ECIV 0637 Winter 2019

Geotechnical Engineering Topics

Unsaturated Soil Mechanics

TOPIC 2
Phase Properties and Relations

Liang Cui PhD

Office: AT 5028

liang.cui@lakeheadu.ca

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  Soil-Water Characteristic Curve

 Phase Properties and Relations

 Soil Compaction

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 Unsaturated soil: commonly referred to as a three-phase system

Solid Air Water

phase phase phase

Air-water-soil interaction in an unsaturated soil has a predominant

influence on the engineering behavior of soils.

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 Air-water interface (i.e., the contractile skin) can be considered as
an additional phase (i.e., fourth phase)

Figure: Water strider on the air-water surface

(Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Water_strider_in_a_pond.jpg)

The contractile skin is useful in explaining certain physical mechanisms

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  Effect of unsaturated soil on its behaviors

 Shear Strength and Volume Change

Related to the interphase contact area controlling stress transfer

 f : shear strength

 f  c    tan    : effective normal stress

c: cohesion
 : friction angle

Stress-strain relationship (i.e., constitutive relation)

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  Soil-water characteristic curve (SWCC): relationship between degree of
saturation, S or water content (volumetric, θ or gravimetric water, w) and
matric suction.

Figure: Soil-water characteristic curve over the entire suction range of 0 to 1,000,000 kPa
(modified after Vanapalli et al. 1999)

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  Significance of SWCC

 SWCC can be use to describe ability of soil to retain water at different

matric suctions.

 SWCC can be used to predict the material properties of unsaturated soils.

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  Air entry value (AEV): value of suction where the water content begins to
drop quickly during the drying process (i.e., in which the air starts entering
largest pores)
 Residual water content: the point on the curve where the change in water
content is insignificantly affected by the increase in suctions.

Residual water
content

Figure: Soil-water characteristic curve over the entire suction range of 0 to 1,000,000 kPa
(modified after Vanapalli et al. 1999)

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  Determination of Air entry value (AEV) and Residual water content

AEV suction

Residual water content

Inflection point

Soil–water characteristic curve and parameters adopted from Kohgo (2003).

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  SWCC: ability of soil to retain water at different suctions

Mechanisms for water retention capacity:

(1) Adsorption effect

(2) Capillary effect (i.e., capillarity)

Water in an unsaturated soil is subject to

capillarity and adsorption, which combine to
produce a matric suction (Hillel, 1980)

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  SWCC: ability of soil to retain water at different suctions

 Adsorption Effect

 most soil particles are hydrophillic

 adsorption of water forming
hydration envelopes or films over
the soil particles

Water in an unsaturated soil is subject to

capillarity and adsorption, which combine to
produce a matric suction (Hillel, 1980)

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  Surface Tension and Capillarity
 Cohesive Forces on a Molecule inside the Liquid and at Its Surface

Source: https://www.quora.com

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  Surface Tension and Capillarity

 Surface Tension (Ts) – units of Force/Length (e.g. N/m)

 Factors affecting surface tension

 Liquid types

 Temperature: surface tension decrease with as temperature rises

 Solute in liquid: can increase or decrease the surface, which

depends on the affinity of solute molecule to the water.

 Surface tension can be used to determine difference between

air pressure and water pressure (i.e., matric suction, (ua-uw) )

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  Surface Tension and Capillarity
 Capillarity: is a consequence of surface tension

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PP9mn-X9i2Q

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  Surface Tension and Capillarity

 Capillarity: is a consequence of surface tension

 contact angle  : angle between the liquid/solid and liquid/gas

interfaces.

Contact angle of a meniscus in a capillary tube and of a drop resing upon a plane solid surface(Hillel, 1980)

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  Surface Tension and Capillarity

Contact angle of a meniscus in a capillary tube and of a drop resing upon a plane solid surface(Hillel, 1980)

 small, acute  - liquid wets the solid

 large, obtuse  - liquid repelled by the solid

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  Surface Tension and Capillarity

 Bernoulli’s Equation

v2
h = hp + + Z
2g
Total head = Pressure head + Velocity head + Elevation head

 Velocity head can be neglected because the

seepage velocity is small.

h = hp + Z

Physical model and phenomenon related to

capillarity (Fredlund and Rahardjo, 1993)
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  Surface Tension and Capillarity

@ equilibrium: h = hp + Z

Elevation head Pressure head Total head

Z hp h
Point A 0 0 0
Point B 0 0 0
Point C hc  hc 0

uc   w hc  0
Physical model and phenomenon related to Negative water pressure at point C
capillarity (Fredlund and Rahardjo, 1993)
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  Surface Tension and Capillarity

 Force analysis in vertical direction

 Component of tensile force: 2 rTs cos 

 Weight of water column:  r 2 hc  w g

with
r : radius of the tube
hc : height of the water column
Ts : surface tension force
 : contact angle
 w : density of water
Physical model and phenomenon related to g : gravitational acceleration
capillarity (Fredlund and Rahardjo, 1993)
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  Surface Tension and Capillarity

