,
.
.
posi no m m
t t
Rhe o ri c, de fini i o n and na ture of,
ii 3 1 1 , 3 1 7 ; on th e no tion of 1 h c
. ii 3 2 7 , s eq ;
. la o s vi e ws on,
’
. P t
i ii 2 0 , 1 eq
. . .

t t
Ro a i o n o f the ear t h, no wn to k
, on p l cas ur c, 1 1 1 . Pl a t o ? ii i 3 1 5 .

P h tonic cr o g ii 391 .
, Rous se a u, i i 1 42 , 1 4 5, 1 48, .

Rmfi an pm mm ii 1 48 .

S acd ficq ii 3 6 2 .

Athe n s and con te m orar p y po li ti cs , Schl e i ermach er , ii 2 3 1 , 3 7 4, 3 76 , 3 7 8 .

sl a very . ii i Sch oo ls o f phi l o s o p h y iu .

Sc hO pcn ha ucr , i 1 i 1 1 é
.

comm uni sm, ii i . e d uca Sci en ti fic clas mfica uon , iii 1 7 7 , 1 78 .

B3 1 “!
me dsa nq un 1 1 5, 1 1 6 ; a w nx cc of Si mo ni des , pocm of, 1 1 3 1 5, seq . .

i nforma ti o n on Ari sti ppus , ii 2 3 1 ; . Sla vc7 y, iii 1 o7 ; at Ath cnS , ii

.
z 7
 h i s l i fe , 1 1 . 1 1 9, se q . not

of the Te n Th u an d i i 1 2 2 ; h i s o s , .

Vi rtue, co i n ci den t wi th happ i ness ,

l i fe i n r e ti rem en t i i 1 2 4 h i s ch a , .

i i 3 54 ; p ossi b i l i
. ty o f t ea chi g i t n ,
r cte r i i
a 1 1 9
, .i n t elle ct l d e fe cts ua ,

ii .
3 1 1 , 3 1 2 . 3 70 , 3 72 1 26 h i s re l i gi on i i 1 3 5 s ap o , . a

Vo l n ey, i i . 2 23 l o gi s t o f S o cr t e s i i 1 1 4 3 9 5 h i s
a , .
,
”
t
Vo l ai re , i i . 2 44 (Eco n omi cus , i i 6 2 , 1 1 9, i i i . .

1 26 y p
S m o s i um , i i 6 2 , 1 2 7 .

rbl
”
M e m o a i i a , i i 6 3 , 7 5 , 79 , 1 3 6 .

“ H e l l e n i ca ” i i 1 2
, 3 , 1 28
“
to . Cy
p ae d i a ,
”
i i 1 3 1 o . i i n s, ther wr t g
W e ll -bei ng t i on o f 1 3 3 6
, no , 1 . ii 1 3 3 , 1 3 4
.

W i n e P l t o o n the u se o f i l
, a s , l . 2 3 1

W o m e n , i i i 7 7 , 7 8, . 1 1 5, se
q .
, 1 2 4
W o rl d so ul , the, i i i
-
. 2 1 3 ,
2 1 6

Zal mox i s , n 3 02 .

Zen o o f E lea, i i . 1 88, 1 95 , 2 44,

Xe n i ade s , 1 1 . 1 56 I 49s seq .

Xe no crat es i i 2 74 i i i 1 3 7 , .
, . t
Zen o he S o i c, 1 1 t . 1 95 , 2 04
Xe o ph anes i i 1 4 8 9 3 6 9
n , . , , ,
iii . 1 0, Z e us , co n cei e d as v judge , ii .
56
1 1 ,
2 09 Z o l a , ii i 2 0 5 , 3 6 3
.

Xen pho no , ii .
5 3 , 5 6, 5 7 , 5 9 , 60 ,
2 0, Z o ll n er, i i i 1 7 9 .

61 ,
62 , 6 3 , 6 4, 7 2 , 7 3 , 7 4 , 7 6 . 8 1 , Zo p yr us , i i 48 .

83 , 86 , 8 7 , 90 , 9 6 , 3 82 , i i i . 1 1 8 t
Zo ro as ri a n i s m , i ii . 1 2

E N D O F VO L . III .

P RI NTE D B Y W I LL I AM C L O W E S A N D S O NS , L I M I TE D , LO N D O N A N D B EC CLE S .
 Mr Murray s Works .
’
on Ph i loso phy .

E LE ME NTS OF PHI LOS OP H Y B y G EO RG E C RO O M RO BE RTS O N l ate

E d i t d fr m N o t
. ,
r
G o te Pr f r U v rsi ty Co esso ni e o ll e ge , Lo n d o n o f Le t ur
e o es c es

L
, .

de li e v r d t t h C ll g 8 7 By (M r s C A F R YS D AV I D S
e a e o e e , 1 0- 1 8 92 . .
) O .EY H . ,

M . A C w 8 o 3 6d
. ro n v ,
s. .

THE E LE ME NTS OF MORAL PHI LOS OPHY . By M O H I T C H AN D RA

S E N. M A . .
, Pr o fe s s o r o f R p on Colle ge i , I nd i a . L a rg e r
c o wn 8 vo , 3 s . 6d .

A P RI MER OF P HI LOS OPHY . By A . S . R AP P O PO RT, P h D . . W i th

an I n de x 8 vo , 1 3Fo o l s c ap
g
. .

“
An e x ce e d i n l y a b l e s u m m ar y h i l o s o ph y i s d ifficu l t , e en t o t h o s e w h o P v
e x p o un d i t ; b u t M r Ra
pp o p o r t h as s ucce e de d i n S i m p l i fyi n i t w h e re S i m p l i fica t i o n w as
.

— g
g g
.

p o s si b l e W .e h o p e to re a d i t a a i n a n d a ain
”
A cad e my . .

THE E LE ME NTS OF ETHI CS B y J O H N R M U I R H E AD, B a i o . . ll l C o ll e ge ,

x r
O fo d , Le c u e t rr o n M o a l S c i e n ce r
R o a H o l l o wa o le ge E , yl yC l , x a m i ne r i n

Ph i l o s o p h t o th e y U ni e si v r ty
o f G l a s go w o wn 8 vo , 3 s . Cr .

THE P HI LOS OPH Y OF THE BEAUTI FUL . By P r fe sso ro KN I G H T,

U ni v r ty e si of S t An d . re ws . I n t wo p a r t s. Cro wn 8 vo , 3 s. 6d . e a ch .

S E LE CT PASSAGES FROM THE I NTRODUCTI ONS TO P LATO .

B y B E NJ AM I N J o w ar r M A E d i t e d b y L E W i s C AM P B E
'

, . . LL ,
M A , LL . . . D .

W i th a P t r it Fo l
or a . o s ca p 8 vo , 2s . 6d . n e t.

P LATO S
’ ‘
REPUB LI C .
’
By P ro fe s r s o LEW I S C AM P B E LL , H on . F e llo w
of B a ll i o l Co l l O x fo rd W i th I l l tr a ti o n s . Fo o lsca p 8
—S ; 5
e ge us vo , 2 5 .
,

g g
.

P r o fe s s o r Ca m p b e l l ha s d o ne o o d s e r v i ce i n w r i t i n t h i s e x ce l l e n t b oo k .
”
e c ta
An e x ce l le n t a d d i t i o n t o t h e H o m e a n d S c h o o l L i b r a ry Th e s ke t c h of the
P —
.

”
a n d d e ve l o p m e n t o f M o m z ng P os t
’
l a t o s w o r k i s a dm i ra b l e
°

p ur p os e . .

Works of Inte re st to Gre e k Stude nts .

THE GREAT, PERS IAN W AR AND I TS PRELI MI NARI ES . A

St dy f t h Ev d
u oLi t e i e n ce , e ra ry a n d To p o g ra p h i ca l . By G B G RU ND Y , M A . . . .
,

L t r t Br
e c u re C ll a a s e n o se o e ge , and U n i e rs i y L e c u v t t rr C e in l as s i ca l G eo g a p h r y .

W th M p i d I l l tr t i a s an us a o ns D em y
8 vo , 2 1 5 n e t
g g
. . .

I t i s b u t s e ld o m t h a t w e h a ve t h e p r i v i l e e o f r e vi e w i n so e x ce l le n t a w o r k i n Gr e e k
h i s t o ry g
Th i s b o o k o n t h e r e a t w a r w h i c h fr e e d G r e e ce fr o m t h e a tta cks o f P e rSi a W i l l
—
g
.

l o n r e ma i n t h e s ta nd ar d w o r k o n t h e s u bj e ct T/i e A th e me u m
"
. .