 System at Equilibrium

 Surface tension = Weight of water column

2 rTs cos    r 2 hc  w g
 Height of water column:
2Ts cos 
hc 
r w g

 Capillary pressure:

2Ts cos 
p   w ghc 
Physical model and phenomenon related to
capillarity (Fredlund and Rahardjo, 1993)
r
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  Surface Tension and Capillarity

 System at Equilibrium

 Capillary pressure:
2Ts cos 
p   w ghc 
r
 Radius of meniscus:

r
Rs 
cos 

2Ts
 p   w ghc 
Rs
Physical model and phenomenon related to
capillarity (Fredlund and Rahardjo, 1993)
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  Surface Tension and Capillarity

 @ point C

 Pore water pressure: uw    w ghc

 Pore air pressure: ua  0

 Matric suction: ua  uw   w ghc

2Ts
p   w ghc 
Rs

2Ts
 ua  u w 
Physical model and phenomenon related to
capillarity (Fredlund and Rahardjo, 1993)
Rs
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  Capillary Effect

 surface tension of water gives curved

air/water interfaces  capillarity

 Matric suction (pressure at meniscus):

Capillary tubes showing the air-wter interfaces at

different radii of curvature (Janssen and Dempsey, 1980)
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  Factors affecting SWCC

 Pore-size distribution Capillary effect

 Particle-size distribution specific surface Water adsorption

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  SWCCs for Different Soil Types:
 Clayey soil has smaller particle size and pore size, and thus has higher
water retention capacity.

Soil-water Characteristic Curves for different soil types, Fredlund et al 2012

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  Hysteresis of SWCC

 To obtain SWCC:

 Desorption (drying path)

a b c d

 Sorption (wetting path)

d c b a

 Hysteresis: SWCCs obtained from

Figure: Possible variation of water area in different stages of desorption and sorption
the SWCC (after Vanapalli et al. 1996)
processes are different.
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 Hysteresis: SWCCs obtained from drying path and wetting path are different.

drying path

wetting path

Figure: Soil-water characteristic curve over the entire suction

range (following both drying and wetting paths)

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  Factors Affecting Hysteresis in SWCC

 Geometric nonuniformity of the soil pores

 Contact-angle effect

 Entrapped air during sorption process

 Differential changes of soil structure in drying and wetting paths

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  Factors Affecting Hysteresis in SWCC
 Geometric nonuniformity of the soil pores

 For drying path (pore on the right) –

2Ts cos 
Matric suction=
r

 For wetting parth (pore on the left)

2T cos 
Matric suction= s
r

 The water contents of these two ink

bottle are different
(Source: Taylor 1948)

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  Factors Affecting Hysteresis in SWCC
 Contact angle effect 
Rain-drop effect is due to the fact that contact angle at the advancing trace
of a water-air interface on a solid surface is larger than that at the receding
trace.

 re
 ad

 advancing contact angle  ad > receding contact angle  re

2Ts 2Ts
 Rs advancing > Rs receding  
Rs re Rs ad
 At a given water content, suction desorption > suction wetting
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  Factors Affecting Hysteresis in SWCC
 Entrapped air during sorption process
 Decrease water content for the same suction for sorption

Residual air content

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  Factors Affecting Hysteresis in SWCC
 Differential changes of soil structure in drying and wetting paths
 Shrink/swell and wet/dry effects
Drying of the Soil Expansive Soil

Source: http://www.cselandscapearchitect.com/2012/02/08/how- Source: http://coloradogeologicalsurvey.org/geologic-

to-defeat-expansive-soils/clay-soil-with-cracks/ hazards/swelling-soils/

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  Influence of desorption and sorption on soil behaviors
 Coefficient of Permeability

 Lower degree of saturation increases tortuosity of pore space, and thus reduces K

decreasing degree of saturation

reduction of K

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  Application of SWCC
 Wetting SWCC: rainfall induced sorption

 Drying SWCC: evaporation and transpiration induced desorption

Figure: wetting and drying processes in soil (Amatya et al. 2013)

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  Soil-Water Characteristic Curve

 Phase Properties and Relations

 Soil Compaction

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  Phase Properties and Relations

air

water air
water

solids solids solids

Partially Saturated Fully Saturated Dry Soil

Figure: An element of unsaturated soil with a continuous air

phase (from Fredlund and Rahardjo, 1993).

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  Volume-mass relation

Se  wGs

Ww
w
Ws Ww  w Vw
wGs   With
 Ws  s Vs SVV
Gs  s wGs   Se Vv : volume of void space
w Vs Vs : volume of solid phase
Vw Vw : volume of pore water
S  Vw  SVV Ws : weight of solid phase
VV Ww : weight of pore water
e : voild ratio
Gs : specific gravity
Note:  s : unit weight of solid phase
Volume–mass relation is valid for both saturated and  w : unit weight of water
w : gravitational water content
unsaturated soils. S : degree of saturation

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  Phase Properties and Relations

volume relations weight relations

Va  Vv  Vw air Wa  0
e
Vv 
1 e Se Se
Vw  water Ww  0
1 e 1 e Gs  Se 1 w
W 0  Gs 0
V  Vv  Vs  1 1 e 1 e