A HI STORY OF GREECE . Fro m th e E a rl i e s t P e ri d to the cl o se o of

Al e xa n d e r t h e G re a t . By G EO RG E G RO TE . Wi th P rtr t M ap s a d Pl
o ai , , n a ns .
1 0 v lso .
sr . e a ch .

GREECE I N THE AGE OF P ERI CLES

C l C
o l e ge , a m b i d ge , r a nd S t a ff Le c ture r i n
. By A G RAN T, Ki n g s
t y
H i s o r to t h e U a CI S l l y o f
.
J .

'
’

C r
a mb i d ge Wi h I Cr w 8 vo 3 6 d
. t llu tra t o
s i ns . o n , 5 . .

THE I LI AD OF HOMER Re n d e re d i n t o E n gl i sh B l a n k Ve rse B y the . .

Ea rl o f D E RBY Portr i t 2 vol s C own 8 vo . a . . r , 1 05 .

THE ODY S SEY OF HOMER B o o k s I —V I I I Tran sl a te d i n t o E ngl i sh

‘ ’

V
. . .

e rs e b y J W M AC KAI L fo rme rly Fe ll ow o f Ball io l C o ll e ge O xfo rd

. .
, , .

C ro w n 8 vo , sr . ne t .

HERODOTU S C a n o n RAW L I N S O N S Tran sla ti o n W i th the

Th e Te x t of
’

N t s b dg d fo r th e u s e o f S tud e nts By A j G RANT M A o f K g s

. .

'
o e a ri e . . .
, . .
, in
C ol le ge C m b r d g ; Pro fe s r f H i t ry Y rksh re Co lle ge Le d s ; t h o r
, a i e s o O s o , o i , e au
of G re e c e i th Ag o f P e
‘
le s W i th M p a n d Pl a ns 2 vo l s Cro w
n e e nc .
’
a . . n
8 vo , 1 2s
g g
.

Th e d e l i h t fu l p a Gre e k w h o s e fla vo ur h a s b e e n s o a d mi r a b l y p r e se n te d
e s of th e o l d
b y C a no n R a w l i n s o n W i ll t h u s b e m a de a c ce s s i bl e t o a fa r w i de r ci r cl e t h a n h e r e t o fo re
, .

Th e re i s n o b e tt e r i n t r od u c t i o n t o G r e e k h i s t o ry a n d l i te ra t u re t h an H e r o do t u s , a n d t h e
g g
E n l i s h r e a de r e t s h i m h e re u n de r t h e b e s t p o s s i b l e co nd i t i o ns —L z te r a 7 y W or l d
”
.
'

PHI LI P AND ALEXANDER OF MACEDON Tw o E ssays i n B i o gra phy . .

W i th M a p s a nd I l lus tra t i o ns By D G H O GARTH M A Fe ll ow o f M a gd ale n . . .

, . .
,

C o ll e ge . O x fo r d . 1 45 .

P LATO, AND OTHER COMPANI ONS OF S OCRATES B y G EO RG E

L
.

G RO TE .
3 vl o s 8 vo , 45s
. . Ch e a p t
Ed i i o n , E d i t ed by A E X. B AI N .
4 vl o s.
Cr wn 8 vo
o , 53 . e ac h .

LO N D O N : JOHN M U R RAY, AL B E M AR LE S TR E E T .
 Class i cal Di cti o nar i e s .

DI CTI ONAR Y OF GREEK AND ROMAN ANTI QUI TI ES . I nc l udi n g

th e La ws
I ns i u i ons tt t
o m e s i c U s ag e s , D
a i n i ng S cu l p u e M u s i c , t h e t P t t r
LL
, , , ,

Dr am a e tc E d i ed b y S i r W I t
I AM S M I TH , LL Hon L O fo d , D DC x r
LL
, . . . . . .

H o n Ph D . Le i p i g ; W I I AM W AY I E
. z a e e lo of K i ng s ' ‘

, l t Fl w ’

C l C
ol e ge , am i d g e ; G E M AR I N D I N , M A br a e e ll o o f K i ng s o le ge , . . . l t F w C l ’

C r
a m b i d ge Th i d Re i s e d a n d E n a g e d Edi i on
. r v W i h 900 I u s a i o n s lr t t ll tr t
.

vl
.