1 1
Vs  Ww  Gs 0
1 e solids 1 e

V  Va  Vw  Vs W  Wa  Ww  Ws

V : total volume W : total weight e : voild ratio

Vv : volume of void space Ws : weight of solid phase Gs : specific gravity
Vs : volume of solid phase Wa : weight of pore air  0 : unit weight of unsaturated soil
Va : volume of pore air Ww : weight of pore water
Vw : volume of pore water

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  Useful Formulae of Phase Relations

Vv n Gs w
Void ratio: e   1
VS 1  n d

Vv e d
Porosity: n   1
V 1 e Gs w

Vw wGs
Degree of saturation: S 
Vv e  d : unit weight of dry soil
 sat : unit weight of saturated soil
 w : unit weight of water
Ww Se
Gravimetric water content: w   s : unit weight of solid phase
Wv Gs
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  Classification of soils with respect to S

 Dry soils (i.e., S = 0%): Dry soil consists of soil particles and
air. No water present.

 Saturated soils (i.e., S = 100%): All of the voids in the soil are
filled with water.

 Unsaturated soils (i.e., 0% < S < 100%): An unsaturated soil

can be further subdivided, depending upon whether the air
phase is continuous are occluded.

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 Example 2-1
For a moist soil sample, the following are given. Phase Relationship:

Total volume: V=10×10-3 m3  d  Ws V

Dry weight: Ws=150×10-3 kN
Gravimetric water content: w=26% Ww W  Ws
Specific gravity of soil solids: Gs=2.7 w 
Ws Ws
Determine the following.
Gs   s  w
a. Dry unit weight (kN/m3)
b. Void ratio
Vs  Ws  s
c. Degree of saturation (%)
e  Vv Vs

S  Vw Vv

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 Example 2-1
For a moist soil sample, the following are given.

Total volume: V=10×10-3 m3 Solution:

Dry weight: Ws=150×10-3 kN
Gravimetric water content: w=26% Part a
Specific gravity of soil solids: Gs=2.7 Dry unit weight

Determine the following.

Ws
d 
a. Dry unit weight (kN/m3) V
b. Void ratio 150  103
c. Degree of saturation (%)   15 kN m3

10  103

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 For a moist soil sample, the following are given.

Total volume: V=10×10-3 m3 Solution

Dry weight: Ws=150×10-3 kN Part b
Gravimetric water content: w=26% Void ratio
Specific gravity of soil solids: Gs=2.7
Gs   s  w  s  Gs  w
Determine the following. Ws W
Vs   s
 s Gs  w
a. Dry unit weight (kN/m3)
150  103
b. Void ratio   5.66  103 m3
c. Degree of saturation (%) 2.7  9.81
Vv  V  Vs
 10  103  5.66  103
 4.34  103 m3
4.34  103
e  Vv Vs  3
 0.77
5.66  10
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 For a moist soil sample, the following are given.

Total volume: V=10×10-3 m3 Solution

Dry weight: Ws=150×10-3 kN Part c
Gravimetric water content: w=26% Degree of saturation
Specific gravity of soil solids: Gs=2.7
Ww
w
Determine the following. WS
Ww  wWS
a. Dry unit weight (kN/m3)
b. Void ratio  0.26  150  103
c. Degree of saturation (%)  39  103 kN
Ww 39  103
Vw  
W 9.81
 3.98  103 m3
Vw 3.98  103
S  3
 0.92
Vv 4.34  10
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  Soil-Water Characteristic Curve

 Phase Properties and Relations

 Soil Compaction

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  Compaction: the densification of soil by removal of air, which
requires mechanical energy

• Benefits of compaction:
• increases the strength of soils
• decreases the amount of settlement of structures
• increases the stability of slopes of embankments

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  Soils compacted at various “initial water contents” and to various
“densities” should be considered as different soils.

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  Unit Weight of Dry Soil

 Unit weight of Dry soil

Gs w
d 
Gw
1 s
S

 Unit weight of dry soil with

zero air void

Gs w
 zav 
1  wGs

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 Effect of Compaction on Coefficient of Permeability

dry side wet side

Optimum water
content

Dry side: water content is relatively low, and repulsive force between solid particles is
week. Therefore, the soil specimens have a flocculated structure and result in large clod
sizes. Hence, the saturated coefficient of permeability of soil is higher for specimens
compacted on the dry side.

Wet side: water content is relatively high, and repulsive force between solid particles is
strong. Therefore, the soil specimens have a dispersed structure and result in smaller
clod sizes. The saturated coefficient of permeability of the soil is lower for specimens of
the same soil compacted on the wet side.
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 Effect of Compaction on SWCC

Dry side (Macro pore structure dominates with large clod sizes): The water retention
capacity is relative small, and thus the SWCC of soil on dry side is relatively low.

Wet side (Micro pore structure dominates with smaller clod sizes): The water
retention capacity is relative large, and thus the SWCC of soil on dry side is relatively high.

Optimum water content: Characteristics in between of dry side and wet side.
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