2 o s M e d i um 8 vo ,
. e a ch .

CONCIS E DICTI ONAR OF GREEK AND ROMAN ANTI QU I TIES Y

B as e d o n S i r W m S m i th s l arg e r D i ct i o nary a n d I n co rpo ra t i n g th e Re s u l t s o f
'

V
.
,

M o d e rn Re s ea rch E d i t e d b y F W ARRE C O RN I S H . i ce Pro vo s t o f .

,
-

E to n C o ll e g e W i th o ve r 1 1 00 I ll u s t ra t i o ns t ak e n from th e b e s t e xa m p l e s
.

of An ci e n t Art . M e di u m 8 vo , 2 1 5 .

S MALLER DI CTI ONAR Y OF ANTI QUI TIES Abri dge d fro m S i r .

Wm . S mi h s a ge t ’
lr r D i ctio nary W i th 2 00 W ood cuts 1 3 th E d i t io n
. .

Crow
.

n 8 vo , 7 3 6 d . .

DI CTI ONAR Y OF GREEK AND ROMAN BI OGRAPH AND Y

M YTH O LO GY . By vari us W i t rs E d t d o r e . i e b y S ir W I I AM S M I TH LL ,

LL D . . I l us l tra ted by 5 64 E ngravi g s n on W oo d . In 3 v ols .

M e d i um 8 vo 8 4s , .

CLASSI CAL DI CTI ONAR Y OF M THOLOG , BI OGRAP H , AND Y Y Y

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S MALLER CLASS ICAL DI CTIONARY Abri dged fr o m the abo ve W o rk . .

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DI CTIONAR Y ! OF GREEK AND ROMAN GEOGRAPH Y . I ll us tra te d

b y 5 3 4 E ng ra vi ngs o n W oo d . 2 vol s . M e d i um 8 vo sé s , .

COMPLETE LATI N-ENGLI S H DI CTIONAR B as ed o n the W o r ks Y .

o f Fo rce l l i n i a n d F re u n d W i th Ta b l e s o f t h e R o m a n Cale n d a r M e as ure s

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W e i g h ts M o ne y a n d a D i cti o na ry o f Pro p e r a m e s By S i r W M S M I TH
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LL . D . 2 2 nd Ed i i o n t . M e d i um 8 vo , 1 63 .

S MALLER LATI N-ENGLIS H DI CTI ONAR te D i cti o n ary Y W i th 3 S ep ara

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e b y J O H N K I N G RAM LL D
o S q re m 7 6d o on . . . . ua 1 2 0, s . .

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E u l i sh D i ct i o na r y
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a n e w an d O r i n al w o rk . E ve ry a rti cl e h as be e n ca r e fu l l y re v i se d .

COPIOUS AND CRI TI CAL ENGLI S H-LATI N DI CTI ONAR C om Y .

p i le d fro m O ri g i n a l S o ur c e s By S i r W M S M I TH and T D
LL
. . , . .

HA , M A . .
st h I m p re s sion. M e d i u m 8 vo , 1 65 .

I t h a s b ee n t h e obje ct o f t h e Au th o rs o f t h i s W o rk t o p r od u ce a m ore comp l e t e a n d

m o re pe rfe ct E n g l i s h La t i n D i ct i o n ar y t h a n ye t e x i s t s , an d e ve r y art i cl e h as be e n t h e
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E ac h m e a n i n i s i ll u st r a t e d b y e x a m p l e s fr o m t h e c l as s i cal wr i t e rs : a n d t h os e
g
p h r a se s are as a e n e ra l r ul e i ve n i n b o th E n li s h a n d La t i n g g .

SMALLER ENGLI S H LATI N DI CTI ONAR Abri dged from the abo ve -
Y
LL
.

W o rk By S i r W M S M I TH a n d T D H A
. M A Fo r th e use o f J u n i o r . . .
, . .

Cl ass e s . 1 9 th I m p re ss i o n . S q ua re I am o , 7 s 6d . .

LO N D O N : J OH N M U R RAY, ALB E M AR LE S TR E E T .